[ { "id": 1, "key": "-752-caenina", "name": "Caenina", "year": -752, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "752 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of Romulus (after the rape of the Sabine women)", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Caenina, a small town just east of Rome", "lat": 41.93, "lon": 12.58, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Romulus", "commanders_b": "Acron, king of Caenina (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Plutarch and the Fasti Triumphales, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The first levy of the new city under Romulus; no numbers are given for the battle (Plutarch, Romulus 13, makes the first legion 3,000 foot and 300 horse).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of the city's Latin settlers; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 1.10; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 2.33; Plutarch, Romulus 16; Fasti Triumphales; en.wikipedia Caenina (town)", "note": "Romulus killed King Acron in the battle, dedicated the first spolia opima to Jupiter Feretrius and took Caenina at the first assault. The Fasti Triumphales put his triumph over the Caeninenses on 1 March of the city's first year (752 BCE). Dionysius calls the Caeninenses Aborigines; Livy lists them beside the Sabines; treated here as Latins. Site uncertain." }, { "id": 2, "key": "-752-antemnae", "name": "Antemnae", "year": -752, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "752 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of Romulus (after the rape of the Sabine women)", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Antemnae, at the confluence of the Anio and the Tiber (Monte Antenne, Rome)", "lat": 41.94, "lon": 12.5, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Romulus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Plutarch and the Fasti Triumphales, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The Roman levy under Romulus (Livy 1.11 calls it a legio); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of the city's Latin settlers; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 1.11; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 2.34-35; Plutarch, Romulus 17; Fasti Triumphales; en.wikipedia The Rape of the Sabine Women", "note": "The Antemnates were caught scattered over the fields, raiding (Livy) or foraging (Dionysius), routed at the first charge, and their town was taken; the Fasti Triumphales record Romulus' second triumph, over the Antemnates, in the first year of the city. Dionysius calls them Aborigines; treated here as Latins." }, { "id": 3, "key": "-752-crustumerium", "name": "Crustumerium", "year": -752, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "752 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of Romulus (after the rape of the Sabine women)", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Crustumerium, on the left bank of the Tiber north of Fidenae (Marcigliana)", "lat": 42.03, "lon": 12.55, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Romulus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The Roman levy under Romulus; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of the city's Latin settlers; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 1.11; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 2.36; Plutarch, Romulus 17", "note": "Livy says the Crustumini, disheartened by their neighbours' defeats, put up even less fight; Dionysius describes a pitched battle followed by an assault on the town. Dionysius calls Crustumerium an Alban colony. Roman colonists were sent there afterwards." }, { "id": 4, "key": "-752-forum-sabine-war", "name": "Forum (Sabine war)", "year": -752, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "752 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Sabine war of Romulus", "theatre": "Rome", "place": "The marshy valley between the Palatine and the Capitol, later the Roman Forum", "lat": 41.89, "lon": 12.49, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sabines" ], "allies_a": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Romulus, Hostus Hostilius (killed); Lucumo with the Etruscans", "commanders_b": "Titus Tatius, Mettius Curtius", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sabines", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "About 20,000 foot and 800 horse, with Etruscan mercenaries under Lucumo of Solonium and Alban soldiers and engineers sent by Numitor (Dionysius 2.37); Tatius led about 25,000 foot and 1,000 horse.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Etruscan" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Dionysius names only Romans, Albans and Etruscans in Romulus' army; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 1.11-13; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 2.37-46; Plutarch, Romulus 17-19; en.wikipedia The Rape of the Sabine Women; en.wikipedia Roman-Sabine wars", "note": "Tarpeia's betrayal had given the Sabines the Capitol without a fight. Livy tells one battle, in which Romulus vowed the temple of Jupiter Stator and Mettius Curtius' horse floundered in the marsh (the Lacus Curtius); Dionysius (2.41-43) and Plutarch describe several hard, indecisive battles. The Sabine women parted the armies and the two peoples united under Romulus and Tatius. Ancient dates for the rape range from the fourth month (Fabius, in Plutarch, Romulus 14) to the fourth year after the founding." }, { "id": 5, "key": "-750-cameria", "name": "Cameria", "year": -750, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 750 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of Romulus and Titus Tatius", "theatre": "Latium (Sabine border)", "place": "Cameria, north-east of Rome (probably Palombara Sabina)", "lat": 42.07, "lon": 12.77, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Romulus, Titus Tatius", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Dionysius of Halicarnassus, written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "Not in Livy; known from Dionysius.", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The joint army of the Romans and of Tatius' Sabines under the two kings; Plutarch (Romulus 20) says the legion was raised to 6,000 foot and 600 horse after the union.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans and Sabines; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dionysius of Halicarnassus 2.50; en.wikipedia Cameria", "note": "The kings beat the Camerini in a pitched battle, stormed the town and took a third of its land; when the Camerini harassed the settlers they were routed again and a colony was planted. Dionysius calls Cameria an Alban colony. Site uncertain." }, { "id": 6, "key": "-747-cameria-second-war", "name": "Cameria (second war)", "year": -747, "month": 8, "day": 1, "date": "1 August (Sextilis), c. 747 BCE (traditional; Plutarch's day)", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of Romulus", "theatre": "Latium (Sabine border)", "place": "Cameria, north-east of Rome (probably Palombara Sabina)", "lat": 42.07, "lon": 12.77, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Romulus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "Not in Livy.", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The Roman army under Romulus, raised while a plague was raging at Rome (Plutarch, Romulus 24); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans and Sabines of the united city; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dionysius of Halicarnassus 2.54; Plutarch, Romulus 24; en.wikipedia Cameria", "note": "After Tatius' death the Camerini attacked the Roman colonists; Romulus defeated them, killing 6,000 (Plutarch), retook the town, moved half the survivors to Rome, took half the remaining land and left a garrison (Dionysius). Plutarch says he brought back a bronze four-horse chariot." }, { "id": 7, "key": "-747-fidenae-romulus", "name": "Fidenae (Romulus)", "year": -747, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 747 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of Romulus", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Fidenae, on the Via Salaria above the Tiber, 8 km north of Rome (Villa Spada)", "lat": 41.98, "lon": 12.52, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Romulus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The Roman army under Romulus, with cavalry sent ahead to raid and the infantry laid in ambush in thickets (Livy 1.14); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans and Sabines of the united city; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 1.14; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 2.53; Plutarch, Romulus 23-24; en.wikipedia Fidenae", "note": "After the death of Titus Tatius. A feigned flight drew the Fidenates into the ambush and the Romans burst into the town with the fugitives (Livy); in Dionysius the Fidenates had seized grain boats, lost a battle and the town at the first assault. Plutarch says 2,500 colonists were sent on the Ides of April. Livy (1.15) calls the Fidenates Etruscans, Dionysius an Alban colony; treated here as Latins." }, { "id": 8, "key": "-746-veii-romulus", "name": "Veii (Romulus)", "year": -746, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 746 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Veientine war of Romulus", "theatre": "Latium and southern Etruria", "place": "Near Fidenae, by the Tiber (Dionysius, Plutarch); Livy puts the battle in Veientine territory before Veii", "lat": 41.99, "lon": 12.5, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Romulus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The Roman army under Romulus, with a picked force in ambush on a height (Dionysius 2.55); no numbers for the Romans.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans and Sabines of the united city; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 1.15; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 2.54-55; Plutarch, Romulus 25; en.wikipedia Fidenae", "note": "Veii claimed Fidenae. Livy has one battle, after which the Veientes were chased to their walls; Dionysius three near Fidenae (one indecisive, an ambush that drove many into the Tiber, and a victory that took the Veientine camp); Plutarch two, with 8,000 and then 14,000 Etruscans killed. Veii ceded the Seven Districts (Septem Pagi) and the salt-works, gave fifty hostages and accepted a hundred-year truce; Plutarch dates the triumph to the Ides of October." }, { "id": 9, "key": "-670-fidenae-tullus-hostilius", "name": "Fidenae (Tullus Hostilius)", "year": -670, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 670 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "War with Fidenae and Veii (Tullus Hostilius)", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Between the confluence of the Anio and the Tiber and Fidenae (Livy 1.27); the plain before Fidenae (Dionysius)", "lat": 41.96, "lon": 12.51, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans", "Latins" ], "allies_a": [ "Latins" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tullus Hostilius; Mettius Fufetius with the Albans", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The Roman army under Tullus Hostilius with the Alban army of Mettius Fufetius as subject allies; the Albans drew off to the hills during the battle and joined only in the pursuit (Livy 1.27; Dionysius 3.24-26).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans and Albans, both Latin-speaking; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 1.27-28; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.23-30; en.wikipedia Tullus Hostilius", "note": "The Fidenates had revolted and called in Veii. Tullus told his men the Albans were moving on his orders to take the enemy in the rear; the Fidenates fled to their town and the Veientes into the Tiber, where many drowned, and their camp was stormed (Dionysius). Tullus vowed shrines to Pallor and Pavor. Mettius was torn apart by chariots for his treachery and Alba was razed. Fidenates treated as Latins (Livy calls them Etruscans)." }, { "id": 10, "key": "-669-fidenae-siege-tullus-hostilius", "name": "Fidenae (siege, Tullus Hostilius)", "year": -669, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 669 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "War with Fidenae (Tullus Hostilius)", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Fidenae, 8 km north of Rome", "lat": 41.98, "lon": 12.52, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tullus Hostilius", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Dionysius of Halicarnassus, written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "Known from Dionysius only.", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The Roman army under Tullus Hostilius, now including the Albans moved to Rome; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman levy; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.31", "note": "Fidenae revolted again with hired troops, who sallied and fought before the walls with heavy losses on both sides; Tullus then shut the town in with a ditch and palisade and it surrendered on his terms." }, { "id": 11, "key": "-666-eretum-tullus-hostilius", "name": "Eretum (Tullus Hostilius)", "year": -666, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 666 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Sabine war of Tullus Hostilius", "theatre": "Sabine country", "place": "Near Eretum (Grotta Marozza, by Mentana), about 30 km north-east of Rome", "lat": 42.06, "lon": 12.63, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sabines" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tullus Hostilius", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Dionysius of Halicarnassus, written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "Known from Dionysius only; Livy has a single Sabine battle, at the Silva Malitiosa.", "main_enemy": "Sabines", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The Roman army under Tullus Hostilius; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman levy; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.32; en.wikipedia Eretum", "note": "The war began over Roman merchants seized at the shrine of Feronia. After an indecisive first battle, the Romans broke the Sabine line near Eretum late in the day and took their camp; Tullus vowed festivals to Saturn and Ops and new Salii." }, { "id": 12, "key": "-665-silva-malitiosa", "name": "Silva Malitiosa", "year": -665, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 665 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Sabine war of Tullus Hostilius", "theatre": "Sabine country", "place": "The Silva Malitiosa ('Knaves' Wood'), in Sabine territory; site unknown", "lat": 42.15, "lon": 12.72, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sabines" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tullus Hostilius", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sabines", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The Roman infantry and cavalry under Tullus Hostilius, the cavalry reinforced with ten new turmae of Alban equites (Livy 1.30).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans and Albans; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 1.30; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.33; en.wikipedia Roman-Sabine wars; en.wikipedia Tullus Hostilius", "note": "A charge of the Roman cavalry broke the Sabine ranks and the Sabines lost heavily in the rout; volunteers from Veii had joined them, though Veii itself stayed out of the war (Livy). Dionysius treats it as a second Sabine war after Eretum." }, { "id": 13, "key": "-640-politorium-siege", "name": "Politorium (siege)", "year": -640, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 640 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Latin war of Ancus Marcius", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Politorium, a Latin town south of Rome (perhaps Castel di Decima)", "lat": 41.74, "lon": 12.44, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ancus Marcius", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "A newly raised Roman army under Ancus Marcius (Livy 1.33); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman levy; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 1.32-33; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.37-38; en.wikipedia Politorium", "note": "Ancus took the town (by storm in Livy, after a siege and surrender in Dionysius) and moved its people to the Aventine; when the Latins reoccupied the empty town he took it again after a battle under the walls and razed it. Site uncertain: La Giostra, La Torretta and Castel di Decima have been proposed. Year approximate (Ancus reigned c. 640-616 BCE)." }, { "id": 14, "key": "-639-tellenae", "name": "Tellenae", "year": -639, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 639 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Latin war of Ancus Marcius", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Tellenae, a Latin town south of Rome; site unknown", "lat": 41.78, "lon": 12.56, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ancus Marcius", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The Roman army under Ancus Marcius; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman levy; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 1.33; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.38", "note": "Dionysius describes a pitched battle and then an assault on the walls, the prisoners being sent to Rome; Livy records only the capture of Tellenae and the settlement of its people at Rome." }, { "id": 15, "key": "-639-ficana-siege", "name": "Ficana (siege)", "year": -639, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 639 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Latin war of Ancus Marcius", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Ficana, on the Tiber at Monte Cugno near Acilia, about 11 miles from Rome on the road to Ostia", "lat": 41.77, "lon": 12.37, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ancus Marcius", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The Roman army under Ancus Marcius; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman levy; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 1.33; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.38; en.wikipedia Ficana", "note": "Ficana had surrendered earlier; when it broke faith it was besieged a second time and razed (Dionysius). Livy records its capture and the removal of its people to Rome. Some editions of Dionysius read Fidenae for Ficana here." }, { "id": 16, "key": "-637-medullia", "name": "Medullia", "year": -637, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 637 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Latin war of Ancus Marcius", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Before Medullia, a fortified Latin town north-east of Rome; site uncertain", "lat": 42.03, "lon": 12.71, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ancus Marcius", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The full strength of the Roman army under Ancus Marcius (Livy 1.33); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman levy; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 1.33; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.38; en.wikipedia Medullia", "note": "Livy says the war centred on Medullia, strongly walled and garrisoned, with varying fortune, until Ancus won a pitched battle and came home with great booty. In Dionysius the Latins first stormed Medullia, then held by Roman colonists, and the Romans recovered it in the fourth year after many battles." }, { "id": 17, "key": "-635-fidenae-siege-ancus-marcius", "name": "Fidenae (siege, Ancus Marcius)", "year": -635, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 635 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of Ancus Marcius", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Fidenae, 8 km north of Rome", "lat": 41.98, "lon": 12.52, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ancus Marcius", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Dionysius of Halicarnassus, written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "Known from Dionysius only.", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The Roman army under Ancus Marcius, with light-armed troops; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman levy; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.39-40", "note": "Ancus drove a mine under the walls while assaulting them, took the town, executed the ringleaders, let the soldiers plunder it and left a garrison." }, { "id": 18, "key": "-631-fidenae-veientes-ancus-marcius", "name": "Fidenae (Veientes, Ancus Marcius)", "year": -631, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 631 BCE (traditional; about four years after the capture of Fidenae, Dionysius 3.41)", "type": "land", "war": "Veientine war of Ancus Marcius", "theatre": "Latium and southern Etruria", "place": "The Veientine camp across the Tiber near Fidenae", "lat": 41.98, "lon": 12.49, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ancus Marcius; Lucius Tarquinius (the future king Priscus) with the cavalry", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Dionysius of Halicarnassus and the Fasti Triumphales, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "Known from Dionysius only; Livy (1.33) records only that the Silva Mesia was taken from Veii.", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The Roman citizen army with allied auxiliaries; the Etruscan-born Tarquinius commanded the cavalry (Dionysius 3.41).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman levy with Latin auxiliaries; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.41; Fasti Triumphales (en.wikipedia Fasti Triumphales)", "note": "The Roman cavalry cut the roads to the camp; the Veientes were beaten in a pitched battle and their camp taken, and Ancus triumphed. The Fasti Triumphales record his triumph over the Sabines and the Veientes." }, { "id": 19, "key": "-629-tiber-salt-works", "name": "Tiber salt-works", "year": -629, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 629 BCE (traditional; two years after the battle near Fidenae, Dionysius 3.41)", "type": "land", "war": "Veientine war of Ancus Marcius", "theatre": "Latium and southern Etruria", "place": "The salt-works by the mouth of the Tiber", "lat": 41.78, "lon": 12.27, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ancus Marcius; Lucius Tarquinius with the cavalry", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "Known from Dionysius only.", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The Roman army under Ancus Marcius, the cavalry under Tarquinius (Dionysius 3.41); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman levy; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.41; Livy 1.33", "note": "A second and greater battle with the Veientes, in which Tarquinius distinguished himself with the horse (Dionysius). Livy says Ancus took the Silva Mesia from Veii, carried Roman rule to the sea, founded Ostia and made salt-works there. Site approximate." }, { "id": 20, "key": "-616-apiolae-siege", "name": "Apiolae (siege)", "year": -616, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 616 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Latin war of Tarquinius Priscus", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Apiolae, a Latin town south-east of Rome near the Appian Way; site uncertain", "lat": 41.72, "lon": 12.64, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Tarquinius Priscus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The Roman army under Tarquinius Priscus; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman levy; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 1.35; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.49; en.wikipedia Apiolae; en.wikipedia Lucius Tarquinius Priscus", "note": "The king's first war. After two battles before the town, Apiolae, reinforced by other Latins, was stormed by relays of troops, sacked and burnt (Dionysius); Livy says the booty paid for the first great games. The Fasti Triumphales put Tarquinius' triumph over the Latins in the 590s BC, which does not fit Livy's order." }, { "id": 21, "key": "-615-collatia-siege", "name": "Collatia (siege)", "year": -615, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 615 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Latin war of Tarquinius Priscus", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Collatia, by the Anio at Lunghezza, east of Rome", "lat": 41.92, "lon": 12.69, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Tarquinius Priscus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "The fighting is in Dionysius only; Livy has Collatia handed over by the Sabines without a fight after the Sabine war (the deditio formula).", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The Roman army under Tarquinius Priscus; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman levy; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.50; Livy 1.38", "note": "The Collatines lost several sorties and the walls were assaulted at many points; they surrendered, were disarmed and fined, and the king's nephew Egerius was left in command with a garrison." }, { "id": 22, "key": "-615-corniculum-siege", "name": "Corniculum (siege)", "year": -615, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 615 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Latin war of Tarquinius Priscus", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Corniculum, in the Monti Cornicolani near Montecelio, north-east of Rome", "lat": 42.02, "lon": 12.74, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Tarquinius Priscus", "commanders_b": "Tullius, chief of Corniculum (killed), per tradition", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The Roman army under Tarquinius Priscus; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman levy; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.50, 4.1; Livy 1.38-39", "note": "Corniculum held out, was stormed and burnt, its fighting men killed and the rest enslaved (Dionysius). Among the captives was Ocresia, the widow of the town's leader and mother of Servius Tullius (Livy 1.39). Livy lists Corniculum among the towns of the Prisci Latini taken after the Sabine war, so his date is later." }, { "id": 23, "key": "-614-fidenae-latins-tarquinius-priscus", "name": "Fidenae (Latins, Tarquinius Priscus)", "year": -614, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 614 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Latin war of Tarquinius Priscus", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Near Fidenae, north of Rome", "lat": 41.98, "lon": 12.52, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Tarquinius Priscus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Dionysius of Halicarnassus, written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "Known from Dionysius only.", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The Roman army under Tarquinius Priscus; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman levy; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.50", "note": "The Latins were beaten in a pitched battle near Fidenae and abandoned their camp by night. Dionysius then describes two more battles of the Latin war, the second won with a cavalry charge on the Etruscan auxiliaries of the Latins, but names no place for them." }, { "id": 24, "key": "-596-fidenae-egerius-camp", "name": "Fidenae (Egerius' camp)", "year": -596, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 596 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Etruscan war of Tarquinius Priscus", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "The allied camp before Fidenae", "lat": 41.98, "lon": 12.52, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Etruscans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Latins" ], "allies_b": [ "Latins" ], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "", "commanders_b": "Egerius, nephew of Tarquinius Priscus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Dionysius of Halicarnassus, written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "Known from Dionysius only; an attack on a camp and its foragers rather than a pitched battle.", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "A force made up mostly of Latin allies, under the king's nephew Egerius, sent against Fidenae (Dionysius 3.57).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Dionysius describes the force as mostly Latin allies; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.57", "note": "The Etruscans had taken Fidenae through internal sedition. Its garrison, reinforced from Etruria, fell on the carelessly fortified camp and killed many foragers, and the army narrowly escaped destruction. The Fidenates (allies_a) fought with the Etruscan garrison." }, { "id": 25, "key": "-594-caere", "name": "Caere", "year": -594, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 594 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Etruscan war of Tarquinius Priscus", "theatre": "Southern Etruria", "place": "Before Caere (Cerveteri)", "lat": 42.0, "lon": 12.1, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Tarquinius Priscus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Dionysius of Halicarnassus, written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "Known from Dionysius only.", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The Roman army under Tarquinius Priscus; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman levy with Latin allies; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.58", "note": "After a victory over the Veientes and their Etruscan allies (no place named) and three raids on Veii, whose people kept within their walls, the army of Caere met the Romans in the field, was beaten and fell back into the city, and its land was ravaged." }, { "id": 26, "key": "-592-fidenae-siege-tarquinius-priscus", "name": "Fidenae (siege, Tarquinius Priscus)", "year": -592, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 592 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Etruscan war of Tarquinius Priscus", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Fidenae, 8 km north of Rome", "lat": 41.98, "lon": 12.52, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Latins" ], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Tarquinius Priscus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Dionysius of Halicarnassus, written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "Known from Dionysius only.", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The Roman army under Tarquinius Priscus; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman levy with Latin allies; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.58", "note": "A pitched battle before the walls with the Etruscan garrison and the Fidenates, then an assault; the town was stormed, the ringleaders executed or exiled." }, { "id": 27, "key": "-589-eretum-tarquinius-priscus", "name": "Eretum (Tarquinius Priscus)", "year": -589, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 589 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Etruscan war of Tarquinius Priscus", "theatre": "Sabine country", "place": "Near Eretum (Grotta Marozza, by Mentana), in Sabine territory", "lat": 42.06, "lon": 12.63, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [ "Latins" ], "allies_b": [ "Sabines" ], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Tarquinius Priscus; Servius Tullius", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Dionysius of Halicarnassus and the Fasti Triumphales, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "Not in Livy.", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The Roman army with Latin auxiliaries under Tarquinius Priscus; Dionysius (4.3) says the young Servius Tullius commanded the Latin auxiliaries in the Etruscan war and won the prize of valour near Eretum. No numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Dionysius names Romans and Latin auxiliaries; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.59, 4.3; Fasti Triumphales (en.wikipedia Fasti Triumphales); en.wikipedia Eretum", "note": "The last battle of a nine-year war: the Etruscans, joined by Sabine volunteers, were beaten, and the twelve cities then submitted and sent Tarquinius the insignia of kingship. The Fasti Triumphales date the triumph over the Etruscans to 1 April 588 BCE, so the battle probably belongs to 589." }, { "id": 28, "key": "-585-anio", "name": "Anio", "year": -585, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 585 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Sabine war of Tarquinius Priscus", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "The Anio near its confluence with the Tiber, below Fidenae", "lat": 41.95, "lon": 12.5, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sabines" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Tarquinius Priscus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and the Fasti Triumphales, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sabines", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The Roman army under Tarquinius Priscus, whose cavalry he had just doubled to 1,800 men in three centuries (Livy 1.36); the horse on the wings decided the battle.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman levy; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 1.36-38; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 3.55-56, 3.63-66; Fasti Triumphales (en.wikipedia Fasti Triumphales); en.wikipedia Roman-Sabine wars; en.wikipedia Lucius Tarquinius Priscus", "note": "After an indecisive first battle near Rome, Tarquinius floated burning timber down the Anio to destroy the bridge and his cavalry routed the Sabines, many of whom drowned; a further victory in Sabine territory ended the war and Collatia was ceded (Livy). Dionysius puts the fire-rafts and the capture of two camps (Sabine and Etruscan prisoners) at the Anio-Tiber confluence in a first Sabine war, and describes a later second war won in unnamed battles. The Fasti Triumphales date the triumph over the Sabines to 585 BCE." }, { "id": 29, "key": "-571-veii-servius-tullius", "name": "Veii (Servius Tullius)", "year": -571, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 571 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Etruscan war of Servius Tullius", "theatre": "Southern Etruria", "place": "Territory of Veii; no battle site is named", "lat": 42.02, "lon": 12.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Servius Tullius", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and the Fasti Triumphales, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "No named battle: Livy says only that Servius routed a great army of the Veientes and other Etruscans; Dionysius describes a twenty-year war with Veii, Caere and Tarquinii fought in one pitched battle after another.", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The Roman army of Servius Tullius; no numbers (his census, which Livy puts after this war, counted 80,000 citizens, Livy 1.44).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman levy; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 1.42; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 4.27; Fasti Triumphales (en.wikipedia Fasti Triumphales)", "note": "The Fasti Triumphales record three triumphs of Servius over the Etruscans (571 and 567 BCE, and one in the 560s); the war ended with the submission of the twelve cities, Veii, Caere and Tarquinii losing land (Dionysius)." }, { "id": 30, "key": "-531-suessa-pometia-siege", "name": "Suessa Pometia (siege)", "year": -531, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 531 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Volscian war of Tarquinius Superbus", "theatre": "Latium (Pontine plain)", "place": "Suessa Pometia, a Volscian town on the edge of the Pontine plain; site unknown (near Cisterna di Latina and Satricum have been proposed)", "lat": 41.56, "lon": 12.86, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Volsci" ], "allies_a": [ "Latins" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Tarquinius Superbus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and the Fasti Triumphales, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Volsci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The Roman levy with the contingents of the Latin league (and perhaps the Hernici, who had joined the alliance, Dionysius 4.49); Dionysius (4.50) says the allied auxiliaries outnumbered the Romans, and Livy (1.52) that Tarquinius merged Latins and Romans into mixed maniples.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The sources name Romans and Latin (and Hernican) allies; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 1.53, 1.55; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 4.49-50; Fasti Triumphales (en.wikipedia Fasti Triumphales); en.wikipedia Suessa Pometia; en.wikipedia Lucius Tarquinius Superbus", "note": "After a battle on the frontier the town was invested and stormed, its men in arms killed (Dionysius). The booty, forty talents of silver according to Fabius Pictor (Livy 1.55), went to the Capitoline temple; Dionysius gives the god's tithe as 400 talents. The Fasti record a triumph over the Volsci. Year approximate (Tarquinius reigned 534-509 BCE)." }, { "id": 31, "key": "-530-eretum-tarquinius-superbus", "name": "Eretum (Tarquinius Superbus)", "year": -530, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 530 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Sabine war of Tarquinius Superbus", "theatre": "Sabine country", "place": "The Sabine camp near Eretum (Grotta Marozza, by Mentana)", "lat": 42.06, "lon": 12.63, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sabines" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Tarquinius Superbus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Dionysius of Halicarnassus and the Fasti Triumphales, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "Not in Livy.", "main_enemy": "Sabines", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The Roman army under Tarquinius Superbus, with a detachment sent round by night to fall on the Sabine rear and the Roman horse in the pursuit (Dionysius 4.51); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman levy with Latin allies; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dionysius of Halicarnassus 4.51-52; Fasti Triumphales (en.wikipedia Fasti Triumphales); en.wikipedia Eretum", "note": "The Sabines were routed when the night detachment struck their rear, and their camp was taken; a second Sabine army near Fidenae then surrendered, and the Sabine cities submitted and paid tribute. The Fasti record a triumph of Tarquinius over the Sabines." }, { "id": 32, "key": "-529-gabii-siege", "name": "Gabii (siege)", "year": -529, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 529-522 BCE (traditional; a seven-year war in Dionysius)", "type": "land", "war": "Gabine war of Tarquinius Superbus", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Gabii, by the Lago di Castiglione, about 18 km east of Rome", "lat": 41.89, "lon": 12.72, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, Sextus Tarquinius", "commanders_b": "The Gabine leaders, among them Antistius Petro (Dionysius); latterly Sextus Tarquinius as their sham commander", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The Roman army under Tarquinius Superbus; no numbers. Dionysius (4.53-54) describes years of battles, raids and ambushes on foragers in which the Gabines often had the better.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman levy with Latin allies; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 1.53-54; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 4.53-58; en.wikipedia Lucius Tarquinius Superbus", "note": "An assault on the walls was beaten off and the war dragged on. Sextus Tarquinius, feigning flight from his father, won command of the Gabine troops, had the leading men killed or exiled (the tale of the poppies) and delivered the town. Scored for Rome because the town fell, by treachery rather than storm." }, { "id": 33, "key": "-510-ardea-siege", "name": "Ardea (siege)", "year": -510, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 510-509 BCE (traditional)", "type": "land", "war": "Rutulian war of Tarquinius Superbus", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Ardea, the town of the Rutuli, about 35 km south of Rome", "lat": 41.61, "lon": 12.54, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Latins" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Kingdom", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "", "commanders_b": "Lucius Tarquinius Superbus; Sextus Tarquinius, Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus and Lucius Junius Brutus served in the camp", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "The siege was given up because of the revolution at Rome, not after a defeat; scored for the defenders by the rule for sieges.", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The Roman army of Tarquinius Superbus, wearied by a long blockade and the war taxes (Dionysius 4.64); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman levy; the sources record no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 1.57-60; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 4.64, 4.85; en.wikipedia Lucius Tarquinius Superbus", "note": "Tarquinius attacked the rich town of the Rutuli (treated here as Latins); the first assault failed and he turned to a blockade (Livy). During the siege the rape of Lucretia led to the expulsion of the king; the army went over to Brutus and the new magistrates made a fifteen-year truce with Ardea (Dionysius 4.85). Livy and en.wikipedia date it to 509 BCE, the year of the expulsion; entered under 510 because the siege had already lasted some time." }, { "id": 34, "key": "-509-silva-arsia", "name": "Silva Arsia", "year": -509, "month": 2, "day": null, "date": "509 BCE (end of February, per Plutarch)", "type": "land", "war": "War with Tarquin (Roman-Etruscan Wars)", "theatre": "Southern Etruria", "place": "Silva Arsia (Livy), the 'Naevian Meadow' (Dionysius) or Aesuvian meadow (Plutarch), on the border between Roman and Veientine territory", "lat": 41.95, "lon": 12.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Valerius Publicola, Lucius Junius Brutus (killed)", "commanders_b": "Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, Arruns Tarquinius (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Plutarch and the Fasti Triumphales, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The levy of the new Republic under both consuls: the citizen infantry under Valerius and the cavalry under Brutus (Livy 2.6); no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens from the city and its territory; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 2.6-7; Dionysius 5.14-16; Plutarch, Publicola 9; Fasti Triumphales; en.wikipedia Battle of Silva Arsia", "note": "Etruscan side: Veii and Tarquinii with the exiled Tarquins. Brutus and Arruns killed each other in single combat. Livy calls the fighting even; the Etruscans withdrew in the night after a voice from the wood proclaimed the Romans victors. Plutarch puts the battle on the last day of February and the Fasti Triumphales date Valerius' triumph to 1 March 509 (Roman, not Julian, calendar). Site unknown." }, { "id": 35, "key": "-508-rome-siege", "name": "Rome (siege)", "year": -508, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "508 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "War with Clusium (Lars Porsenna)", "theatre": "Rome", "place": "Rome: the Janiculum and the Sublician bridge over the Tiber, then a blockade of the city", "lat": 41.89, "lon": 12.48, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Etruscans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lars Porsenna of Clusium, with Lucius Tarquinius Superbus", "commanders_b": "Publius Valerius Publicola, Titus Lucretius Tricipitinus (consuls); Horatius Cocles, Spurius Larcius and Titus Herminius at the bridge", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The citizen levy of Rome under the two consuls, defending the city, the outpost on the Janiculum and the Sublician bridge (Livy 2.10-11); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The defenders were the citizens of Rome; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 2.9-15; Dionysius 5.21-35; Plutarch, Publicola 16-19; Tacitus, Histories 3.72; Pliny, Natural History 34.139; en.wikipedia Roman-Etruscan Wars", "note": "Etruscan side: Clusium. Porsenna took the Janiculum and drove the Romans back across the Tiber, where Horatius held the bridge, and then blockaded the city. Roman tradition says Porsenna made peace on terms (hostages; the Septem Pagi returned to Veii) and withdrew (en.wikipedia infobox: 'Peace treaty'); Tacitus and Pliny imply that Rome surrendered, which many modern historians (Cornell) accept, hence the Etruscan victory here. The war is historical; Horatius, Mucius Scaevola and Cloelia are legend." }, { "id": 36, "key": "-505-anio", "name": "Anio", "year": -505, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "505 BCE (Loeb Dionysius: 503 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Sabine wars", "theatre": "Latium (Anio valley)", "place": "The plain by the river Anio, north-east of Rome", "lat": 41.94, "lon": 12.55, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sabines" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Valerius Volusus, Publius Postumius Tubertus (consuls); Larcius (cavalry)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and the Fasti Triumphales, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "No separate Wikipedia battle article; Dionysius names the river.", "main_enemy": "Sabines", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Two consular armies, Valerius' camped on the bank of the Anio and Postumius' on the heights near Rome, the cavalry crossing the river under Larcius (Dionysius 5.37-39); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 2.16; Dionysius 5.37-39; Fasti Triumphales; en.wikipedia Roman-Sabine wars", "note": "Night ended the battle (Dionysius 5.39); Livy says the consuls won and both triumphed. Dionysius dates the war to the fifth year after the kings (Loeb: 503 BCE); its consuls held office in 505 by Varro's reckoning." }, { "id": 37, "key": "-504-fidenae", "name": "Fidenae", "year": -504, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "504 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Sabine wars", "theatre": "Latium (lower Tiber)", "place": "The Sabine camps in the open near Fidenae and in Fidenae itself, across the Anio", "lat": 41.99, "lon": 12.51, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sabines" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Valerius Publicola, Titus Lucretius Tricipitinus (consuls)", "commanders_b": "Sextus Tarquinius (Dionysius)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "No separate Wikipedia battle article.", "main_enemy": "Sabines", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Two consular armies, Valerius camped by the Sabine field camp and Lucretius on a nearby hill, Lucretius' cavalry leading the pursuit (Dionysius 5.41-42); no Roman numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dionysius 5.40-43; Livy 2.16; Plutarch, Publicola 22-23; en.wikipedia Roman-Sabine wars", "note": "A Sabine night attack on Valerius' camp was caught between the ditch and the palisade; at dawn the Sabines fled, the force waiting in Fidenae was routed and the camp taken. Dionysius gives 13,500 Sabines and allies killed and 4,200 captured, and says Fidenae fell after a short siege. Livy (2.16) says only that the consuls ravaged Sabine land and triumphed." }, { "id": 38, "key": "-502-pometia", "name": "Pometia", "year": -502, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "503-502 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "War with the Aurunci", "theatre": "Latium (Pontine plain)", "place": "Auruncan territory and the town of Pometia (Suessa Pometia), in the Pontine plain", "lat": 41.55, "lon": 12.9, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Aurunci" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Latins" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Opiter Verginius Tricostus, Spurius Cassius Vecellinus (consuls 502); in 503 Agrippa Menenius Lanatus, Publius Postumius Tubertus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and the Fasti Triumphales, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Aurunci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Consular armies of Roman citizens, with siege works (vineae) before the town (Livy 2.17); no reliable numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 2.16-17; Fasti Triumphales; en.wikipedia Battle of Pometia", "note": "Pometia and Cora, called Latin colonies by Livy, went over to the Aurunci in 503; the consuls beat a large Auruncan army in its own territory and the war shifted to Pometia. In 502 an Auruncan sortie with torches burned the vineae and badly wounded one consul; the Romans returned, and the town surrendered as they were about to scale the walls; its leading men were beheaded, the rest sold and the town razed. Livy (2.25) has Suessa Pometia taken again in 495, probably a doublet. The Fasti Triumphales record triumphs of 503 over the Sabines. The large numbers in the en.wikipedia infobox are not Livy's. Site unknown." }, { "id": 39, "key": "-496-lake-regillus", "name": "Lake Regillus", "year": -496, "month": 7, "day": 15, "date": "15 July 496 BCE (Livy: 499 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Latin War (498-493 BCE)", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Lake Regillus, a since-drained crater lake below Tusculum (probably Pantano Secco, near Frascati)", "lat": 41.83, "lon": 12.71, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aulus Postumius Albus Regillensis (dictator), Titus Aebutius Helva (master of the horse)", "commanders_b": "Octavius Mamilius of Tusculum (killed), Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, Titus Tarquinius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The Roman levy under the dictator and the master of the horse, the cavalry fighting on foot at the crisis (Livy 2.20); Dionysius (6.5) gives 23,700 foot and 1,000 horse against about 40,000 Latin foot and 3,000 horse.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 2.19-20; Dionysius 6.4-13; Plutarch, Coriolanus 3; en.wikipedia Battle of Lake Regillus", "note": "The Latin League fought for the exiled Tarquins; a Volscian force arrived too late. Livy dates it 499 but notes authorities for 496 (Postumius' consulship), which Dionysius follows; modern suggestions include 493 and 489. Dionysius (6.13) says the victory was won on the Ides of Quintilis (15 July, Roman calendar), kept by the parade of the equites. The epiphany of Castor and Pollux is legend." }, { "id": 40, "key": "-495-suessa-pometia", "name": "Suessa Pometia", "year": -495, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "495 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Volscian wars", "theatre": "Latium (Pontine plain)", "place": "The Roman and Volscian camps and the town of Suessa Pometia, in the Pontine plain", "lat": 41.55, "lon": 12.9, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Volsci" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Servilius Priscus Structus (consul)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "No separate Wikipedia battle article; named by the town taken after the battle.", "main_enemy": "Volsci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "A consular army of Roman citizens, filled out by plebeian debtors who enlisted once Servilius' edict protected them from their creditors (Livy 2.24); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 2.24-25; en.wikipedia Roman-Volscian wars", "note": "A Volscian night attack on the Roman camp failed; at dawn the Volsci assaulted the rampart and were routed, their camp was taken, and Suessa Pometia fell within a few days and was given to the soldiers to plunder; Ecetra then sued for peace. Probably a doublet of the capture of Pometia in 502." }, { "id": 41, "key": "-495-aricia", "name": "Aricia", "year": -495, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "495 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "War with the Aurunci", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Near Aricia (Ariccia), in the Alban Hills", "lat": 41.72, "lon": 12.67, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Aurunci" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Servilius Priscus Structus (consul)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Aurunci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The Roman army of that year, citizen legions that had just beaten the Volsci (Livy 2.26); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 2.26; en.wikipedia List of Roman battles", "note": "The Aurunci demanded that Rome give up the Volscian land; their army was met not far from Aricia and one battle ended the war. Livy does not name the Roman commander; en.wikipedia gives the consul Servilius. Not the battle of Aricia of about 508/504 BCE, in which the Cumaeans under Aristodemus and the Latins beat Porsenna's son Arruns and Rome did not fight (Dionysius 5.36; excluded)." }, { "id": 42, "key": "-494-velitrae", "name": "Velitrae", "year": -494, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "494 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Volscian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Before Velitrae (Velletri) and in the town", "lat": 41.69, "lon": 12.78, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Volsci" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aulus Verginius Tricostus Caeliomontanus (consul), under the dictator Manius Valerius Maximus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "No separate Wikipedia battle article; described in en.wikipedia Roman-Volscian wars.", "main_enemy": "Volsci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Three legions under a consul: in 494 Rome raised ten legions, three for each consul and four for the dictator (Livy 2.30), a figure not credible for the period.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 2.30-31; en.wikipedia Roman-Volscian wars", "note": "The consul held his line still until the Volsci, charging in disorder, were spent, then routed them, took their camp and pursued them into Velitrae, where more were killed than in the battle; Velitrae's land was taken and colonised. Livy does not name the consul here; Verginius by elimination (his colleague Veturius fought the Aequi)." }, { "id": 43, "key": "-493-corioli", "name": "Corioli", "year": -493, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "493 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Volscian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Corioli, a Volscian town in the Alban Hills (perhaps Monte Giove near Lanuvium)", "lat": 41.65, "lon": 12.68, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Volsci" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Postumus Cominius Auruncus (consul), Gnaeus Marcius (Coriolanus)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, Dionysius of Halicarnassus and Plutarch, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Volsci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of Postumus Cominius besieging Corioli, in which Gnaeus Marcius served as a young soldier commanding a picked guard (Livy 2.33); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 2.33; Dionysius book 6; Plutarch, Coriolanus 8-10; en.wikipedia List of Roman battles", "note": "Cominius had routed a force from Antium and taken Longula and Polusca; at Corioli the Volscian legions from Antium attacked the besiegers while the townsmen sallied; Marcius threw back the sortie, broke in through the gate and fired the houses, the Antiates were routed and Corioli taken. The Coriolanus story is legendary; the site is uncertain." }, { "id": 44, "key": "-484-antium", "name": "Antium", "year": -484, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "484 BCE (en.wikipedia and the Loeb Dionysius: 482 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Volscian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "The hills before Antium (Anzio)", "lat": 41.47, "lon": 12.63, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Volsci" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "", "commanders_b": "Lucius Aemilius Mamercus (consul)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Volsci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of Lucius Aemilius, citizen centuries with their cavalry (Dionysius 8.84-85); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dionysius 8.83-85; Livy 2.42; en.wikipedia List of Roman battles", "note": "Only Dionysius describes it: after an even fight the Volsci feigned flight, drew the Romans into a disordered pursuit and turned on them; a storm and darkness saved the rest. Livy (2.42) reports instead a Roman victory over the Volsci and Aequi in this consulship, won by the cavalry pursuit. Dionysius puts it in the 270th year of the city, which the Loeb editor and en.wikipedia render 482 BCE; the consuls Lucius Aemilius and Caeso Fabius held office in 484 by Varro's reckoning." }, { "id": 45, "key": "-484-longula", "name": "Longula", "year": -484, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "484 BCE (en.wikipedia and the Loeb Dionysius: 482 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Volscian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "A fortified hill near Longula, a Volscian town near Antium", "lat": 41.55, "lon": 12.62, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Volsci" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Aemilius Mamercus (consul), reinforced by cohorts of his colleague Caeso Fabius Vibulanus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Dionysius of Halicarnassus, written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Volsci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The survivors of Aemilius' army, the cavalry fighting on foot beside the triarii, reinforced by night with picked cohorts sent by the other consul (Dionysius 8.86).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dionysius 8.85-86; en.wikipedia List of Roman battles", "note": "After the defeat before Antium Aemilius withdrew by night to a hill near Longula and held it against repeated Volscian assaults, finally sallying and driving the Volsci off with loss. Year as for Antium (484 BCE by Varro, 482 in en.wikipedia). Site of Longula unknown." }, { "id": 46, "key": "-480-veii", "name": "Veii", "year": -480, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "480 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Veientine War (483-474 BCE)", "theatre": "Southern Etruria", "place": "Before Veii, at and around the Roman camp", "lat": 42.02, "lon": 12.4, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [ "Latins", "Hernici" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Fabius Vibulanus, Gnaeus Manlius Cincinnatus (consuls; Manlius killed); Quintus Fabius Vibulanus (killed), Caeso Fabius Vibulanus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "Both consular armies; Dionysius gives four city legions, about 20,000 foot and 1,200 horse, with an equal force from the colonies and allies, the Latins and Hernici sending troops (Dionysius 9.5, 9.13). Livy has the triarii save the camp (2.47).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizens with Latin and Hernican contingents; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 2.43-47; Dionysius 9.5-13; en.wikipedia List of Roman battles", "note": "Etruscan side: Veii with reinforcements from all Etruria. A costly Roman victory: Quintus Fabius and the consul Manlius fell, the Etruscans broke into the Roman camp before being cut down, and Marcus Fabius declined the triumph (Livy 2.47). Dionysius (9.13) has the Etruscans withdraw in the night, so that the Romans claimed the victory; the Loeb editor dates the consulship 479." }, { "id": 47, "key": "-478-saxa-rubra", "name": "Saxa Rubra", "year": -478, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "478 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Veientine War (483-474 BCE)", "theatre": "Southern Etruria", "place": "Near the Fabian fort on the Cremera; the Veientine camp at Saxa Rubra, on the Via Flaminia north of Rome (near Prima Porta)", "lat": 41.99, "lon": 12.49, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Aemilius Mamercus (consul)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "Not in Wikipedia's lists; Livy names the Veientine camp.", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "A consular army sent to support the Fabii on the Cremera; a squadron of its cavalry, striking the flank, decided the fight (Livy 2.49); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 2.49; Dionysius 9.16-17", "note": "Etruscan side: Veii. A Roman cavalry charge on the flank caught the Veientes before they had formed and drove them back to their camp at Saxa Rubra; Dionysius has the camp taken. Veii sued for peace, which it soon regretted." }, { "id": 48, "key": "-477-cremera", "name": "Cremera", "year": -477, "month": 7, "day": 18, "date": "18 July 477 BCE (Ovid: 13 February)", "type": "land", "war": "First Veientine War (483-474 BCE)", "theatre": "Southern Etruria", "place": "The Fabian fort on the Cremera (Fosso della Valchetta), between Rome and Veii", "lat": 42.03, "lon": 12.42, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Etruscans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "", "commanders_b": "The gens Fabia: Caeso Fabius Vibulanus and Marcus Fabius Vibulanus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "A private force of one clan, not a state army: 306 Fabii with their clients and friends, about 4,000 men in all (Dionysius 9.15; Livy 2.49 gives the 306).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Fabii and their Roman clients; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 2.48-50, 6.1.11; Dionysius 9.15, 9.18-22; Ovid, Fasti 2.193-242; en.wikipedia Battle of the Cremera", "note": "Etruscan side: Veii. The Veientes lured the Fabii from their fort with herds into an ambush and killed them all; Livy has one boy left at Rome survive, which Dionysius rejects. Livy puts it on 18 July, the day of the Allia (dies Alliensis), Ovid on the Ides of February. The 306 are legend, but a defeat of a Fabian clan army is widely accepted as historical. The Fabii had set out in 479; afterwards the consul Titus Menenius Lanatus was also beaten and lost his camp (Dionysius 9.23), and the Veientes seized the Janiculum." }, { "id": 49, "key": "-477-temple-of-hope", "name": "Temple of Hope", "year": -477, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "477 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Veientine War (483-474 BCE)", "theatre": "Rome", "place": "By the temple of Spes (Spes Vetus) on the Esquiline, about eight stades from the city (Dionysius)", "lat": 41.89, "lon": 12.51, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Horatius Pulvillus (consul, recalled from the Volscian war)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The consular army of Horatius, recalled from the Volscian war to defend the city (Livy 2.51; Dionysius 9.24); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 2.51; Dionysius 9.24; en.wikipedia List of Roman battles", "note": "Etruscan side: Veii. After the Cremera the Veientes held the Janiculum and raided across the Tiber. Livy calls the battle by the temple of Spes indecisive (so en.wikipedia); Dionysius makes it a Roman victory." }, { "id": 50, "key": "-477-colline-gate", "name": "Colline Gate", "year": -477, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "477 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Veientine War (483-474 BCE)", "theatre": "Rome", "place": "Outside the Colline Gate, Rome", "lat": 41.91, "lon": 12.5, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Horatius Pulvillus (consul)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The consular army of Horatius defending the city (Livy 2.51; Dionysius 9.24); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 2.51; Dionysius 9.24; en.wikipedia List of Roman battles", "note": "Etruscan side: Veii. Livy says the Romans gained only a slight advantage, enough to restore their spirits (en.wikipedia: an indecisive victory); Dionysius has a Roman win over a larger Etruscan army." }, { "id": 51, "key": "-476-janiculum", "name": "Janiculum", "year": -476, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "476 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Veientine War (483-474 BCE)", "theatre": "Rome", "place": "The Roman camp on the left bank and the Etruscan camp on the Janiculum, across the Tiber from Rome", "lat": 41.89, "lon": 12.46, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Spurius Servilius Structus, Aulus Verginius Tricostus Rutilus (consuls)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "Not in Wikipedia's lists; Livy names the place.", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "Both consular armies: Servilius' troops, who attacked up the hill, and Verginius' army, which came to their rescue (Livy 2.51); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 2.51; Dionysius 9.25-26", "note": "Etruscan side: Veii. The Veientes crossed the Tiber by night and attacked Servilius' camp but were routed; at daybreak Servilius stormed up the Janiculum, was thrown back, and was saved when Verginius' army took the Etruscans in the rear and destroyed them. Servilius was later prosecuted for his rashness." }, { "id": 52, "key": "-475-veii", "name": "Veii", "year": -475, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "475 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Veientine War (483-474 BCE)", "theatre": "Southern Etruria", "place": "Before Veii: the Sabine camp in front of the walls and the Veientine sortie", "lat": 42.02, "lon": 12.4, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans", "Sabines" ], "allies_a": [ "Latins", "Hernici" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Valerius Publicola (consul)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "No separate Wikipedia battle article.", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "A consular army of Roman citizens with its cavalry, for which Latin and Hernican auxiliaries were summoned (Livy 2.53); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizens with Latin and Hernican auxiliaries; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 2.53; Dionysius 9.34-35; en.wikipedia Roman-Etruscan Wars", "note": "Etruscan side: Veii. Valerius forced the gate of the Sabine camp outside Veii, then held off the Veientes who sallied, and his cavalry routed them. A forty-year truce with Veii followed in 474." }, { "id": 53, "key": "-468-antium", "name": "Antium", "year": -468, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "468 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Volscian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Volscian territory, the Volscian camp on the hills, and the town of Antium (Anzio)", "lat": 41.45, "lon": 12.63, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Volsci", "Aequi" ], "allies_a": [ "Hernici" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Titus Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus (consul)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "No separate Wikipedia battle article; field battles followed by the surrender of Antium.", "main_enemy": "Volsci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of Quinctius, outnumbered, which he rallied in the first battle; a Hernican cohort held the outposts in the night attack (Livy 2.64); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizens with a Hernican cohort; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 2.64-65, 3.1; Dionysius book 9; en.wikipedia Roman-Volscian wars", "note": "A hard battle on level ground was won when the consul falsely announced that the enemy's other wing was fleeing; Volscian and Aequian reinforcements attacked the camp by night; next day the Romans drove the Volsci from a hill and took their camp, and Antium surrendered after a few days' siege. A colony followed in 467 (Livy 3.1). Modern historians doubt an early Roman hold on Antium, which was Volscian until 338." }, { "id": 54, "key": "-465-algidus", "name": "Algidus", "year": -465, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "465 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Aequian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Mount Algidus, the pass of the Via Latina through the Alban Hills", "lat": 41.75, "lon": 12.77, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Aequi" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Fabius Vibulanus, Titus Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus (consuls)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "No Wikipedia battle article; Livy has the Aequi march to Mount Algidus but does not name the battlefield.", "main_enemy": "Aequi", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Both consular armies of Roman citizens (Livy 3.2); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 3.2-3; en.wikipedia Algidum", "note": "The Aequi, who had broken the peace granted by Fabius the year before, were beaten in a hard pitched battle and fell back to their frontier, then raided Roman territory up to the city." }, { "id": 55, "key": "-460-capitol", "name": "Capitol", "year": -460, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "460 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Seizure of the Capitol by Appius Herdonius", "theatre": "Rome", "place": "The Capitol, Rome", "lat": 41.89, "lon": 12.48, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sabines" ], "allies_a": [ "Latins" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Valerius Publicola (consul, killed), Publius Volumnius; Gaius Claudius Sabinus Regillensis (consul); Lucius Mamilius, dictator of Tusculum", "commanders_b": "Appius Herdonius (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "A coup by a band of exiles and slaves under a Sabine leader, not a war with the Sabine state; included as an assault with real fighting.", "main_enemy": "Sabines", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The citizen levy under the consul Valerius, joined by a force from Tusculum sent by its dictator Lucius Mamilius (Livy 3.18); the enemy were some 2,500 exiles and slaves (Livy 3.15).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizens with Latin troops from Tusculum; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 3.15-18; Dionysius 10.14-16", "note": "Herdonius, a Sabine, seized the Capitol and citadel by night; the tribunes held up the levy, and the hill was stormed with the Tusculans' help, Valerius falling in the temple forecourt and the ex-consul Publius Volumnius taking over. Often taken by modern historians as a raid by a private warlord, plausible in outline." }, { "id": 56, "key": "-459-tusculum", "name": "Tusculum", "year": -459, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "459 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Aequian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "The citadel of Tusculum, in the Alban Hills", "lat": 41.8, "lon": 12.71, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Aequi" ], "allies_a": [ "Latins" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Fabius Vibulanus, Lucius Cornelius Maluginensis (consuls)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "Not in Wikipedia's lists; the siege of a citadel seized by the Aequi.", "main_enemy": "Aequi", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of Fabius with the Tusculans, supplied and reinforced by Cornelius from Rome (Livy 3.23); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizens with Latin troops from Tusculum; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 3.22-23", "note": "The Aequi took the citadel of Tusculum in a night surprise; after some months' fighting hunger forced them out, they passed under the yoke, and a consul caught them on the Algidus on their way home and killed them to a man. Earlier that year Fabius had stormed the Volscian camp near Antium (Livy 3.22)." }, { "id": 57, "key": "-458-mount-algidus", "name": "Mount Algidus", "year": -458, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "458 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Aequian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Mount Algidus, the pass of the Via Latina through the Alban Hills", "lat": 41.75, "lon": 12.77, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Aequi" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus (dictator), Lucius Tarquitius (master of the horse), Lucius Minucius Esquilinus Augurinus (consul)", "commanders_b": "Gracchus Cloelius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Aequi", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Cincinnatus' emergency levy of all men of military age, each carrying stakes and five days' food, which walled in the Aequi while the trapped consular army of Minucius attacked from its camp (Livy 3.26-28).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 3.26-29; Dionysius book 10; en.wikipedia Battle of Mount Algidus", "note": "The Aequi surrendered and passed under the yoke; Cincinnatus laid down the dictatorship after sixteen days. Legendary in its details." }, { "id": 58, "key": "-457-algidus", "name": "Algidus", "year": -457, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "457 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Aequian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Mount Algidus, in the Alban Hills", "lat": 41.75, "lon": 12.77, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Aequi" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Horatius Pulvillus (consul)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "Not in Wikipedia's lists; one of several battles Livy places on the Algidus.", "main_enemy": "Aequi", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of Horatius (Livy 3.30); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 3.30", "note": "The Aequi had massacred the Roman garrison of Corbio in a night attack and taken Ortona; Horatius beat them on the Algidus with great slaughter, drove them from Algidus, Corbio and Ortona, and razed Corbio for betraying the garrison." }, { "id": 59, "key": "-455-algidus", "name": "Algidus", "year": -455, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "455 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Aequian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Mount Algidus, in the Alban Hills", "lat": 41.75, "lon": 12.77, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Aequi" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Titus Romilius Rocus Vaticanus, Gaius Veturius Cicurinus (consuls)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, all written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "Not in Wikipedia's lists; one of several battles Livy places on the Algidus.", "main_enemy": "Aequi", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Both consular armies of Roman citizens, sent to help Tusculum (Livy 3.31); Dionysius gives a part to the veteran Lucius Siccius Dentatus.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 3.31; Dionysius book 10", "note": "The consuls found the Aequi in their usual position on the Algidus and killed over 7,000 (Livy); they sold the booty for the treasury and were condemned and fined after their year of office." }, { "id": 60, "key": "-449-eretum", "name": "Eretum", "year": -449, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "449 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Sabine wars", "theatre": "Sabine country", "place": "Near Eretum, in the Sabine country north-east of Rome", "lat": 42.07, "lon": 12.62, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Sabines" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "", "commanders_b": "Quintus Fabius Vibulanus, with Manius Rabuleius and Quintus Poetelius (decemvirs)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "Not in Wikipedia's lists.", "main_enemy": "Sabines", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "One of the two armies of the second decemvirate, citizen soldiers hostile to their commanders (Livy 3.41-42); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 3.41-42", "note": "Routed by the Sabines at Eretum, the army withdrew by night and entrenched on high ground between Fidenae and Crustumeria. After the fall of the decemvirs the consul Marcus Horatius Barbatus beat the Sabines (Livy 3.61-63), at a site Livy does not name." }, { "id": 61, "key": "-449-algidus", "name": "Algidus", "year": -449, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "449 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Aequian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Mount Algidus, in the Alban Hills", "lat": 41.75, "lon": 12.77, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Aequi" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "", "commanders_b": "Marcus Cornelius Maluginensis, with Lucius Minucius, Titus Antonius Merenda, Caeso Duillius and Marcus Sergius (decemvirs)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "Not in Wikipedia's lists.", "main_enemy": "Aequi", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The second army of the decemvirate, under five decemvirs (Livy 3.41-42); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 3.41-42, 3.60-61", "note": "A heavier defeat than at Eretum: the army lost its camp and fled to Tusculum. After the fall of the decemvirs the consul Lucius Valerius Potitus beat the Aequi and Volsci and took their camp (Livy 3.60-61), at a site Livy does not name (not counted separately)." }, { "id": 62, "key": "-446-corbio", "name": "Corbio", "year": -446, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "446 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Aequian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Before the enemy camp at Corbio, an Aequian town (site uncertain)", "lat": 41.78, "lon": 12.92, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Aequi", "Volsci" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Titus Quinctius Capitolinus Barbatus, Agrippa Furius Fusus (consuls); Spurius Postumius Albus Regillensis and Publius Sulpicius (legates)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Aequi", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Both consular armies under one command, which Agrippa yielded to Quinctius: the consuls on the wings, the legate Postumius in the centre, the legate Sulpicius with the cavalry (Livy 3.70); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 3.66-70; en.wikipedia Battle of Corbio", "note": "After the Aequi and Volsci had raided up to the walls of Rome, the consuls followed them and fought by their camp at Corbio; Sulpicius' cavalry broke the enemy centre, the camp was stormed and the plundered property recovered. The en.wikipedia article gives 446 but mixes in Livy 3.4-5 (464 BCE: the camp of the consul Spurius Furius besieged by the Aequi and relieved by Titus Quinctius). Coordinates as in en.wikipedia; Corbio is also placed near Rocca Priora." }, { "id": 63, "key": "-443-ardea", "name": "Ardea", "year": -443, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "443 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Volscian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Before Ardea, in Rutulian Latium", "lat": 41.61, "lon": 12.54, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Volsci" ], "allies_a": [ "Latins" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Geganius Macerinus (consul)", "commanders_b": "Cluilius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "Not in Wikipedia's lists.", "main_enemy": "Volsci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of Geganius, which walled in the Volscian besiegers in a night, with a covered way to the town for the Ardeate nobles inside (Livy 4.9-10); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizens with the Ardeates; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 4.9-10", "note": "A feud over a girl split Ardea; the nobles called in Rome and the plebs the Volsci, who besieged the town. Enclosed by Geganius' lines, the Volsci tried to fight, were cut down, then gave up their general and arms and passed under the yoke; survivors were attacked near Tusculum. Livy calls Cluilius an Aequian." }, { "id": 64, "key": "-437-fidenae", "name": "Fidenae", "year": -437, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "437 BCE (perhaps 428 or 426 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Veientine War (438-425 BCE)", "theatre": "Latium (lower Tiber)", "place": "The plain between the Roman camp at the junction of the Anio and the Tiber and the Etruscan camp before Fidenae", "lat": 41.97, "lon": 12.5, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus (dictator), Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus (master of the horse), Titus Quinctius Capitolinus and Marcus Fabius Vibulanus (legates), Aulus Cornelius Cossus (military tribune)", "commanders_b": "Lars Tolumnius, king of Veii (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No separate Wikipedia battle article.", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The dictator's army of Roman citizens; Cossus, a military tribune with the cavalry, killed Tolumnius in single combat and won the spolia opima (Livy 4.17-19); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 4.17-20; Propertius 4.10; en.wikipedia Aulus Cornelius Cossus", "note": "Etruscan side: Veii under Lars Tolumnius on the right, the Faliscans on the left and the revolted Fidenates in the centre; Fidenae had murdered Roman envoys in 438. Livy records Augustus' report that the inscribed linen corselet in the temple of Jupiter Feretrius called Cossus consul, which would put the battle in 428; the date is disputed. Before the dictatorship the consul Lucius Sergius Fidenas won a costly fight on this side of the Anio." }, { "id": 65, "key": "-435-fidenae", "name": "Fidenae", "year": -435, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "435 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Veientine War (438-425 BCE)", "theatre": "Latium (lower Tiber)", "place": "Not far from Nomentum, then the siege of Fidenae", "lat": 41.99, "lon": 12.51, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Servilius Priscus Structus (dictator), Postumus Aebutius Helva Cornicen (master of the horse)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Early Rome: the only evidence is Livy, written down centuries later from the annalistic tradition; Livy himself says that most records of early Rome perished when the Gauls burnt the city (6.1). Modern historians doubt the details and often the battle itself.", "borderline": "Not in Wikipedia's lists; probably a doublet of the capture of Fidenae in 426.", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The dictator's levy, called out when the Fidenates and Veientes raided up to the Colline Gate; four divisions relieved one another in attacks on the walls while the tunnel was dug (Livy 4.21-22).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 4.21-22", "note": "Etruscan side: Veii and Fidenae. The dictator beat the enemy not far from Nomentum and drove them into Fidenae, which he took by a tunnel driven through the hill to the citadel." }, { "id": 66, "key": "-431-algidus", "name": "Algidus", "year": -431, "month": 6, "day": 18, "date": "18 June 431 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Aequian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Mount Algidus, in the Alban Hills", "lat": 41.75, "lon": 12.77, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Aequi", "Volsci" ], "allies_a": [ "Latins", "Hernici" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aulus Postumius Tubertus (dictator), Lucius Julius Iullus (master of the horse), Titus Quinctius Poenus Cincinnatus (consul); Marcus Geganius, Fabius (cavalry)", "commanders_b": "Vettius Messius (Volscian)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No separate Wikipedia battle article.", "main_enemy": "Aequi", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "A levy under the lex sacrata with contingents ordered from the Latins and the Hernici, in two camps, the dictator's towards Tusculum and the consul's towards Lanuvium (Livy 4.26-27); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizens with Latin and Hernican allies; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 4.26-29; Ovid, Fasti 6.721-724; Diodorus 12.64; en.wikipedia Aulus Postumius Tubertus; en.wikipedia Algidum", "note": "The Aequi and Volsci attacked the consul's camp by night; picked cohorts under Marcus Geganius stormed the Volscian camp and the dictator took the enemy line in the rear; the Volscian Vettius Messius led a break-out, but the camp was taken and the prisoners sold. The other consul, Gnaeus (or Gaius) Julius Mento, held Rome. Tradition (doubted by Livy) says Postumius beheaded his son for leaving his post. Day as in en.wikipedia (the anniversary in Ovid's calendar); the battle is generally accepted as historical." }, { "id": 67, "key": "-426-fidenae", "name": "Fidenae", "year": -426, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "426 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Veientine War (438-425 BCE)", "theatre": "Latium (lower Tiber)", "place": "Before Fidenae (Castel Giubileo), north of Rome, and the town itself", "lat": 41.99, "lon": 12.51, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mamercus Aemilius Mamercinus (dictator), Aulus Cornelius Cossus (master of the horse); Quinctius", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No separate Wikipedia battle article.", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The dictator's levy with its cavalry under Cossus, raised after the consular tribunes Titus Quinctius Poenus, Gaius Furius and Marcus Postumius had been beaten by the Veientes that year (Livy 4.31-33); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 4.31-34; en.wikipedia Fidenae", "note": "Etruscan side: Veii, with Etruscan volunteers, and Fidenae. The Fidenates charged with torches; Cossus rode his cavalry through the flames, Quinctius took the enemy in the rear from the ridge, many Veientes drowned in the Tiber, and the Romans broke into Fidenae and sacked it, enslaving the people. Some annalists, Livy says (4.34), told of a naval fight with the Veientes at Fidenae, which he rejects; it is not counted here." }, { "id": 68, "key": "-418-labici", "name": "Labici", "year": -418, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "418 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Aequian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "The Aequian camp and the town of Labici, in the Alban Hills (near Monte Compatri)", "lat": 41.81, "lon": 12.73, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Aequi" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Latins" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Servilius Priscus Fidenas (dictator), Gaius Servilius Axilla (master of the horse)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Not in Wikipedia's lists.", "main_enemy": "Aequi", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The dictator's levy, raised after the army of the consular tribunes, under Lucius Sergius Fidenas on his day of command, had been lured onto bad ground and fled its camp (Livy 4.45-46); its cavalry charge broke the Aequi.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 4.45-47", "note": "The Latin town of Labici had joined the Aequi. The dictator's cavalry broke the enemy line, the Aequian camp was stormed, and Labici was invested, taken and plundered; a colony of 1,500 settlers followed (Livy 4.47). Livy names the master of the horse as the dictator's son, with a variant giving Servilius Ahala." }, { "id": 69, "key": "-408-antium", "name": "Antium", "year": -408, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "408 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Volscian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Near Antium (Anzio), where the Volsci and Aequi had gathered", "lat": 41.47, "lon": 12.63, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Volsci", "Aequi" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Cornelius Rutilus Cossus (dictator), Gaius Servilius Ahala (master of the horse)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Not in Wikipedia's lists; a brief notice in Livy.", "main_enemy": "Volsci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The dictator's levy against the Volsci and Aequi encamped at Antium (Livy 4.56-57); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 4.56-57", "note": "The dictator won a single, easy battle with great slaughter, ravaged Volscian territory and stormed a fort by Lake Fucinus, taking 3,000 prisoners." }, { "id": 70, "key": "-407-verrugo", "name": "Verrugo", "year": -407, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "407 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Volscian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Verrugo, a Roman outpost in Volscian territory (site unknown)", "lat": 41.7, "lon": 13.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Volsci" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "", "commanders_b": "The consular tribunes of 407 (not named for this action)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Not in Wikipedia's lists; a besieged garrison wiped out, told in a few lines.", "main_enemy": "Volsci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "A Roman garrison holding Verrugo, and a relieving army sent too late (Livy 4.58); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman garrison; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 4.58", "note": "The Volsci besieged the garrison and massacred it; the relieving force arrived only in time to surprise the Volsci scattered in search of plunder. Livy blames the senate's delay more than the tribunes." }, { "id": 71, "key": "-406-anxur", "name": "Anxur", "year": -406, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "406 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Volscian wars", "theatre": "Latium (southern coast)", "place": "Anxur (Tarracina, modern Terracina), on the coast of southern Latium", "lat": 41.29, "lon": 13.25, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Volsci" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Numerius Fabius Ambustus (consular tribune), Gaius Servilius Ahala; the tribunes Valerius and Cornelius covering Antium and Ecetra", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Not in Wikipedia's lists.", "main_enemy": "Volsci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Three armies under the consular tribunes: Valerius at Antium and Cornelius at Ecetra kept the Volsci from relieving Anxur while Fabius attacked it, Servilius Ahala taking four cohorts round to the hill above the town (Livy 4.59); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 4.59-60", "note": "The attack from the height broke the defence; the town was taken and sacked by all three armies and about 2,500 prisoners taken. Afterwards the senate decreed pay for the soldiers from the treasury (stipendium). The Volsci recovered Anxur by surprise in 402 (Livy 5.8)." }, { "id": 72, "key": "-404-artena", "name": "Artena", "year": -404, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "404 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Volscian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "A pitched battle between Ferentinum and Ecetra, then the siege of Artena", "lat": 41.74, "lon": 12.91, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Volsci" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "The consular tribunes of 404: Gaius Valerius Potitus, Manius Sergius Fidenas, Publius Cornelius Maluginensis, Gnaeus Cornelius Cossus, Caeso Fabius Ambustus, Spurius Nautius Rutilus (Livy names none for the battle)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Not in Wikipedia's lists.", "main_enemy": "Volsci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The legions of the consular tribunes (Livy 4.61); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 4.61", "note": "After the victory between Ferentinum and Ecetra the Romans besieged Artena, drove a sortie back and forced their way into the town; the citadel was taken through the betrayal of a slave, and town and citadel were demolished. Livy notes that some thought Artena Veientine, confusing it with another Artena between Caere and Veii. Site unknown (modern Artena only takes the name)." }, { "id": 73, "key": "-396-nepete", "name": "Nepete", "year": -396, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "396 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Veientine War (406-396 BCE)", "theatre": "Southern Etruria", "place": "The territory of Nepete (Nepi), southern Etruria", "lat": 42.24, "lon": 12.35, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [ "Latins", "Hernici" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Furius Camillus (dictator), Publius Cornelius Scipio (master of the horse)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Not in Wikipedia's lists; Livy names only the territory.", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "Camillus' new levy, joined by Latin and Hernican volunteers (Livy 5.19), on its way to Veii; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizens with Latin and Hernican volunteers; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 5.18-19", "note": "Etruscan side: the Faliscans of Falerii and the Capenates, allies of Veii. Camillus beat them in the field, took their camp and much booty. Earlier in 396 they had ambushed the consular tribunes Lucius Titinius and Gnaeus Genucius, who was killed (Livy 5.18; site not named)." }, { "id": 74, "key": "-396-veii-siege", "name": "Veii (siege)", "year": -396, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "405-396 BCE (the city fell in 396)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Veientine War (406-396 BCE)", "theatre": "Southern Etruria", "place": "Veii (Isola Farnese), north of Rome", "lat": 42.02, "lon": 12.4, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [ "Latins", "Hernici" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Furius Camillus (dictator 396), Publius Cornelius Scipio (master of the horse); the consular tribunes of 405-397", "commanders_b": "The king of Veii (unnamed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The citizen army, paid from 406, kept before Veii in winter huts behind lines facing both Veii and Etruria, with volunteer cavalry on their own horses (403); in 396 Camillus' levy with Latin and Hernican volunteers, which took the city through a tunnel (Livy 4.60-61, 5.1-22).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizens with Latin and Hernican volunteers; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 4.60-61, 5.1-22; Plutarch, Camillus 2-6; Diodorus 14.93; en.wikipedia Battle of Veii", "note": "Etruscan side: Veii, helped by Capena and Falerii; the Etruscan league refused help while Veii had a king. In 402 a Capenate and Faliscan attack on the siege lines beat the tribune Manius Sergius Fidenas when his colleague Lucius Verginius refused help (Livy 5.8). The ten-year length echoes Troy, but the fall of Veii in 396 is historical. en.wikipedia dates the battle about 396." }, { "id": 75, "key": "-394-falerii", "name": "Falerii", "year": -394, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "394 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "War with Falerii and Capena (395-394 BCE)", "theatre": "Southern Etruria", "place": "Before Falerii (Falerii Veteres, modern Civita Castellana)", "lat": 42.29, "lon": 12.41, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Furius Camillus (consular tribune)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "Camillus' army of Roman citizens (Livy 5.26); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 5.26-27; Plutarch, Camillus 9-10", "note": "Etruscan side: the Faliscans of Falerii (a people of Latin-like speech, listed here with the Etruscans). Camillus seized high ground by a night march, beat the Faliscans who came out against him and took their camp, then besieged the town; Falerii surrendered after he sent back the schoolmaster who had betrayed his pupils (a legend) and paid the Roman army for the year." }, { "id": 76, "key": "-391-volsinii", "name": "Volsinii", "year": -391, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "391 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "War with Volsinii (392-391 BCE)", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "The territory of Volsinii (Orvieto), Etruria", "lat": 42.72, "lon": 12.11, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Lucretius Tricipitinus Flavus, Gaius Aemilius Mamercinus (consular tribunes)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Not in Wikipedia's lists.", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The armies of the consular tribunes, Lucretius and Gaius Aemilius against Volsinii, Agrippa Furius and Servius Sulpicius against Salpinum (Livy 5.32); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman citizens; no Greek speakers are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 5.31-32", "note": "Etruscan side: Volsinii, with Salpinum. The Volsinian line broke at the first shock and 8,000 men, cut off by the cavalry, surrendered; the Salpinates kept within their walls. Volsinii got a twenty-year truce on paying an indemnity and the army's pay for the year." }, { "id": 77, "key": "-390-allia", "name": "Allia", "year": -390, "month": 7, "day": 18, "date": "18 July 390 BCE (Varronian date; c. 387/386 BCE by the Greek reckoning)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Gallic wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "the Allia, a small left-bank tributary of the Tiber about 11 Roman miles north of Rome", "lat": 42.04, "lon": 12.56, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Gauls" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Brennus", "commanders_b": "the military tribunes with consular power of 390 BC, among them Q. Sulpicius Longus and the three Fabii Ambusti (Livy 5.36-38)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "The Roman levy drawn up in a long single line with reserves on a hill to the right (Livy 5.38); Polybius (2.18.2) speaks of the Romans and those drawn up with them, so some allies may have served. Diodorus (14.114) gives about 24,000 men, Plutarch (Camillus 18) 40,000.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army was raised from Roman citizens of the lower Tiber valley; no Greek community was then allied to Rome.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Livy 5.35-38; Diodorus 14.113-114; Plutarch Camillus 17-18; Polybius 2.18; en.wikipedia Battle of the Allia", "note": "Senones under Brennus. Livy puts the field on the left bank of the Tiber, Diodorus on the right. 18 July became the dies Alliensis; the year is 390 by Varro's era, c. 387/386 by Polybius and the Greek historians." }, { "id": 78, "key": "-390-rome-gallic-sack", "name": "Rome (Gallic sack)", "year": -390, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "July 390 BCE to early 389 BCE (Varronian); about seven months by Polybius (2.22)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Gallic wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Rome; the Capitol held out", "lat": 41.89, "lon": 12.48, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Gauls" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Brennus", "commanders_b": "M. Manlius Capitolinus (defence of the Capitol); Q. Sulpicius Longus (consular tribune, who negotiated the ransom)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "The men of military age who withdrew to the Capitol with the senate after the Allia (Livy 5.39-40); numbers unknown.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The defenders were Roman citizens; no Greek allies are recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Livy 5.39-48; Polybius 1.6, 2.18, 2.22; Diodorus 14.115-116; Plutarch Camillus 20-29; en.wikipedia Battle of the Allia", "note": "The city was taken and burned, but the Capitol threw back a night assault (M. Manlius, warned by the geese of Juno) and the Gauls left after a ransom of 1,000 pounds of gold; scored as a Gallic success because the city fell. Livy's account of the fighting on the Capitol is much embellished." }, { "id": 79, "key": "-390-via-gabina-camillus", "name": "Via Gabina (Camillus)", "year": -390, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "390 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Gallic wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "in Rome and at the eighth milestone of the road to Gabii (Livy 5.49)", "lat": 41.88, "lon": 12.62, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "M. Furius Camillus (dictator)", "commanders_b": "Brennus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "Probably legendary; included as the tradition gives it.", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Camillus' army gathered at Ardea and Veii from the refugees and the survivors of the Allia (Livy 5.45-49); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A levy of Roman refugees and survivors; no Greek allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 5.49; Plutarch Camillus 29; contra Polybius 2.18, 2.22 and Diodorus 14.116-117", "note": "Polybius and Diodorus know nothing of it: the Gauls left with the gold (Diodorus has them destroyed later by the Caeretans on the Trausian plain). Generally treated as patriotic invention." }, { "id": 80, "key": "-389-ad-maecium", "name": "Ad Maecium", "year": -389, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "389 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Volscian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "ad Maecium, near Lanuvium (Livy 6.2); 'Mount Marcius' in Plutarch", "lat": 41.68, "lon": 12.7, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Volsci" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "M. Furius Camillus (dictator), C. Servilius Ahala (master of horse)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Volsci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "A new levy that took in even the older men, split into three armies (Livy 6.2.6); Camillus led one of them against the Volsci. No numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman citizen levy; the Latin allies had fallen away after 390.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 6.2; Plutarch Camillus 33-34; Diodorus 14.117; en.wikipedia Roman–Volscian wars", "note": "Part of Camillus' 'triple triumph' of 389 (Volsci, Aequi, Etruscans), much embellished; Oakley takes a victory at ad Maecium as the probable historical core." }, { "id": 81, "key": "-389-bola", "name": "Bola", "year": -389, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "389 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Aequian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Bola, in the land of the Aequi (site uncertain)", "lat": 41.8, "lon": 12.9, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Aequi" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "M. Furius Camillus (dictator)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "Known only from the doubtful 'triple triumph' narrative.", "main_enemy": "Aequi", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Camillus' army from the Volscian campaign (Livy 6.2.14); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman citizen levy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 6.2.14; Plutarch Camillus 35; Diodorus 14.117", "note": "Livy says Camillus routed the Aequi at Bola and took camp and town at the first assault." }, { "id": 82, "key": "-389-sutrium", "name": "Sutrium", "year": -389, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "389 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Etruscan wars", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "Sutrium (Sutri), a Roman ally besieged by the Etruscans", "lat": 42.24, "lon": 12.23, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "M. Furius Camillus (dictator)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "Camillus' army from the Volscian and Aequian campaigns (Livy 6.3); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman citizen levy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 6.3; Plutarch Camillus 35; Diodorus 14.117", "note": "Livy has Camillus recover the town on the very day it surrendered to the Etruscans (probably Tarquinii and allies); the story is almost the same as that of 386 (Livy 6.9-10) and is usually taken as a doublet." }, { "id": 83, "key": "-388-contenebra-siege", "name": "Contenebra (siege)", "year": -388, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "388 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Etruscan wars", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "Contenebra, in the territory of Tarquinii (site unknown)", "lat": 42.3, "lon": 11.85, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the military tribunes with consular power of 388 BC", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Minor town storm, known from one passage of Livy.", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "A Roman citizen army raiding the land of Tarquinii, which stormed the town by relays of fresh troops (Livy 6.4.8-10).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman citizen levy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 6.4.8-11", "note": "Tarquinii. Cortuosa was taken by surprise the same year without a fight." }, { "id": 84, "key": "-386-satricum", "name": "Satricum", "year": -386, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "386 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Volscian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "near Satricum (Borgo Le Ferriere, Latina)", "lat": 41.53, "lon": 12.75, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Volsci" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Latins", "Hernici" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "M. Furius Camillus, P. Valerius Potitus Poplicola (military tribunes with consular power)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Volsci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "A Roman citizen army of the consular tribunes (Livy 6.6-8); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman citizen levy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 6.7-8; Plutarch Camillus 35", "note": "Antiates and other Volsci with Latin and Hernican volunteers. Livy's battle (Camillus hurls a standard into the enemy line) is often read as anticipating the battle of 381." }, { "id": 85, "key": "-386-sutrium", "name": "Sutrium", "year": -386, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "386 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Etruscan wars", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "Sutrium (Sutri)", "lat": 42.24, "lon": 12.23, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "M. Furius Camillus, P. Valerius Potitus Poplicola (military tribunes with consular power)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The army of the consular tribunes, reinforced from the city (Livy 6.9); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman citizen levy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 6.9; Plutarch Camillus 35-37 (under 389)", "note": "The Etruscans had taken Sutrium; Camillus recovered it at once. Livy's 389 and 386 episodes at Sutrium are doublets of one another." }, { "id": 86, "key": "-386-nepete-siege", "name": "Nepete (siege)", "year": -386, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "386 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Etruscan wars", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "Nepete (Nepi)", "lat": 42.24, "lon": 12.35, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "M. Furius Camillus, P. Valerius Potitus Poplicola (military tribunes with consular power)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The army that had recovered Sutrium (Livy 6.10); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman citizen levy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 6.10", "note": "Nepete had been betrayed to the Etruscans; the Romans stormed it and executed the authors of the betrayal. Part of the Camillus narrative, of doubtful detail." }, { "id": 87, "key": "-385-pomptine-territory", "name": "Pomptine territory", "year": -385, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "385 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Volscian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "the Pomptine territory (ager Pomptinus), Volscian Latium", "lat": 41.45, "lon": 12.95, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Volsci" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Latins", "Hernici" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "A. Cornelius Cossus (dictator), T. Quinctius Capitolinus (master of horse)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No proper place name; Livy places it in the Pomptine land.", "main_enemy": "Volsci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The dictator's army of Roman citizens with cavalry under the master of horse (Livy 6.12-13); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman citizen levy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 6.11-13, 6.16; en.wikipedia Roman–Volscian wars", "note": "The Volsci were joined by Latin and Hernican volunteers and by colonists of Circeii and Velitrae. A colony was sent to Satricum after the war (Livy 6.16)." }, { "id": 88, "key": "-382-velitrae", "name": "Velitrae", "year": -382, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "382 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Latin wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "near Velitrae (Velletri)", "lat": 41.69, "lon": 12.78, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Sp. and L. Papirius (military tribunes with consular power)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The legions of the consular tribunes (Livy 6.22.1-3); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman citizen levy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 6.21-22", "note": "The colonists of Velitrae with Praenestine auxiliaries were beaten in the field; the town itself was not attacked." }, { "id": 89, "key": "-381-satricum", "name": "Satricum", "year": -381, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "381 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Volscian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "near Satricum (Borgo Le Ferriere, Latina)", "lat": 41.53, "lon": 12.75, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Volsci" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Latins" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "M. Furius Camillus, L. Furius Medullinus (military tribunes with consular power)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Volsci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Four legions of 4,000 men levied for the war, with Camillus in command (Livy 6.22.8).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman citizen levy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 6.22-24; Plutarch Camillus 37", "note": "Volsci with Praenestine allies. Livy's tale of L. Furius' rashness and Camillus' rescue is a literary set piece; the battle itself may be authentic." }, { "id": 90, "key": "-380-allia", "name": "Allia", "year": -380, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "380 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Latin wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "the Allia, north of Rome", "lat": 42.04, "lon": 12.56, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "T. Quinctius Cincinnatus Capitolinus (dictator), A. Sempronius Atratinus (master of horse)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The dictator's army of Roman citizens, with the cavalry under the master of horse (Livy 6.28-29); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman citizen levy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 6.28-29", "note": "Praeneste. The Praenestines chose the Allia for its ill omen and were routed; nine towns were taken and Praeneste surrendered, recorded on the dedication of the statue of Jupiter Imperator on the Capitol (Livy 6.29.9)." }, { "id": 91, "key": "-377-satricum", "name": "Satricum", "year": -377, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "377 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Volscian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "near Satricum (Borgo Le Ferriere, Latina)", "lat": 41.53, "lon": 12.75, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins", "Volsci" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "P. Valerius Potitus Poplicola, L. Aemilius Mamercinus (military tribunes with consular power)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Three armies were raised; the one under Valerius and Aemilius fought at Satricum (Livy 6.32); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman citizen levy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 6.32-33; en.wikipedia Roman–Volscian wars", "note": "Antium surrendered after the battle; the Latins in anger burned Satricum." }, { "id": 92, "key": "-377-tusculum", "name": "Tusculum", "year": -377, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "377 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Latin wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Tusculum, whose citadel held out against the Latins", "lat": 41.8, "lon": 12.71, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "L. Quinctius Cincinnatus, Ser. Sulpicius Praetextatus (military tribunes with consular power)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "A relieving army of Roman citizens (Livy 6.33.6-12); the Tusculans held the citadel; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizens and the newly enfranchised Tusculans.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 6.33", "note": "The Latins had seized the town; caught between the relief army and the defenders of the citadel they were destroyed." }, { "id": 93, "key": "-370-tusculum", "name": "Tusculum", "year": -370, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "370 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Latin wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Tusculum; afterwards a long siege of Velitrae", "lat": 41.8, "lon": 12.71, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the military tribunes with consular power of 370 BC (Livy 6.36)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Briefly reported; the following siege of Velitrae saw little recorded fighting.", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "An army of Roman citizens levied in a year of political strife (Livy 6.36); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman citizen levy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 6.36, 6.42; Plutarch Camillus 42", "note": "The colonists of Velitrae besieging Tusculum were driven off and themselves besieged; Velitrae submitted c. 367." }, { "id": 94, "key": "-367-alban-territory", "name": "Alban territory", "year": -367, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "367 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Gallic wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "the Alban territory (Livy 6.42); on the Anio (Plutarch)", "lat": 41.8, "lon": 12.65, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "M. Furius Camillus (dictator for the fifth time), T. Quinctius Poenus (master of horse)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "A Roman citizen levy, armed (in Plutarch's story) with iron helmets and long pila against Gallic swords; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman citizen levy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 6.42.4-8; Plutarch Camillus 40-41; contra Polybius 2.18.6", "note": "Polybius says that when the Gauls came to Alba in the 30th year after the sack the Romans did not dare to face them; Camillus' victory is therefore doubted." }, { "id": 95, "key": "-360-colline-gate", "name": "Colline Gate", "year": -360, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "360 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Gallic wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "outside the Colline Gate of Rome", "lat": 41.91, "lon": 12.5, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Latins" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Q. Servilius Ahala (dictator), T. Quinctius Poenus (master of horse)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "The dictator's levy, with even the older men called out to guard the city (Livy 7.11); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman citizen levy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 7.11.2-9; Polybius 2.18.7", "note": "Gauls in alliance with Tibur; the routed Gauls fled to Tibur, and the consul C. Poetelius triumphed over Gauls and Tiburtines. Polybius knows only of a Gallic invasion that withdrew by night when the Romans and their allies marched out." }, { "id": 96, "key": "-358-pedum", "name": "Pedum", "year": -358, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "358 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Gallic wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "near Pedum (probably Gallicano nel Lazio)", "lat": 41.87, "lon": 12.82, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "C. Sulpicius Peticus (dictator), M. Valerius Poplicola (master of horse)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Roman legions with contingents of Latin allies sent under the treaty renewed that year (Livy 7.12.7); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans and Latins only.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 7.12.7-7.15.8; Fasti Triumphales (358 BC)", "note": "Sulpicius' triumph over the Gauls is in the Fasti, but Polybius records no Roman victory over the Gauls in these years and Livy's battle narrative is conventional." }, { "id": 97, "key": "-358-tarquinii", "name": "Tarquinii", "year": -358, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "358 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Etruscan wars", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "the territory of Tarquinii", "lat": 42.25, "lon": 11.76, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Etruscans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "C. Fabius Ambustus (consul)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No proper place name beyond the territory of Tarquinii.", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The consular army of C. Fabius Ambustus (Livy 7.12, 7.15); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Hernican allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 7.15.9-10", "note": "Tarquinii. The Tarquinians sacrificed 307 Roman prisoners after the battle (Livy 7.15.10)." }, { "id": 98, "key": "-357-privernum", "name": "Privernum", "year": -357, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "357 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Volscian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Privernum (near Priverno)", "lat": 41.48, "lon": 13.2, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Volsci" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "C. Marcius Rutilus (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Volsci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of C. Marcius Rutilus (Livy 7.16); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Hernican allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 7.16.3-6; en.wikipedia Roman–Volscian wars", "note": "The Privernates' fortified camp was stormed and the town surrendered; Marcius triumphed." }, { "id": 99, "key": "-356-salinae", "name": "Salinae", "year": -356, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "356 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Etruscan wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "the salt-works (Salinae) near the mouth of the Tiber", "lat": 41.78, "lon": 12.3, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "C. Marcius Rutilus (dictator, the first plebeian), C. Plautius Proculus (master of horse)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The dictator's army, ferried across the Tiber on rafts to surprise the Etruscans (Livy 7.17.6-9); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Hernican allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 7.17.2-9; Fasti Triumphales (356 BC)", "note": "Tarquinii and Falerii. Earlier in the year the consul M. Fabius Ambustus, at first thrown back by Etruscan priests brandishing snakes and torches, rallied and took their camp (Livy 7.17.2-5). Livy says 8,000 prisoners were taken by Marcius." }, { "id": 100, "key": "-349-pomptine-territory", "name": "Pomptine territory", "year": -349, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "349 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Gallic wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "the Pomptine territory, Volscian Latium", "lat": 41.45, "lon": 12.95, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "L. Furius Camillus (consul); M. Valerius Corvus (military tribune)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "Known chiefly for the duel of M. Valerius Corvus and the raven; the battle followed it.", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Ten legions of 4,200 foot and 300 horse were raised from Roman citizens alone, the Latins having refused their contingents (Livy 7.25.5-9); Camillus took the field with part of them.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A purely Roman citizen army; a Greek fleet was raiding the coast of Latium in the same year as an enemy.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 7.25-26; Gellius 9.11; Polybius 2.18.8", "note": "Livy has the Gauls routed after Valerius' duel; Polybius records that in this period the Gauls retreated without battle when the Romans and their allies marched against them." }, { "id": 101, "key": "-346-satricum", "name": "Satricum", "year": -346, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "346 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Volscian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Satricum (Borgo Le Ferriere, Latina)", "lat": 41.53, "lon": 12.75, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Volsci" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "M. Valerius Corvus (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Volsci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of M. Valerius Corvus (Livy 7.27); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Hernican allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 7.27.5-9; en.wikipedia Roman–Volscian wars", "note": "Antiates and Volsci beaten in the field; Satricum was stormed and burned, all but the temple of Mater Matuta, and 4,000 prisoners were taken (Livy)." }, { "id": 102, "key": "-343-mount-gaurus", "name": "Mount Gaurus", "year": -343, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "343 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "First Samnite War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Mount Gaurus (Monte Barbaro), near Cumae", "lat": 40.85, "lon": 14.1, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "M. Valerius Corvus (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of M. Valerius Corvus, normally two legions with Latin and Hernican contingents; Livy (7.32-33) gives no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Hernican allies, fighting to protect the Oscan-speaking Campanians; no Greek contingents.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 7.32-33; Fasti Triumphales (343 BC); en.wikipedia Battle of Mount Gaurus", "note": "The first Roman battle with the Samnites. Valerius' triumph is in the Fasti, but Livy's narrative of the First Samnite War is heavily embellished and some historians doubt its details; en.wikipedia's list dates it 342." }, { "id": 103, "key": "-343-saticula", "name": "Saticula", "year": -343, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "343 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "First Samnite War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "a wooded pass near Saticula (Sant'Agata de' Goti)", "lat": 41.09, "lon": 14.5, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "A. Cornelius Cossus Arvina (consul); P. Decius Mus (military tribune)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of A. Cornelius Cossus, normally two legions with allied contingents; Decius seized a height with the hastati and principes of one legion (Livy 7.34).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Hernican allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 7.34-37; Fasti Triumphales (343 BC); en.wikipedia Battle of Saticula", "note": "The army escaped a trap in the pass thanks to Decius and beat the Samnites the next morning. The story is suspiciously like other rescue tales; en.wikipedia's list dates it 342." }, { "id": 104, "key": "-343-suessula", "name": "Suessula", "year": -343, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "343 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "First Samnite War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "near Suessula, eastern Campania (by Cancello)", "lat": 40.99, "lon": 14.43, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "M. Valerius Corvus (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of M. Valerius Corvus, marching light without baggage (Livy 7.37); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Hernican allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 7.37.4-16; en.wikipedia Battle of Suessula", "note": "The Samnite camp was stormed while their foragers were scattered; Livy says 40,000 shields were collected. en.wikipedia's list dates it 341." }, { "id": 105, "key": "-341-satricum", "name": "Satricum", "year": -341, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "341 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Volscian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "near Satricum (Borgo Le Ferriere, Latina)", "lat": 41.53, "lon": 12.75, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Volsci" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "C. Plautius Venno (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Volsci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of C. Plautius (Livy 8.1); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Hernican allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 8.1.4-6; en.wikipedia Roman–Volscian wars", "note": "Antiates. An indecisive battle broken off by a storm; the Volsci withdrew to Antium by night leaving their wounded, so the Romans held the field. The same consul subdued Privernum." }, { "id": 106, "key": "-340-vesuvius", "name": "Vesuvius", "year": -340, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "340 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Latin War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "near Mount Vesuvius, by the Veseris (site unknown)", "lat": 40.83, "lon": 14.43, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Campanians", "Volsci" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "T. Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus, P. Decius Mus (consuls; Decius killed)", "commanders_b": "the Latin praetor L. Numisius of Circeii and others", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The two consular armies of Roman citizen legions in the manipular order of hastati, principes and triarii with rorarii and accensi (Livy 8.8), facing Latins armed and drilled the same way.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Latin allies were the enemy; the Roman force was a citizen army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 8.6-10; en.wikipedia Battle of Vesuvius", "note": "Also called the battle of the Veseris. Before it the consul Manlius executed his son for fighting a duel against orders; in it Decius devoted himself (devotio). A Samnite allied army is said to have arrived too late (Livy 8.11). The Latin side also had Sidicini and Aurunci. Modern historians accept the battle but doubt the site and the devotio; en.wikipedia's list dates it 339." }, { "id": 107, "key": "-340-trifanum", "name": "Trifanum", "year": -340, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "340 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Latin War", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Trifanum, between Minturnae and Sinuessa, near the mouth of the Liris (site unknown)", "lat": 41.2, "lon": 13.85, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Campanians", "Volsci" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "T. Manlius Imperiosus Torquatus (consul)", "commanders_b": "L. Numisius of Circeii", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The surviving consular armies after Vesuvius, Roman citizen legions (Livy 8.11); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman citizen army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 8.11.11-12; Diodorus 16.90.2; en.wikipedia Battle of Trifanum", "note": "Numisius had gathered fresh Volscian levies; both sides dropped their baggage and fought where they met, and the Latins and Campanians surrendered soon after. Diodorus records a Roman victory over the Latins and Campanians near Suessa, probably this battle. en.wikipedia's list dates it 338." }, { "id": 108, "key": "-339-fenectane-plains", "name": "Fenectane plains", "year": -339, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "339 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Latin War", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "the Fenectane plains (campi Fenectani), Latium (site unknown)", "lat": 41.75, "lon": 12.7, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Q. Publilius Philo (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Mentioned in one sentence by Livy.", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of Q. Publilius Philo (Livy 8.12); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman citizen army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 8.12.5-9", "note": "The Latins had renewed the war in anger at the loss of their land. Publilius triumphed; his colleague Aemilius besieged Pedum without result." }, { "id": 109, "key": "-338-pedum", "name": "Pedum", "year": -338, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "338 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Latin War", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "near Pedum (probably Gallicano nel Lazio)", "lat": 41.87, "lon": 12.82, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "L. Furius Camillus, C. Maenius (consuls)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The two consular armies of Roman citizens; Maenius came up from the Astura to join Camillus (Livy 8.13); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman citizen army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 8.13.4-8; Fasti Triumphales (338 BC); en.wikipedia Battle of Pedum (338 BC)", "note": "Tibur and Praeneste with the Pedani. Pedum was stormed; both consuls triumphed and received equestrian statues, and the Latin League was dissolved." }, { "id": 110, "key": "-338-astura", "name": "Astura", "year": -338, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "338 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Latin War", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "the river Astura, south-east of Antium", "lat": 41.42, "lon": 12.77, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latins", "Volsci" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "C. Maenius (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "en.wikipedia treats it inside the Battle of Pedum (338 BCE); Livy narrates it as a separate battle.", "main_enemy": "Latins", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of C. Maenius (Livy 8.13.5); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman citizen army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 8.13.5, 8.14.12; Pliny NH 34.20; Florus 1.5.10; en.wikipedia Battle of Pedum (338 BC)", "note": "Maenius surprised the men of Aricia, Lanuvium and Velitrae as they joined the Volsci of Antium. The ships of Antium were taken after its surrender and their beaks set up on the Rostra; Florus turns this into a naval victory." }, { "id": 111, "key": "-335-cales-siege", "name": "Cales (siege)", "year": -335, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "335 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "War with the Sidicini and Ausones", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Cales (Calvi Risorta)", "lat": 41.21, "lon": 14.13, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Aurunci" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "M. Valerius Corvus, M. Atilius Regulus (consuls)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Aurunci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of M. Valerius Corvus with his colleague's support (Livy 8.16); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans, the Latin colonies and the Campanians who had stayed loyal in 340.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 8.16.1-14", "note": "The Ausones (Aurunci) of Cales, allied with the Sidicini, were beaten in the field and the town was taken by escalade during a festival, guided by an escaped Roman prisoner; a Latin colony followed (334)." }, { "id": 112, "key": "-329-privernum", "name": "Privernum", "year": -329, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "330-329 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Volscian wars", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Privernum (near Priverno)", "lat": 41.48, "lon": 13.2, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Volsci" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "C. Plautius Decianus, L. Aemilius Mamercinus (consuls)", "commanders_b": "Vitruvius Vaccus of Fundi", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Volsci", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "One, then two consular armies of Roman citizens and Latin allies (Livy 8.19-20); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans and Latins.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 8.19-21; Fasti Triumphales (329 BC); en.wikipedia Roman–Volscian wars", "note": "Vitruvius Vaccus was beaten in the field in 330 and besieged in Privernum, which was stormed or surrendered in 329; Plautius triumphed and Vaccus was executed." }, { "id": 113, "key": "-327-neapolis-siege", "name": "Neapolis (siege)", "year": -327, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "327-326 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Samnite War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Palaepolis and Neapolis (Naples)", "lat": 40.83, "lon": 14.25, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Samnites" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Q. Publilius Philo (consul, then the first proconsul)", "commanders_b": "unknown (the city was handed over by Charilaus and Nymphius)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The siege ended by betrayal rather than storm.", "main_enemy": "Greek cities", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "The consular army of Q. Publilius Philo, encamped between Palaepolis and Neapolis (Livy 8.23); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Campanian allies against a Greek city.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 8.22-26; Dionysius 15.5-10; Fasti Triumphales (326 BC)", "note": "Naples (Palaepolis) with a garrison of 4,000 Samnites and 2,000 Nolans. The two leading citizens tricked the garrison out and let the Romans in; Naples became an ally on favourable terms and Publilius triumphed." }, { "id": 114, "key": "-325-cutina-and-cingilia", "name": "Cutina and Cingilia", "year": -325, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "325 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Samnite War", "theatre": "Abruzzo (land of the Vestini)", "place": "Cutina and Cingilia, towns of the Vestini (sites unknown)", "lat": 42.3, "lon": 13.7, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Vestini" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "D. Junius Brutus Scaeva (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A battle in the field followed by the storming of two small towns, known from Livy only.", "main_enemy": "Vestini", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of D. Junius Brutus Scaeva (Livy 8.29); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Campanian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 8.29.11-14", "note": "The Vestini had sided with the Samnites." }, { "id": 115, "key": "-325-imbrinium", "name": "Imbrinium", "year": -325, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "325 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Samnite War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "Imbrinium, in Samnium (site unknown)", "lat": 41.3, "lon": 14.6, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus (master of horse, against the orders of the dictator L. Papirius Cursor)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The dictator's army of Roman legions and allies, whose cavalry charged with bridles removed on the advice of the tribune L. Cominius (Livy 8.30).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Campanian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 8.30-35; en.wikipedia Battle of Imbrinium", "note": "Livy says 20,000 Samnites fell and adds that some sources reported two battles. The quarrel between Papirius and Fabius that followed is the better-known part of the story." }, { "id": 116, "key": "-321-caudine-forks", "name": "Caudine Forks", "year": -321, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "321 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Samnite War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "the Caudine Forks (Furculae Caudinae), the pass between Arpaia and Montesarchio", "lat": 41.04, "lon": 14.58, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Samnites" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Pontius", "commanders_b": "T. Veturius Calvinus, Sp. Postumius Albinus (consuls)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A trap and capitulation with little fighting; included as a universally named battle.", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Both consular armies, probably four legions with Latin and other allied contingents (Livy 9.1-6); 600 equites were handed over as hostages (Livy 9.5.5).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Campanian allies; the Campanians of Capua received the humiliated army (Livy 9.6).", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Livy 9.1-12; Appian Samnitica 4; Cicero De officiis 3.109; en.wikipedia Battle of the Caudine Forks", "note": "The army, caught in a closed valley on the way to Luceria, surrendered and passed under the yoke; the peace was later repudiated by the senate." }, { "id": 117, "key": "-320-luceria", "name": "Luceria", "year": -320, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "320 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Samnite War", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Luceria (Lucera)", "lat": 41.51, "lon": 15.33, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "L. Papirius Cursor, Q. Publilius Philo (consuls)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Two consular armies, one marching through Apulia and one through Samnium (Livy 9.12-15); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin, Campanian and Apulian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 9.12-15; en.wikipedia Second Samnite War", "note": "Livy has the Samnite garrison of Luceria surrender, the 600 Caudine hostages recovered and the Samnites sent under the yoke; most historians treat this as an annalistic revenge for Caudium (Livy himself notes that his sources disagree). Luceria became a Latin colony in 314." }, { "id": 118, "key": "-316-saticula-siege", "name": "Saticula (siege)", "year": -316, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "316-315 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Samnite War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "Saticula (Sant'Agata de' Goti)", "lat": 41.09, "lon": 14.5, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "L. Aemilius Mamercinus Privernas (dictator, 316); Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus (dictator, 315)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The dictators' armies of Roman legions and allies (Livy 9.21-22); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Campanian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 9.21-22; Diodorus 19.72; en.wikipedia Second Samnite War", "note": "A sortie of the townsmen and an attack by a Samnite relief army on the Roman camp were beaten off; the town fell to Fabius in 315." }, { "id": 119, "key": "-315-lautulae", "name": "Lautulae", "year": -315, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "315 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Samnite War", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "the pass of Lautulae between Tarracina and Fundi", "lat": 41.31, "lon": 13.31, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Samnites" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus (dictator), Q. Aulius Cerretanus (master of horse, killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The dictator's army of Roman legions and allies, with a newly levied army brought up later (Livy 9.23); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Campanian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 9.23; Diodorus 19.72.7-8; en.wikipedia Battle of Lautulae", "note": "Diodorus records a clear Roman defeat and flight, after which Capua and other Campanian towns wavered; Livy admits a reverse in which Aulius fell but adds a doubtful Roman victory afterwards." }, { "id": 120, "key": "-314-tarracina", "name": "Tarracina", "year": -314, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "314 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Samnite War", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "near Tarracina (Terracina)", "lat": 41.29, "lon": 13.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "M. Poetelius Libo, C. Sulpicius Longus (consuls)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The two consular armies acting together, Roman legions with Latin and allied contingents (Livy 9.27); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Campanian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Diodorus 19.76.1-2; Livy 9.27; historyofwar.org Battle of Tarracina", "note": "Diodorus names Tarracina; Livy describes a great victory of both consuls over the Samnites in Campania without naming the place. The victory restored the Roman position after Lautulae." }, { "id": 121, "key": "-313-nola", "name": "Nola", "year": -313, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "313 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Samnite War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Nola", "lat": 40.93, "lon": 14.53, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "C. Poetelius Libo Visolus (dictator) or the consul C. Junius Bubulcus Brutus (Livy reports both)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The dictator's army of Roman legions and allies (Livy 9.28); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Campanian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 9.28.3-6", "note": "Nola, an Oscan city allied with the Samnites, was taken by assault after the buildings against its walls were burned; Atina and Calatia fell in the same campaign." }, { "id": 122, "key": "-311-bovianum", "name": "Bovianum", "year": -311, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "311 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Samnite War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "Bovianum (Bojano) and a nearby mountain pasture where the Samnites laid an ambush", "lat": 41.49, "lon": 14.47, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "C. Junius Bubulcus Brutus (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of C. Junius Bubulcus (Livy 9.31); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Campanian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 9.31.1-16", "note": "Junius retook Cluviae, sacked Bovianum and then fought his way out of an ambush, vowing the temple of Salus. Livy reports captures of Bovianum in 311, 305 and 298, and some historians doubt one or more of them." }, { "id": 123, "key": "-311-sutrium", "name": "Sutrium", "year": -311, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "311 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Etruscan wars", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "before Sutrium (Sutri)", "lat": 42.24, "lon": 12.23, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Q. Aemilius Barbula (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The consular army of Q. Aemilius Barbula (Livy 9.32); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and allied contingents.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 9.32", "note": "All the Etruscan peoples except Arretium besieged Sutrium; a long and bloody battle was ended by darkness without a decision." }, { "id": 124, "key": "-310-sutrium-first-battle", "name": "Sutrium (first battle)", "year": -310, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "310 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Etruscan wars", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "the plain before Sutrium (Sutri), below rough, stony high ground held by the Romans", "lat": 42.24, "lon": 12.23, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A second Roman battle at Sutrium in 310, before the march through the Ciminian forest; distinct from the dawn attack on the Etruscan camp told in Livy 9.37 (entry -310-sutrium).", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The consular army of Q. Fabius Rullianus, Roman legions with Latin and allied contingents, which came down from high ground with javelins and stones and then charged with swords (Livy 9.35); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and allied contingents; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 9.35; en.wikipedia Second Samnite War (narrative); en.wikipedia Samnite Wars", "note": "The Etruscans besieging Sutrium were routed; Roman cavalry cut them off from their camp, which was taken with 38 standards, and the survivors fled into the Ciminian forest (Livy 9.35)." }, { "id": 125, "key": "-310-sutrium", "name": "Sutrium", "year": -310, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "310 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Etruscan wars", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "near Sutrium (Sutri)", "lat": 42.24, "lon": 12.23, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The consular army of Q. Fabius Rullianus, which had marched through the Ciminian forest (Livy 9.35-37); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and allied contingents; the Umbrian town of Camerinum offered help (Livy 9.36).", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 9.35-37; Diodorus 20.35", "note": "This is the dawn attack on the Etruscan and Umbrian camp after Fabius' march through the Ciminian forest (Livy 9.37); Livy notes that some placed the battle near Perusia. Perusia, Cortona and Arretium then asked for a thirty years' truce. The earlier battle before Sutrium in the same year (Livy 9.35) is the entry 'Sutrium (first battle)'." }, { "id": 126, "key": "-310-lake-vadimo", "name": "Lake Vadimo", "year": -310, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "310 BCE (Varronian; Livy's narrative belongs to 310/309)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Etruscan wars", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "Lake Vadimo (Lago di Vadimone), near Orte", "lat": 42.47, "lon": 12.33, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "not named by Livy; probably Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus (often given as the dictator L. Papirius Cursor)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "A Roman consular army of legions and allies; the cavalry dismounted to break the Etruscan line (Livy 9.39); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and allied contingents.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 9.39.5-11; en.wikipedia Battle of Lake Vadimo (310 BC)", "note": "The Etruscans had raised a levy under a 'sacred law'; Livy calls it the battle that first broke the strength of the Etruscans. Some historians suspect a doublet of the battle at the same lake in 283." }, { "id": 127, "key": "-309-perusia", "name": "Perusia", "year": -309, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "309 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Etruscan wars", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "near Perusia (Perugia)", "lat": 43.11, "lon": 12.39, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus (proconsul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The proconsular army of Q. Fabius Rullianus (Livy 9.40); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and allied contingents.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 9.40.18-20; Diodorus 20.35", "note": "Perusia had broken the truce; after its defeat it surrendered and received a garrison. Diodorus' account of these campaigns is placed under 310." }, { "id": 128, "key": "-308-mevania", "name": "Mevania", "year": -308, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "308 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Etruscan wars", "theatre": "Umbria", "place": "near Mevania (Bevagna)", "lat": 42.93, "lon": 12.61, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Umbrians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Umbrians", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of Q. Fabius Rullianus, brought by forced marches from Samnium (Livy 9.41); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and allied contingents.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 9.41.8-20", "note": "The Umbrians, who had threatened to march on Rome, were routed almost without a fight and their leaders surrendered." }, { "id": 129, "key": "-307-allifae", "name": "Allifae", "year": -307, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "307 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Samnite War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "near Allifae (Alife)", "lat": 41.33, "lon": 14.33, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus (proconsul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The proconsular army of Q. Fabius Rullianus (Livy 9.42); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Campanian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 9.42.6-9", "note": "The Samnites were beaten and blockaded in their camp, which surrendered; the Samnites went under the yoke and Hernici found among the prisoners led to the Hernican war of 306." }, { "id": 130, "key": "-305-tifernum", "name": "Tifernum", "year": -305, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "305 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Samnite War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "near Tifernum, in the upper Biferno valley (site uncertain)", "lat": 41.6, "lon": 14.55, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "L. Postumius Megellus (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of L. Postumius Megellus (Livy 9.44); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Campanian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 9.44.6-8; en.wikipedia Second Samnite War", "note": "Livy's sources disagreed: some gave a great Roman victory, others an indecisive battle after which Postumius slipped away by night to join his colleague at Bovianum." }, { "id": 131, "key": "-305-bovianum", "name": "Bovianum", "year": -305, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "305 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Samnite War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "near Bovianum (Bojano)", "lat": 41.49, "lon": 14.47, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "T. Minucius Augurinus, L. Postumius Megellus (consuls)", "commanders_b": "Statius Gellius (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The two consular armies united, Roman legions with Latin and allied contingents (Livy 9.44); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Campanian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 9.44.9-15; Diodorus 20.90.3-4; en.wikipedia Battle of Bovianum", "note": "The decisive battle of the Second Samnite War: the Samnite general was captured and Bovianum taken; peace followed in 304." }, { "id": 132, "key": "-302-thuriae-cleonymus", "name": "Thuriae (Cleonymus)", "year": -302, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "302 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Expedition of Cleonymus", "theatre": "Apulia (Sallentine land)", "place": "Thuriae, in the Sallentine territory (site unknown)", "lat": 40.3, "lon": 18.1, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sparta" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "M. Aemilius Paullus (consul); other annalists gave the dictator C. Junius Bubulcus Brutus", "commanders_b": "Cleonymus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "The clash with Rome is known only from Livy, who doubts his sources; Diodorus describes Cleonymus' Italian expedition without a Roman battle.", "main_enemy": "Sparta", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "The consular army of M. Aemilius Paullus (Livy 10.2); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Italian allies against a Greek mercenary army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 10.2.1-3; Diodorus 20.104-105", "note": "Cleonymus, a Spartan prince leading a mercenary army first hired by Tarentum, not the Spartan state. Livy says one battle drove him back to his ships; he then raided the Venetian coast and was beaten by the Patavini." }, { "id": 133, "key": "-302-rusellae", "name": "Rusellae", "year": -302, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "302 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Etruscan wars", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "the territory of Rusellae (Roselle)", "lat": 42.83, "lon": 11.16, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "M. Valerius Maximus Corvus (dictator), M. Aemilius Paullus (master of horse)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The dictator's army of legions and allies with a strong cavalry force (Livy 10.3-5); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and allied contingents.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 10.3-5", "note": "Arretium and other Etruscans. A foraging party under the master of horse was ambushed, then the dictator won a pitched battle; Livy adds that other sources said the war was settled without a battle worth recording (10.5.13)." }, { "id": 134, "key": "-298-volaterrae", "name": "Volaterrae", "year": -298, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "298 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Samnite War", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "near Volaterrae (Volterra)", "lat": 43.4, "lon": 10.86, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "L. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The consular army of L. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus (Livy 10.12); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and allied contingents.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 10.12.4-6; en.wikipedia Roman–Etruscan wars", "note": "Indecisive by day; the Etruscans withdrew in the night leaving their camp, so the Romans held the field. The elogium of Scipio Barbatus speaks only of conquests in Samnium and Lucania." }, { "id": 135, "key": "-298-bovianum", "name": "Bovianum", "year": -298, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "298 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Samnite War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "near Bovianum (Bojano)", "lat": 41.49, "lon": 14.47, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Cn. Fulvius Maximus Centumalus (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of Cn. Fulvius (Livy 10.12); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin, Campanian and Lucanian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 10.12.9; Fasti Triumphales (298 BC); en.wikipedia Third Samnite War", "note": "Fulvius beat the Samnites near Bovianum and took Bovianum and Aufidena. The elogium of Scipio Barbatus (CIL I2 7) instead credits Scipio with taking Taurasia and Cisauna in Samnium." }, { "id": 136, "key": "-297-tifernum", "name": "Tifernum", "year": -297, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "297 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Samnite War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "a valley near Tifernum, upper Biferno (near Castropignano)", "lat": 41.62, "lon": 14.56, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus (consul), with L. Cornelius Scipio Barbatus (legate)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of Q. Fabius Rullianus, legions with allied contingents and cavalry; Scipio led the hastati of one legion round to the hills behind the Samnites (Livy 10.14).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Campanian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 10.14; en.wikipedia Battle of Tifernum", "note": "The Samnites, mistaking Scipio's detachment for the second consular army of Decius, broke and fled." }, { "id": 137, "key": "-297-maleventum", "name": "Maleventum", "year": -297, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "297 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Samnite War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "near Maleventum (Benevento)", "lat": 41.13, "lon": 14.78, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Apulians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "P. Decius Mus (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Apulians", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of P. Decius Mus (Livy 10.15); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Campanian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 10.15.1-3; en.wikipedia Third Samnite War", "note": "An Apulian army marching to join the Samnites was routed." }, { "id": 138, "key": "-296-murgantia-siege", "name": "Murgantia (siege)", "year": -296, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "296 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Samnite War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "Murgantia, a strong town of Samnium (site unidentified)", "lat": 41.5, "lon": 14.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "P. Decius Mus (proconsul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A town taken by storm, told in a few lines by Livy; no Wikipedia battle article.", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The proconsular army of P. Decius Mus, Roman legions with Latin and allied contingents, which stormed the town in a single day (Livy 10.17); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and allied Italian contingents; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 10.17.1-4; en.wikipedia Third Samnite War", "note": "2,100 armed men were cut off and captured (Livy 10.17). Livy notes that some annalists credited Fabius with the year's captures, others the new consuls or L. Volumnius." }, { "id": 139, "key": "-296-romulea-siege", "name": "Romulea (siege)", "year": -296, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "296 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Samnite War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "Romulea, in the land of the Hirpini, usually placed at Bisaccia", "lat": 41.01, "lon": 15.38, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "P. Decius Mus (proconsul); Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus in other annalists (Livy 10.17)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A town taken by storm, told in a few lines by Livy; no Wikipedia battle article.", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The proconsular army of P. Decius Mus, Roman legions with Latin and allied contingents, which took the town by escalade without siege works (Livy 10.17); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and allied Italian contingents; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 10.17.5-8; en.wikipedia Third Samnite War", "note": "The soldiers planted ladders and carried the walls; 2,300 were killed and 6,000 captured, and the town was sacked (Livy 10.17). The identification with Bisaccia is conventional, not certain." }, { "id": 140, "key": "-296-ferentinum-siege", "name": "Ferentinum (siege)", "year": -296, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "296 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Samnite War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "Ferentinum, a Samnite town (site unidentified; not the Hernican Ferentinum)", "lat": 41.5, "lon": 14.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "P. Decius Mus (proconsul); Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus in other annalists (Livy 10.17)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A town taken by storm, told in a few lines by Livy; no Wikipedia battle article.", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The proconsular army in Samnium, Roman legions with Latin and allied contingents, which carried a strongly fortified position defended with great energy (Livy 10.17); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and allied Italian contingents; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 10.17.8-10; en.wikipedia Third Samnite War", "note": "About 3,000 of the enemy were killed around the walls (Livy 10.17). Some annalists gave Ferentinum and Romulea to Fabius, Murgantia to Decius." }, { "id": 141, "key": "-296-volturnus", "name": "Volturnus", "year": -296, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "296 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Samnite War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "by the Volturnus, in the Capuan territory", "lat": 41.15, "lon": 14.3, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "L. Volumnius Flamma Violens (consul)", "commanders_b": "Staius Minatius (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of L. Volumnius, returning from Etruria (Livy 10.20); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Campanian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 10.20; en.wikipedia Third Samnite War", "note": "Samnite raiders laden with booty and captives from Campania were caught by the Volturnus; the prisoners were freed in the fighting." }, { "id": 142, "key": "-295-camerinum", "name": "Camerinum", "year": -295, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "295 BCE (Livy, Polybius; en.wikipedia dates it 298)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Samnite War", "theatre": "Umbria", "place": "the territory of Camerinum (Camerino) according to Polybius; near Clusium according to Livy", "lat": 43.14, "lon": 13.07, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Gauls", "Samnites" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (en.wikipedia names Gellius Egnatius)", "commanders_b": "L. Cornelius Scipio (propraetor; en.wikipedia identifies him with Scipio Barbatus)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "A single legion left in camp under the propraetor L. Scipio, destroyed almost to a man (Livy 10.25.11, 10.26.7-12).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman legion, perhaps with allied cohorts.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 2.19.5; Livy 10.25-26; en.wikipedia Battle of Camerinum", "note": "Senones. Polybius says the Samnites and Gauls together defeated the Romans in the land of Camerinum a few days before Sentinum; Livy blames the Senones alone and mentions a version that put Umbrians in their place." }, { "id": 143, "key": "-295-sentinum", "name": "Sentinum", "year": -295, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "295 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Samnite War", "theatre": "Umbria", "place": "the plain near Sentinum, by Sassoferrato (Marche)", "lat": 43.42, "lon": 12.86, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites", "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus, P. Decius Mus (consuls; Decius killed)", "commanders_b": "Gellius Egnatius (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Two consular armies, four legions with the Roman cavalry, 1,000 picked Campanian horse and a Latin and allied force larger than the Roman (Livy 10.25-29); the propraetors Cn. Fulvius and L. Postumius Megellus held reserve armies in the Faliscan and Vatican lands and raided Etruria.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Latin and Italian allies with Campanian (Oscan) cavalry; no Greek contingents.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 10.24-30; Polybius 2.19.5-6; Duris FGrH 76 F 56; en.wikipedia Battle of Sentinum", "note": "Samnites and Senonian Gauls. The Etruscans and Umbrians of the coalition were drawn off to defend their homes by the propraetors' raid and took little or no part (Livy 10.27). Decius devoted himself like his father at Vesuvius. Livy gives 8,700 Roman dead; Duris' 100,000 enemy dead is wildly inflated." }, { "id": 144, "key": "-295-mount-tifernus", "name": "Mount Tifernus", "year": -295, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "295 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Samnite War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "Mount Tifernus (the Matese massif)", "lat": 41.45, "lon": 14.4, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "L. Volumnius Flamma Violens (proconsul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The army of L. Volumnius in Samnium (Livy 10.30-31); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Campanian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 10.30.6-7; en.wikipedia Third Samnite War", "note": "A Samnite force on the mountain was routed in the same season as Sentinum." }, { "id": 145, "key": "-295-caiatia", "name": "Caiatia", "year": -295, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "295 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Samnite War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "near Caiatia (Caiazzo)", "lat": 41.18, "lon": 14.36, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ap. Claudius Caecus (propraetor), L. Volumnius Flamma Violens (proconsul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The site is given as Caiatia in en.wikipedia's narrative; Livy's account is brief.", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The joined armies of Ap. Claudius and L. Volumnius (Livy 10.31); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Campanian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 10.31.1-7; en.wikipedia Third Samnite War", "note": "Samnite raiders returning from Campania were cut off and defeated." }, { "id": 146, "key": "-294-milionia-siege", "name": "Milionia (siege)", "year": -294, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "294 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Samnite War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "Milionia, Samnium (site unidentified)", "lat": 41.5, "lon": 14.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "L. Postumius Megellus (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A town taken by storm, told in one chapter by Livy; no Wikipedia battle article.", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of L. Postumius Megellus, mustered at Sora; after a failed direct assault it entered the town with siege sheds (vineae) and fought in the streets for some four hours (Livy 10.34); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and allied Italian contingents; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 10.34.1-12; en.wikipedia Third Samnite War", "note": "3,200 Samnites were killed and 4,700 captured (Livy 10.34). Feritrum was then found abandoned. Not the Marsic Milionia taken in 301 (Livy 10.3)." }, { "id": 147, "key": "-294-rusellae-siege", "name": "Rusellae (siege)", "year": -294, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "294 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Etruscan wars", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "Rusellae (Roselle), Etruria", "lat": 42.83, "lon": 11.16, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "L. Postumius Megellus (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Folded into -294-volsinii in round 1; a separate engagement, the storm of a town about 100 km from Volsinii.", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The consular army of L. Postumius Megellus, brought from Samnium into Etruria (Livy 10.37); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and allied contingents; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 10.37.1-5; en.wikipedia Third Samnite War", "note": "After beating the Volsinians before their walls, Postumius ravaged the land of Rusellae and took the town by storm, with more than 2,000 captured and somewhat fewer than 2,000 killed about the walls (Livy 10.37.3; the figures were not re-checked in this round). Livy notes conflicting versions of Postumius' campaigns in this year." }, { "id": 148, "key": "-294-luceria", "name": "Luceria", "year": -294, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "294 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Samnite War", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "near Luceria (Lucera)", "lat": 41.51, "lon": 15.33, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "M. Atilius Regulus (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of M. Atilius Regulus (Livy 10.35-36); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Campanian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 10.35-36; en.wikipedia Third Samnite War", "note": "A two-day battle: worsted on the first day, Atilius vowed a temple to Jupiter Stator and won on the second. Livy reports other versions of the year's campaign." }, { "id": 149, "key": "-294-interamna", "name": "Interamna", "year": -294, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "294 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Samnite War", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "near Interamna Lirenas", "lat": 41.38, "lon": 13.75, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "M. Atilius Regulus (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A brief engagement with raiders.", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of M. Atilius Regulus (Livy 10.36); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Campanian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 10.36.16-19; en.wikipedia Third Samnite War", "note": "Samnites who had attacked the Latin colony of Interamna were caught with their plunder and beaten." }, { "id": 150, "key": "-294-volsinii", "name": "Volsinii", "year": -294, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "294 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Etruscan wars", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "near Volsinii (Orvieto), not far from its walls", "lat": 42.72, "lon": 12.11, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "L. Postumius Megellus (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The consular army of L. Postumius Megellus (Livy 10.37); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and allied contingents.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 10.37.1-5; en.wikipedia Third Samnite War", "note": "The Volsinians were beaten before their walls and Rusellae was taken by storm; Volsinii, Perusia and Arretium then sought a forty-year truce." }, { "id": 151, "key": "-293-amiternum-siege", "name": "Amiternum (siege)", "year": -293, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "293 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Samnite War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "Amiternum, a Samnite town (site unidentified; probably not the Sabine Amiternum near L'Aquila)", "lat": 41.5, "lon": 14.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Sp. Carvilius Maximus (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A town taken by storm, told in a few lines by Livy; no Wikipedia battle article.", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of Sp. Carvilius Maximus, the veteran legions left in Samnium the year before, with Latin and allied contingents (Livy 10.39); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and allied Italian contingents; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 10.39.1-4; en.wikipedia Third Samnite War", "note": "Stormed: almost 2,800 killed and 4,270 captured (Livy 10.39). Carvilius then moved on to besiege Cominium." }, { "id": 152, "key": "-293-duronia-siege", "name": "Duronia (siege)", "year": -293, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "293 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Samnite War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "Duronia, Samnium (site uncertain; conventionally placed near the modern village of Duronia, Molise)", "lat": 41.65, "lon": 14.46, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "L. Papirius Cursor (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A town taken by storm, told in one sentence by Livy; no Wikipedia battle article.", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The new army raised for L. Papirius Cursor by decree of the senate, Roman legions with Latin and allied contingents (Livy 10.38-39); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and allied Italian contingents; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 10.39.4; en.wikipedia Third Samnite War", "note": "Taken by assault, with fewer prisoners but somewhat more dead than at Amiternum (Livy 10.39); Papirius then marched on Aquilonia." }, { "id": 153, "key": "-293-aquilonia", "name": "Aquilonia", "year": -293, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "293 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Samnite War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "Aquilonia, in northern Samnium (site disputed)", "lat": 41.6, "lon": 14.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "L. Papirius Cursor (consul); his colleague Sp. Carvilius Maximus was besieging Cominium", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of L. Papirius Cursor, legions with allied cohorts and alae; mule-drivers raising dust on a hill were taken by the Samnites for a second army (Livy 10.38-42).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Campanian allies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 10.38-44; en.wikipedia Battle of Aquilonia", "note": "Livy says 40,000 Samnites gathered at Aquilonia, among them the sworn 'linen legion' of 16,000; Aquilonia was taken the same day. The site is unidentified." }, { "id": 154, "key": "-293-cominium", "name": "Cominium", "year": -293, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "293 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Samnite War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "Cominium, about 20 miles from Aquilonia (site unknown)", "lat": 41.6, "lon": 14.2, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Sp. Carvilius Maximus (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of Sp. Carvilius Maximus (Livy 10.39, 10.43); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Campanian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 10.39, 10.43; en.wikipedia Third Samnite War", "note": "Stormed on the same day as Aquilonia; twenty Samnite cohorts sent to relieve it arrived too late." }, { "id": 155, "key": "-293-saepinum", "name": "Saepinum", "year": -293, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "293 BCE (Varronian)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Samnite War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "Saepinum (Samnite town at Terravecchia, above Sepino)", "lat": 41.43, "lon": 14.61, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samnites" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "L. Papirius Cursor (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of L. Papirius Cursor (Livy 10.45); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Campanian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 10.45.12-14; en.wikipedia Third Samnite War", "note": "After fighting outside the walls the town was stormed. Carvilius took Velia, Palumbinum and Herculaneum in the same campaign." }, { "id": 156, "key": "-284-arretium", "name": "Arretium", "year": -284, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "284 BCE (en.wikipedia; perhaps 283)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Gallic wars", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "before Arretium (Arezzo), besieged by the Gauls", "lat": 43.46, "lon": 11.88, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Gauls" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (perhaps Britomaris)", "commanders_b": "L. Caecilius Metellus Denter (praetor, killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "A relief army of Roman legions and allies under the praetor Metellus; Orosius (3.22) and Augustine (City of God 3.17) give 13,000 Roman dead.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 2.19.7-8; Orosius 3.22.13; Augustine City of God 3.17; Livy Periocha 12; en.wikipedia Battle of Arretium", "note": "Senones, possibly with other Gauls. Metellus' consulship in 284 suggests his death as praetor in 283; Polybius and Appian differ on the sequence. Rome answered by invading the land of the Senones and founding Sena Gallica." }, { "id": 157, "key": "-283-lake-vadimo", "name": "Lake Vadimo", "year": -283, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "283 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Gallic wars", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "Lake Vadimo (Lago di Vadimone), near Orte", "lat": 42.47, "lon": 12.33, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans", "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "P. Cornelius Dolabella (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "The consular army of P. Cornelius Dolabella, Roman legions with Latin and Italian allies; no numbers survive.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 2.20.1-3; Florus 1.13; Livy Periocha 12; en.wikipedia Battle of Lake Vadimo (283 BC)", "note": "Boii with the Etruscans; Polybius says most of the Etruscans fell and only a few of the Boii escaped." }, { "id": 158, "key": "-282-populonia", "name": "Populonia", "year": -282, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "282 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Etruscan wars", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "near Populonia", "lat": 42.99, "lon": 10.49, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "not recorded", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The ancient sources give no place for this battle; the name comes from modern reconstruction.", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "A Roman consular army of legions and allies; nothing is recorded of its size.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 2.20.4-5; en.wikipedia Battle of Populonia (after Salmon 1935 and Brice 2014)", "note": "Polybius records a second defeat of the Etruscans and Boii in the year after Lake Vadimo, after which they made peace; en.wikipedia places an Etruscan defeat at Populonia in 282." }, { "id": 159, "key": "-282-thurii", "name": "Thurii", "year": -282, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "282 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Pyrrhic War (prelude)", "theatre": "Magna Graecia", "place": "before Thurii (by Sibari), besieged by the Lucanians", "lat": 39.72, "lon": 16.49, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Lucanians", "Bruttians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Samnites" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "C. Fabricius Luscinus (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown (the Lucanian Sthenius Statilius had led the attacks on Thurii)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Lucanians", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular army of C. Fabricius Luscinus, legions with Latin and Italian allies; no numbers survive.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army relieved the Greek city of Thurii, whose citizens may have joined the fighting; the field army itself was Roman and Italian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Valerius Maximus 1.8.6; Pliny NH 34.32; Fasti Triumphales (282 BC); en.wikipedia Pyrrhic War; en.wikipedia Battle of Thurii", "note": "Fabricius triumphed over the Samnites, Lucanians and Bruttii and left a garrison in Thurii. en.wikipedia's 'Battle of Thurii' article describes a naval battle between Rome and Tarentum won by Rome, apparently confusing this relief with the Tarentine attack on the Roman squadron (next entry)." }, { "id": 160, "key": "-282-gulf-of-tarentum", "name": "Gulf of Tarentum", "year": -282, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 282 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Pyrrhic War (prelude)", "theatre": "Magna Graecia", "place": "off Tarentum (Taranto), in the Gulf of Tarentum", "lat": 40.45, "lon": 17.2, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Tarentum" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the Tarentine fleet, roused by the demagogue Philocharis", "commanders_b": "L. Valerius (duumvir navalis, in Dio and Zonaras); Appian names Cornelius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A surprise attack on a squadron rather than a set battle; it is the casus belli of the war with Tarentum and Pyrrhus.", "main_enemy": "Tarentum", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "A squadron of ten ships of the duumviri navales; four were sunk and one taken, five escaped (Appian Samnitica 7.1).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "unknown", "greek_basis": "unknown", "greek_note": "The crews of Rome's small duumviral fleet are not recorded; Greek naval allies such as Naples may have supplied ships or rowers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Appian Samnitica 7.1; Cassius Dio fr. 39; Zonaras 8.2; Livy Periocha 12; en.wikipedia Pyrrhic War", "note": "The Roman ships sailed into the gulf in breach of an old treaty; the Tarentines, gathered in the theatre, manned their ships and attacked; the duumvir in command was killed (Livy Periocha 12). They then took Thurii and expelled its Roman garrison." }, { "id": 161, "key": "-281-tarentum", "name": "Tarentum", "year": -281, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "281 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Pyrrhic War", "theatre": "Magna Graecia", "place": "the territory of Tarentum (Taranto)", "lat": 40.47, "lon": 17.24, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Tarentum" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Samnites" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "L. Aemilius Barbula (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown (the Tarentines elected Agis as general)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No named battle: Barbula ravaged Tarentine land and fought the Tarentines and their allies; en.wikipedia's list calls it a siege of Tarentum, while its Pyrrhic War article records no battle.", "main_enemy": "Tarentum", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "The consular army of L. Aemilius Barbula, sent from Samnium, Roman legions with Latin and Italian allies (Zonaras 8.2); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans with Latin and Italian allies against a Greek city.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zonaras 8.2; Appian Samnitica 7; Frontinus Stratagems 1.4.1; Fasti Triumphales (280 BC); en.wikipedia List of Roman battles ('Siege of Tarentum, 281 BC'); en.wikipedia Pyrrhic War", "note": "Barbula triumphed in 280 over the Tarentines, Samnites and Sallentini. Late in 281 Pyrrhus' first troops under Milon landed and Barbula withdrew to Venusia; on the way his column was harassed by the Tarentine fleet (Frontinus)." }, { "id": 162, "key": "-280-heraclea", "name": "Heraclea", "year": -280, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 280 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Pyrrhic War", "theatre": "Lucania", "place": "Plain of the Siris (Sinni) between Heraclea and Pandosia, Lucania", "lat": 40.2, "lon": 16.65, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Epirus" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Tarentum", "Greek cities" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Pyrrhus", "commanders_b": "Publius Valerius Laevinus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Epirus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "The consular army of Publius Valerius Laevinus, one of four armies into which Rome split its eight legions with allies that year: Roman legions with their Latin and Italian allied (socii) contingents, heavy infantry, velites and cavalry; en.wikipedia's infobox gives at least 42,400 (40,000 foot, 2,400 horse), other modern estimates about 25,000-35,000; the sources give no breakdown.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army was levied from Romans, Latins and Italian allies; the Greek cities of the south were on Pyrrhus's side or owed Rome only ships.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Plutarch, Pyrrhus 16-17; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 19.12; Livy, Periochae 13; Florus 1.13; en.wikipedia Battle of Heraclea", "note": "Pyrrhus fought with Epirotes, Macedonians, Thessalian cavalry, Greek mercenaries and 20 elephants, with Tarentine and other Italiot Greek troops (Thurii, Metapontum, Heraclea per en.wikipedia); Roman dead 7,000 and 1,800 captured (Hieronymus) or 15,000 (Dionysius). en.wikipedia gives July 280." }, { "id": 163, "key": "-279-asculum", "name": "Asculum", "year": -279, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "279 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Pyrrhic War", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Near Asculum (Ascoli Satriano), Apulia", "lat": 41.21, "lon": 15.56, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Epirus" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Tarentum", "Samnites", "Lucanians", "Bruttians" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Pyrrhus", "commanders_b": "Publius Decius Mus, Publius Sulpicius Saverrio", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Epirus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Both consular armies: four Roman legions (about 20,000) with Latin, Campanian, Volscian, Sabine, Umbrian, Marrucinian, Paelignian, Frentanian and Daunian allies, over 70,000 infantry and 8,000 cavalry by Dionysius 20.1 (about 40,000 by modern estimate), with 300 anti-elephant wagons; a Daunian force from Arpi attacked and burned Pyrrhus's camp.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Dionysius's order of battle names Latins, Campanians, Volsci, Sabines, Umbrians, other Italic peoples and Daunians, but no Greek contingents.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Plutarch, Pyrrhus 21; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 20.1-3; Cassius Dio fr. 40; Zonaras 8.5; Frontinus 2.3.21; en.wikipedia Battle of Asculum", "note": "Plutarch (from Hieronymus and Pyrrhus's memoirs) gives a two-day battle won by Pyrrhus with 6,000 Roman and 3,505 Epirote dead; Cassius Dio and Zonaras give the victory to Rome; the origin of 'Pyrrhic victory'. Daunian speech (Messapic) is entered as 'other'." }, { "id": 164, "key": "-277-cranita-hills", "name": "Cranita hills", "year": -277, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "277 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Pyrrhic War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "Cranita hills (wooded with cornel), Samnium; site unidentified", "lat": 41.45, "lon": 14.45, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Samnites" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "Publius Cornelius Rufinus, Gaius Junius Bubulcus Brutus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Samnites", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The two consular armies of 277, Roman legions with Latin and Italian allies, attacking up wooded slopes; the sources give no figures.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A normal consular levy of Romans, Latins and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zonaras 8.6 (from Cassius Dio); en.wikipedia Battle of the Cranita hills", "note": "Many Romans were killed or captured on the slopes; the consuls then separated, Rufinus going on to take Croton." }, { "id": 165, "key": "-277-croton", "name": "Croton", "year": -277, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "277 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Pyrrhic War", "theatre": "Bruttium", "place": "Croton (Crotone), Bruttium", "lat": 39.08, "lon": 17.13, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Epirus" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Cornelius Rufinus", "commanders_b": "unknown (Pyrrhus's garrison commander)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Capture of a Greek city held for Pyrrhus, taken by a ruse after a repulsed attack; not treated as a battle by en.wikipedia.", "main_enemy": "Greek cities", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "The consular army of Publius Cornelius Rufinus, Roman legions with Latin and Italian allies; no figures.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A consular levy of Romans, Latins and Italian allies; the Greek city was the enemy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zonaras 8.6; Frontinus, Stratagems 3.6.4; Livy 24.3.2; attalus.org (277 BC)", "note": "Locri then went over to Rome." }, { "id": 166, "key": "-275-beneventum", "name": "Beneventum", "year": -275, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "275 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Pyrrhic War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "Near Beneventum (then Maleventum), Samnium", "lat": 41.13, "lon": 14.78, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Epirus" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Manius Curius Dentatus", "commanders_b": "Pyrrhus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Epirus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "The consular army of Manius Curius Dentatus, two legions with Latin and Italian allies, about 20,000-25,000 by modern estimate (en.wikipedia); the other consul, Lucius Cornelius Lentulus, was in Lucania.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A consular levy of Romans, Latins and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Plutarch, Pyrrhus 25; Livy, Periochae 14; Florus 1.13; Orosius 4.2; Frontinus 2.2.1; en.wikipedia Battle of Beneventum (275 BC)", "note": "en.wikipedia calls it inconclusive and a Roman strategic victory; the ancient sources give a Roman victory in which Pyrrhus's night march on the Roman camp failed and elephants were killed and captured (2 killed, 8 taken). Orosius and Florus place it in the 'Arusinian plains'." }, { "id": 167, "key": "-272-tarentum-siege", "name": "Tarentum (siege)", "year": -272, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "272 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Pyrrhic War", "theatre": "Calabria (Messapia)", "place": "Tarentum (Taranto)", "lat": 40.47, "lon": 17.24, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Tarentum", "Epirus" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Papirius Cursor", "commanders_b": "Milo (Pyrrhus's garrison commander)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Ended by the surrender of the citadel by Milo after a blockade; little fighting is recorded.", "main_enemy": "Tarentum", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "The consular army of Lucius Papirius Cursor, Roman legions with Latin and Italian allies; the sources give no figures.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A consular levy of Romans, Latins and Italian allies against the Greek city.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zonaras 8.6; Livy, Periochae 14-15; Orosius 4.3; en.wikipedia Pyrrhic War", "note": "A Carthaginian fleet appeared off the harbour (Livy, Per. 14, says to help the Tarentines); Milo handed over the citadel and left for Epirus with the garrison." }, { "id": 168, "key": "-270-rhegium-siege", "name": "Rhegium (siege)", "year": -270, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "270 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of the Campanian legion at Rhegium", "theatre": "Bruttium", "place": "Rhegium (Reggio Calabria)", "lat": 38.11, "lon": 15.65, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Syracuse" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Roman Republic", "faction_b": "Campanian legion at Rhegium", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Cornelius Blasio, Gaius Genucius Clepsina", "commanders_b": "unknown (the legion's leader Decius Vibellius had gone blind)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A Roman army against a mutinous Roman (Campanian) legion: classed civil here; it could instead be treated as war against 'Campanians'.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "A consular army of Roman legions and allies (no figures), helped by grain and an auxiliary force sent by Hiero II of Syracuse (Zonaras 8.6), against the mutinous Campanian legion (citizens without vote from Capua) that had seized Rhegium in 280; the city was stormed, most defenders fell and the 300 or so survivors were beheaded at Rome (Polybius 1.7).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Hiero II of Syracuse sent grain and an auxiliary force to the Roman besiegers (Zonaras 8.6); the bulk of the army was Roman and Italian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 1.7.6-13; Dionysius of Halicarnassus 20.16; Livy, Periochae 15; Orosius 4.3; Fasti Triumphales (Blasio, de Reginis); attalus.org (270 BC)", "note": "Sometimes dated 271. Polybius says the city was taken by storm." }, { "id": 169, "key": "-268-asculum-picenum", "name": "Asculum Picenum", "year": -268, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "268 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Picentine War", "theatre": "Picenum", "place": "Picenum, near Asculum (Ascoli Piceno), the Picene capital", "lat": 42.85, "lon": 13.58, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Picentes" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Sempronius Sophus, Appius Claudius Russus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Unnamed in the sources; named here after Asculum, the Picene capital taken in the war (Florus 1.14).", "main_enemy": "Picentes", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The two consular armies of 268, Roman legions with Latin and Italian allies; the sources give no figures.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A consular levy of Romans, Latins and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Florus 1.14; Orosius 4.4; Eutropius 2.16; Fasti Triumphales (268); en.wikipedia Picentes", "note": "The ground shook during the battle and Sempronius vowed a temple to Tellus; the revolt began in 269 and both consuls triumphed over the Picentes in 268. en.wikipedia (Picentes) also mentions a Picene defeat at Interamnia (Teramo) and a hard battle near Truentum." }, { "id": 170, "key": "-265-volsinii-siege", "name": "Volsinii (siege)", "year": -265, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "265-264 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Etruscan Wars (Volsinii)", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "Volsinii (Etruscan Velzna), usually identified with Orvieto", "lat": 42.72, "lon": 12.11, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Fabius Maximus Gurges (died of wounds), Marcus Fulvius Flaccus", "commanders_b": "the freedmen's regime of Volsinii", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "A consular army of Roman legions and allies, called in by the exiled Volsinian nobility; no figures.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A consular levy of Romans, Latins and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zonaras 8.7; Livy, Periochae 16; Orosius 4.5; Fasti Triumphales (Fulvius, 264); en.wikipedia Volsinii", "note": "Fabius Gurges was mortally wounded in the fighting of 265; the town surrendered to Fulvius Flaccus in 264 after starvation, was razed, and its people moved to Volsinii Novi (Bolsena)." }, { "id": 171, "key": "-264-messana", "name": "Messana", "year": -264, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "264 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Messana (Messina), Sicily", "lat": 38.18, "lon": 15.56, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage", "Syracuse" ], "allies_a": [ "Mamertines" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Appius Claudius Caudex", "commanders_b": "Hiero II of Syracuse, Hanno", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The consular army of Appius Claudius Caudex, about two legions with Latin and Italian allies (about 9,000 men: en.wikipedia), ferried across the strait in pentekontors and triremes borrowed from Tarentum, Locri, Velia (Elea) and Naples (Polybius 1.20.13-14).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The Greek naval allies of Tarentum, Locri, Velia and Naples supplied and crewed the boats that carried the army over (Polybius 1.20.14); the fighting troops were legionaries and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 1.11-12, 1.20.13-14; Diodorus 23.3; Zonaras 8.8-9; en.wikipedia Battle of Messana", "note": "Polybius describes successive victories over Hiero's Syracusans and then over the Carthaginians besieging Messana; Manius Valerius Maximus took the cognomen Messalla for the relief in 263. The Mamertines were Campanian ex-mercenaries holding Messana." }, { "id": 172, "key": "-262-agrigentum", "name": "Agrigentum", "year": -262, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "262-261 BCE (siege of about seven months, ended by a battle with Hanno's relief army)", "type": "land", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Agrigentum (Akragas, Agrigento), Sicily", "lat": 37.31, "lon": 13.58, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Postumius Megellus, Quintus Mamilius Vitulus", "commanders_b": "Hanno (relief army), Hannibal Gisco (garrison)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Both consular armies, four Roman legions with as many Latin and Italian allied contingents, about 40,000 men (en.wikipedia), kept supplied by Hiero II of Syracuse.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Hiero II's Syracuse supplied the besiegers and many Sicilian Greek towns had joined Rome; Greek troops in the battle are not recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 1.17-19; Diodorus 23.8-9; Zonaras 8.10; Orosius 4.7; en.wikipedia Battle of Agrigentum", "note": "en.wikipedia dates the battle to late 262; on Polybius's chronology the city fell early in 261. Hanno's army of about 50,000 with 50-60 elephants was beaten, the garrison broke out and 25,000 inhabitants were enslaved." }, { "id": 173, "key": "-260-lipari-islands", "name": "Lipari Islands", "year": -260, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "260 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Harbour of Lipara (Lipari), Aeolian Islands", "lat": 38.47, "lon": 14.96, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Boodes (sent by Hannibal Gisco)", "commanders_b": "Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Seventeen newly built quinqueremes under the consul Scipio, with raw crews of Roman citizens and naval allies (socii navales), all captured in harbour by 20 Carthaginian ships (Polybius 1.21).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rome called on the allied Greek cities of southern Italy, the socii navales, for ships, crews and the petty officers of its first fleets (en.wikipedia, Roman navy and Socii); the share is not recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 1.21.4-8; Zonaras 8.10; en.wikipedia Battle of the Lipari Islands", "note": "Scipio's capture earned him the nickname Asina." }, { "id": 174, "key": "-260-mylae", "name": "Mylae", "year": -260, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "260 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Off Mylae (Milazzo), northern Sicily", "lat": 38.27, "lon": 15.2, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Duilius", "commanders_b": "Hannibal Gisco", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The new Roman fleet of about 100-140 quinqueremes and triremes fitted with the corvus boarding bridge (en.wikipedia: about 103 in the text, 143 in the infobox), rowed by Roman citizens and naval allies, with legionary marines; Carthage had 130 ships.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Socii navales from the Greek cities of southern Italy supplied part of the crews and most of the seamanship of the new fleet; Polybius gives no breakdown.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 1.22-23; Zonaras 8.11; columna rostrata of Duilius (CIL I2 25); en.wikipedia Battle of Mylae", "note": "Rome's first naval victory; Carthage lost about 45-50 ships (31 captured and 13-14 sunk in the Duilius inscription and later epitomes)." }, { "id": 175, "key": "-259-thermae", "name": "Thermae", "year": -259, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "259 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Near Thermae (Termini Imerese), northern Sicily", "lat": 37.98, "lon": 13.7, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hamilcar", "commanders_b": "Gaius Aquillius Florus (en.wikipedia)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The Italian allied (socii) contingents of the Roman army in Sicily, encamped apart from the legions after a quarrel over precedence, about 6,000 men of whom 4,000-6,000 were killed (Polybius 1.24.3-4).", "languages": [ "Oscan-Umbrian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The victims were Italian allied land contingents.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 1.24.3-4; Diodorus 23.9.4; en.wikipedia Battle of Thermae", "note": "Polybius places it in 260, soon after Mylae; en.wikipedia dates it 259." }, { "id": 176, "key": "-259-aleria", "name": "Aleria", "year": -259, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "259 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Corsica", "place": "Aleria, eastern Corsica", "lat": 42.11, "lon": 9.51, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cornelius Scipio", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Capture of the Carthaginian-held town and of Corsica; the fighting is not described.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The consul's fleet and landing force, Roman legions and allies carried by ships crewed partly by naval allies; no figures.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The socii navales of the Greek cities of Italy crewed part of the fleet; the landing troops were Roman and Italian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Elogium of L. Cornelius Scipio (CIL I2 8-9: 'hec cepit Corsica Aleriaque urbe'); Livy, Periochae 17; Florus 1.18.15-16; Zonaras 8.11; en.wikipedia Lucius Cornelius Scipio (consul 259 BC)", "note": "Corsican natives as well as the Carthaginians were fought (Livy, Per. 17)." }, { "id": 177, "key": "-259-olbia", "name": "Olbia", "year": -259, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "259 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sardinia", "place": "Olbia, north-eastern Sardinia", "lat": 40.92, "lon": 9.5, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cornelius Scipio", "commanders_b": "Hanno (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Poorly recorded and contradictory: en.wikipedia (after Zonaras) says Scipio failed against Olbia, while Livy (Per. 17) and Valerius Maximus record a successful battle in which the Carthaginian commander Hanno fell.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The consul's fleet and landing force from Corsica, Roman legions and allies; no figures.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The socii navales of the Greek cities of Italy crewed part of the fleet; the landing troops were Roman and Italian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy, Periochae 17; Valerius Maximus 5.1.2; Florus 1.18.16; Zonaras 8.11; en.wikipedia Lucius Cornelius Scipio (consul 259 BC)", "note": "Outcome given as the battle with Hanno (Roman success); the town itself may not have fallen." }, { "id": 178, "key": "-258-mytistraton-siege", "name": "Mytistraton (siege)", "year": -258, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "258 BCE (after a failed siege of seven months in 260 or 259)", "type": "land", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Mytistraton (Mytistratum), central Sicily, probably Monte Castellazzo near Marianopoli", "lat": 37.6, "lon": 13.92, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aulus Atilius Calatinus, Gaius Sulpicius Paterculus (consuls)", "commanders_b": "unknown (the Carthaginian garrison)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The consular armies of 258 in Sicily, Roman legions with Latin and Italian allies; no figures (Polybius 1.24.9-11).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman consular army; Hiero II's Syracuse supported the Roman war effort, but no Greek units are named.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 1.24.11; Diodorus 23.9; Zonaras 8.10-11; en.wikipedia First Punic War", "note": "Polybius says the town withstood the siege for long owing to its strong position; Zonaras records an earlier Roman siege of seven months that failed. The site is not certain." }, { "id": 179, "key": "-258-hippana", "name": "Hippana", "year": -258, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "258 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Hippana, western Sicily, probably the Montagna dei Cavalli near Prizzi", "lat": 37.72, "lon": 13.43, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aulus Atilius Calatinus, Gaius Sulpicius Paterculus (consuls)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A storming known only from one sentence of Polybius.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The consular armies of 258, which had offered battle before Panormus in vain and then took Hippana by assault (Polybius 1.24.10-11); no figures.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman consular army of Romans, Latins and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 1.24.10-11; en.wikipedia First Punic War", "note": "The site is not certain." }, { "id": 180, "key": "-258-camarina-siege", "name": "Camarina (siege)", "year": -258, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "258 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Camarina, south-eastern Sicily", "lat": 36.87, "lon": 14.45, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Carthage" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aulus Atilius Calatinus (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Greek cities", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "The consular army of Atilius Calatinus, legions with Latin and Italian allies, which brought up a siege battery and breached the wall (Polybius 1.24.12); the engines were lent by Hiero II of Syracuse (Diodorus 23.9.5).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Hiero II of Syracuse lent the siege engines; the assaulting troops were Romans and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 1.24.12; Diodorus 23.9.5; en.wikipedia First Punic War", "note": "Camarina, a Greek city, had gone over to Carthage in 259; most of its people were sold into slavery (Diodorus). Distinct from the ambush of Atilius' army on its march to Camarina (-258-camarina-ambush)." }, { "id": 181, "key": "-258-sulci", "name": "Sulci", "year": -258, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "258 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sardinia", "place": "Off Sulci (Sant'Antioco), south-western Sardinia", "lat": 39.07, "lon": 8.42, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Sulpicius Paterculus", "commanders_b": "Hannibal Gisco", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The consul's fleet (size unknown) of quinqueremes with legionary marines, crewed by Roman citizens and naval allies (socii navales).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Socii navales from the Greek cities of southern Italy supplied part of the crews of the Roman fleets of this war; no breakdown survives.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 1.24.5-7; Zonaras 8.12; Orosius 4.8.4; en.wikipedia Battle of Sulci", "note": "Some date it to 259. Hannibal escaped to Sulci and was killed by his own mutinous men." }, { "id": 182, "key": "-258-camarina-ambush", "name": "Camarina (ambush)", "year": -258, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "258 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "A defile on the march to Camarina, south-eastern Sicily", "lat": 36.9, "lon": 14.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "Aulus Atilius Calatinus; the military tribune Marcus Calpurnius Flamma (Quintus Caedicius in Cato)", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Roman anecdotal tradition, not from Polybius.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The consular army of Aulus Atilius Calatinus, legions and allies, trapped in a defile; a volunteer detachment of 300 (400 in Cato) seized a hill and drew the enemy on itself so that the army could escape.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A consular army of Romans and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Gellius 3.7 (Cato); Livy, Periochae 17; Frontinus 1.5.15, 4.5.10; Florus 1.18.13-14; Orosius 4.8.1-3; Zonaras 8.12; attalus.org (258 BC)", "note": "The detachment was cut down (its leader survived under the dead) but the army escaped and went on to take Camarina with a siege battery (Polybius 1.24.12; the engines were lent by Hiero, Diodorus 23.9.5): the siege is a separate entry." }, { "id": 183, "key": "-257-tyndaris", "name": "Tyndaris", "year": -257, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "257 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Off Tyndaris (Tindari), northern Sicily", "lat": 38.17, "lon": 15.03, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Atilius Regulus", "commanders_b": "Hamilcar", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The consular fleet (size unknown), whose van of ten ships was caught before the main body came up; crews of Roman citizens and naval allies with legionary marines; Rome lost 9 ships, Carthage 8 sunk and 10 captured.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Socii navales from the Greek cities of southern Italy supplied part of the crews of the Roman fleets of this war; no breakdown survives.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 1.25.1-4; Zonaras 8.12; en.wikipedia Battle of Tyndaris", "note": "" }, { "id": 184, "key": "-256-ecnomus", "name": "Ecnomus", "year": -256, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 256 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Off southern Sicily near Cape Ecnomus (Licata), east of Heraclea Minoa", "lat": 37.05, "lon": 13.9, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Atilius Regulus, Lucius Manlius Vulso Longus", "commanders_b": "Hanno, Hamilcar", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "330 decked warships (Polybius 1.25.7), each with 300 rowers and 120 marines, about 140,000 men (1.26.7); the marines were picked legionaries (about 26,000 of the invasion army) in four squadrons named like the legions; the rowers were Roman citizens and naval allies (socii navales).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The socii navales of the Greek cities of southern Italy (Naples, Tarentum, Rhegium, Velia, Locri and others) supplied part of the crews and much of the seamanship; Polybius gives no breakdown.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 1.25-28; Zonaras 8.12; en.wikipedia Battle of Cape Ecnomus", "note": "Rome lost 24 ships; Carthage 30 sunk and 64 captured. 'Ecnomus' as the site is a modern convention; Zonaras places it east of Heraclea Minoa. Possibly the largest naval battle of antiquity by numbers engaged." }, { "id": 185, "key": "-256-adys", "name": "Adys", "year": -256, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 256 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "Adys (Uthina, Oudna), south of Tunis", "lat": 36.61, "lon": 10.17, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Atilius Regulus", "commanders_b": "Bostar, Hamilcar, Hasdrubal son of Hanno", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Regulus's army left in Africa, 15,000 infantry and 500 cavalry (Polybius 1.29.9), probably two Roman legions and two allied alae (Lazenby).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman legionaries and Latin and Italian allies drawn from the invasion army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 1.30; Zonaras 8.13; Orosius 4.8; en.wikipedia Battle of Adys", "note": "Some date it to early 255. The Romans had earlier taken Aspis (Clupea) on landing, then went on to take Tunis." }, { "id": 186, "key": "-255-tunis", "name": "Tunis", "year": -255, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 255 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "Open plain near Tunis, towards the Bagradas (Medjerda)", "lat": 36.8, "lon": 10.05, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Xanthippus", "commanders_b": "Marcus Atilius Regulus (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Regulus's army of about 15,000 infantry and 500 cavalry, probably two Roman and two allied legions; about 13,000 were killed, 500 captured with Regulus and 2,000 escaped to Aspis (Polybius 1.34).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman legionaries and Latin and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 1.32-34; Diodorus 23.14-15; Zonaras 8.13; en.wikipedia Battle of Tunis (255 BC)", "note": "Also called the battle of the Bagradas. The Carthaginian army (12,000 infantry, 4,000 cavalry, 100 elephants) was trained and led by the Spartan mercenary Xanthippus, with Greek mercenaries in its ranks." }, { "id": 187, "key": "-255-aspis-siege", "name": "Aspis (siege)", "year": -255, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "255 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "Aspis (Clupea, Kelibia), Cape Bon peninsula", "lat": 36.85, "lon": 11.1, "loc": "known", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (the garrison left by Regulus)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A failed Carthaginian attack on the Roman bridgehead after Tunis; briefly recorded.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The Roman garrison of Aspis with the 2,000 survivors of Tunis (Polybius 1.34); they held out until the relief fleet arrived and sortied at Cape Hermaeum.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman legionaries and Italian allies of the African army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 1.34, 1.36; Zonaras 8.14", "note": "The defenders' resistance made the Carthaginians give up the siege. The Romans had taken Aspis after a siege on landing in 256." }, { "id": 188, "key": "-255-cape-hermaeum", "name": "Cape Hermaeum", "year": -255, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "255 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "Off Cape Hermaeum (Cape Bon), north of Aspis", "lat": 37.08, "lon": 11.05, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Servius Fulvius Paetinus Nobilior, Marcus Aemilius Paullus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "350 quinqueremes (Polybius 1.36.10) with legionary marines, joined by the 40 ships and the sortie of the Aspis garrison; crews of Roman citizens and naval allies.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Socii navales from the Greek cities of southern Italy supplied part of the crews of the Roman fleets of this war; no breakdown survives.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 1.36-37; Diodorus 23.18; Orosius 4.9; en.wikipedia Battle of Cape Hermaeum", "note": "Carthage lost 114 ships captured and 16 sunk out of 200. en.wikipedia's infobox calls the result inconclusive because a storm off Camarina then sank 384 of the 464 Roman warships and over 100,000 men, most of them Italian allies." }, { "id": 189, "key": "-254-panormus-siege", "name": "Panormus (siege)", "year": -254, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "254 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Panormus (Palermo), Sicily", "lat": 38.12, "lon": 13.36, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aulus Atilius Calatinus, Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Asina", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Both consuls with the army in Sicily and a fleet of about 300 ships (220 newly built plus survivors: Polybius 1.38.5-6); siege engines breached the seaward wall and the legions stormed the new town (1.38.7-10).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Socii navales, including the Greek cities of Italy, crewed part of the fleet that carried and blockaded; the assault was made by Roman and Italian troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 1.38.6-10; Diodorus 23.18.4-5; Zonaras 8.14; en.wikipedia Battle of Panormus (background)", "note": "The old town then surrendered; 14,000 inhabitants ransomed themselves and 13,000 were sold." }, { "id": 190, "key": "-252-lipara-siege", "name": "Lipara (siege)", "year": -252, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "252 BCE (a first siege had been begun in 258)", "type": "land", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Lipara (Lipari), Aeolian Islands", "lat": 38.47, "lon": 14.96, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Aurelius Cotta (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown (the Carthaginian garrison)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Briefly recorded: Polybius says only that the consuls of 252 took Thermae and Lipara.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The consul's army and fleet with siege works; while Cotta was away the works were burned and the camp nearly taken, for which he had his kinsman Publius Aurelius Pecuniola flogged and reduced to the ranks (Valerius Maximus 2.7.4; Frontinus 4.1.31).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The landing troops were Romans and Italian allies; the fleet's rowers included Greek socii navales.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 1.24.13, 1.39.13; Valerius Maximus 2.7.4; Frontinus 4.1.31; Zonaras 8.14", "note": "Lipara was a Greek town held by a Carthaginian garrison. The siege begun by the consuls of 258 (Polybius 1.24.13) had not taken it." }, { "id": 191, "key": "-250-panormus", "name": "Panormus", "year": -250, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "250 BCE (at harvest time)", "type": "land", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Before the walls of Panormus (Palermo), by the river Oreto", "lat": 38.11, "lon": 13.36, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Caecilius Metellus", "commanders_b": "Hasdrubal son of Hanno", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Metellus's army of two Roman legions and two allied alae, about 16,000-20,000 (en.wikipedia); his light troops fought the elephants from the ditch and walls, supplied with missiles by the townspeople (Polybius 1.40).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman consular army; the people of Panormus helped bring up missiles, but no Greek units are named.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 1.40; Diodorus 23.21; Zonaras 8.14; Orosius 4.9; en.wikipedia Battle of Panormus", "note": "Some date it to 251, Metellus's consular year. The captured elephants were shown at Rome." }, { "id": 192, "key": "-250-lilybaeum-siege", "name": "Lilybaeum (siege)", "year": -250, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "250-241 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Lilybaeum (Marsala), western Sicily", "lat": 37.8, "lon": 12.43, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Atilius Regulus Serranus, Lucius Manlius Vulso Longus, Publius Claudius Pulcher, Gaius Lutatius Catulus", "commanders_b": "Himilco, Gisco", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Both consular armies, four Roman legions and four allied alae, with a blockading fleet of about 200 ships: over 100,000 men with the crews (Polybius 1.41; en.wikipedia).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Socii navales manned part of the blockading fleet and Hiero II supplied grain; the siege army itself was Roman and Italian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 1.41-55; Diodorus 24.1; Zonaras 8.15; en.wikipedia Siege of Lilybaeum (250-241 BC)", "note": "Never taken: the garrison (7,000 infantry and 700 cavalry, with Celtic and Greek mercenaries) beat off assaults and mines and burned the siege works in a gale (Polybius 1.48); blockade-runners such as Hannibal the Rhodian kept it supplied. It was evacuated under the peace of 241; en.wikipedia gives a Roman victory. Scored a draw: the siege was neither raised nor successful; the town was handed over at the peace of 241 BCE." }, { "id": 193, "key": "-249-drepana", "name": "Drepana", "year": -249, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "249 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Off Drepana (Trapani), western Sicily", "lat": 38.02, "lon": 12.47, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Adherbal", "commanders_b": "Publius Claudius Pulcher", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "About 120 ships (93 captured, about 30 escaped), manned partly by 10,000 newly levied oarsmen, with marines picked from the legions besieging Lilybaeum (Polybius 1.49).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Socii navales from the Greek cities of southern Italy supplied part of the crews of the Roman fleets of this war; no breakdown survives.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 1.49-51; Diodorus 24.1; Cicero, De natura deorum 2.7; Suetonius, Tiberius 2; en.wikipedia Battle of Drepana", "note": "Carthage's greatest naval victory of the war; about 20,000 Romans killed or captured. Claudius is said to have thrown the sacred chickens into the sea before the battle." }, { "id": 194, "key": "-249-phintias", "name": "Phintias", "year": -249, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "249 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Off Phintias (Licata), southern Sicily", "lat": 37.1, "lon": 13.94, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Carthalo", "commanders_b": "Lucius Junius Pullus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Junius's 120 warships escorting about 800 transports with supplies for Lilybaeum, crewed by Roman citizens and naval allies (Polybius 1.52-54; Diodorus 24.1).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Socii navales from the Greek cities of southern Italy supplied part of the crews of the Roman fleets of this war; no breakdown survives.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 1.52-54; Diodorus 24.1; en.wikipedia Battle of Phintias", "note": "Rome lost 17 warships sunk and 13 damaged; a storm off Camarina then destroyed almost all the rest. Junius afterwards occupied Eryx." }, { "id": 195, "key": "-249-drepana-siege", "name": "Drepana (siege)", "year": -249, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "249-241 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Drepana (Trapani), western Sicily", "lat": 38.02, "lon": 12.51, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Junius Pullus, Gaius Lutatius Catulus", "commanders_b": "Adherbal and later garrison commanders", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Largely a blockade overlapping the siege of Lilybaeum; counted separately because en.wikipedia has an article.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Roman legions and allies blockading Drepana by land from 249, joined in 242 by Lutatius Catulus's fleet of about 200 quinqueremes, which seized the harbour (Polybius 1.59).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Socii navales crewed part of the fleet of 242; the blockading army was Roman and Italian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 1.59-60; Zonaras 8.17; en.wikipedia Siege of Drepana", "note": "Catulus was wounded in an assault before the Aegates battle; the town was handed over under the peace of 241." }, { "id": 196, "key": "-247-heirkte-mount-ercte", "name": "Heirkte (Mount Ercte)", "year": -247, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "247-244 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Heirkte, probably Monte Pellegrino above Panormus (Palermo)", "lat": 38.17, "lon": 13.35, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hamilcar Barca", "commanders_b": "unknown (the Roman commanders at Panormus)", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Three years of constant skirmishes and small battles, which Polybius likens to a boxing match, rather than one named battle.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The Roman army of Panormus, legions and allies camped about five stades from Hamilcar's stronghold; no figures (Polybius 1.56-57).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman army in Sicily; Greek allied troops are not named.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 1.56-57; Diodorus 24.5-6; en.wikipedia Hamilcar Barca", "note": "The usual identification is Monte Pellegrino; Hamilcar left in 244 for Eryx, neither side having gained." }, { "id": 197, "key": "-244-eryx-siege", "name": "Eryx (siege)", "year": -244, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "244-241 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Eryx (Erice), western Sicily", "lat": 38.04, "lon": 12.59, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hamilcar Barca", "commanders_b": "Gaius Fundanius Fundulus (243) and other Roman commanders", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A two-year double blockade with frequent fighting rather than a single battle.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Roman posts on the summit (the temple of Venus Erycina) and at the foot of the mountain, legions and allies, joined by Gallic mercenaries who deserted from Hamilcar and were set to guard the temple (Polybius 1.58, 2.7.7-10).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman army in Sicily; Greek allied troops are not named.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 1.58, 2.7.7-10; Diodorus 24.8-9; Zonaras 8.16; en.wikipedia Hamilcar Barca", "note": "Hamilcar took the town of Eryx in 244, destroying its Roman garrison, and was himself hemmed in between the Roman posts; the stalemate ended with the peace of 241." }, { "id": 198, "key": "-241-aegates", "name": "Aegates", "year": -241, "month": 3, "day": 10, "date": "10 March 241 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "First Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "West of Phorbantia (Levanzo), Aegates Islands, off western Sicily", "lat": 38.0, "lon": 12.28, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Lutatius Catulus, Quintus Valerius Falto", "commanders_b": "Hanno", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "About 200 quinqueremes built on the model of a captured Rhodian blockade-runner and paid for by wealthy citizens, with well-drilled crews and marines picked from the army in Sicily (Polybius 1.59-61).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The crews were raised, as for earlier fleets, from Roman citizens and naval allies including the Greek cities of Italy; Polybius gives no breakdown.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 1.59-61; Diodorus 24.11; Eutropius 2.27; Livy, Periochae 19; en.wikipedia Battle of the Aegates", "note": "Carthage lost 50 ships sunk and 70 captured, with about 10,000 prisoners; Rome 30 sunk and 50 damaged. The battle ended the war (treaty of Lutatius). Catulus, wounded, left the fighting to Valerius Falto." }, { "id": 199, "key": "-241-falerii", "name": "Falerii", "year": -241, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "241 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Faliscan revolt", "theatre": "Etruria (Ager Faliscus)", "place": "Falerii (Civita Castellana)", "lat": 42.29, "lon": 12.41, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Etruscans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Lutatius Cerco, Aulus Manlius Torquatus Atticus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Etruscans", "opponent_group": "Etruscans", "roman_force": "Both consular armies of 241, legions with Latin and Italian allies and their cavalry; no figures.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A consular levy of Romans, Latins and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 1.65.2; Zonaras 8.18; Livy, Periochae 20; Eutropius 2.28; Fasti Triumphales (241); en.wikipedia Falerii", "note": "Two battles (Zonaras 8.18): in the first the Roman infantry was worsted but the cavalry won, the second was a clear Roman victory; Polybius says Falerii fell within a few days. The Falisci spoke Faliscan, a language close to Latin, and are entered under 'Etruscans'; the old town was destroyed and its people moved to Falerii Novi." }, { "id": 200, "key": "-229-noutria", "name": "Noutria", "year": -229, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "229 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Illyrian War", "theatre": "Illyria", "place": "Noutria, an unidentified town on the Illyrian (Ardiaean) coast", "lat": 42.2, "lon": 19.1, "loc": "region", "country": "Montenegro", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Illyrians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Fulvius Centumalus, Lucius Postumius Albinus", "commanders_b": "unknown (forces of Queen Teuta)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "One of several Illyrian towns taken by storm, mentioned briefly by Polybius; no en.wikipedia article. The site and the country are a guess.", "main_enemy": "Illyrians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The consular fleet of 200 ships under Fulvius and the army of 20,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry under Postumius (Polybius 2.11), guided by Demetrius of Pharos; the Romans lost many men, several military tribunes and a quaestor in taking the town.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Socii navales crewed part of the 200 ships, and the Greek cities of Corcyra, Apollonia and Epidamnus had just come over to Rome; their part in the fighting is not recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 2.11.13-16; en.wikipedia First Illyrian War", "note": "In the same operations 20 Illyrian boats laden with plunder were captured and the besiegers of Issa fled to Arbo; Corcyra, Apollonia and Epidamnus were taken over without fighting." }, { "id": 201, "key": "-225-faesulae", "name": "Faesulae", "year": -225, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "225 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic War of 225-222 BCE", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "Near Faesulae (Fiesole), Etruria", "lat": 43.81, "lon": 11.29, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Gauls" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Concolitanus, Aneroestes", "commanders_b": "an unnamed praetor", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "The praetor's army of Sabine and Etruscan levies posted on the Etruscan frontier (Polybius 2.24.5 gives 50,000 foot and 4,000 horse for the Etruscan and Sabine levy), of whom about 6,000 fell (2.25).", "languages": [ "Etruscan", "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Polybius's list of the forces of 225 names no Greek contingents; this army was Etruscan and Sabine.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 2.25-26; en.wikipedia Battle of Faesulae (225 BC)", "note": "Gauls: Boii, Insubres, Taurisci and the Transalpine Gaesatae. The site is uncertain: Polybius has the Gauls fall back from near Clusium towards Faesulae." }, { "id": 202, "key": "-225-telamon", "name": "Telamon", "year": -225, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "225 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic War of 225-222 BCE", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "Campo Regio near Telamon (Talamone), coastal Etruria", "lat": 42.58, "lon": 11.17, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Aemilius Papus, Gaius Atilius Regulus (killed)", "commanders_b": "Concolitanus (captured), Aneroestes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "The two consular armies, four Roman legions of 5,200 infantry and 300 cavalry with 30,000 allied infantry and 2,000 cavalry (Polybius 2.24.3-4), Regulus's army coming from Sardinia, joined by the survivors of the Etruscan and Sabine levies.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Etruscan" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Polybius's detailed list of the Roman and allied forces of 225 names no Greek contingents (the Greek cities owed ships, not soldiers).", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 2.24, 2.27-31; Diodorus 25.13; en.wikipedia Battle of Telamon", "note": "About 40,000 Gauls killed and 10,000 captured (Polybius 2.31). Gauls: Boii, Insubres, Taurisci and Gaesatae. The Veneti and Cenomani, Roman allies, raided the Boii but were not at Telamon." }, { "id": 203, "key": "-223-clusius", "name": "Clusius", "year": -223, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "223 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic War of 225-222 BCE", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "Insubrian territory beyond the river Clusius (probably the Chiese), north of the Po", "lat": 45.35, "lon": 10.15, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Flaminius, Publius Furius Philus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No en.wikipedia article; Polybius describes a pitched battle, named in modern accounts after the river Clusius.", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "The two consular armies of 223, legions with Latin and Italian allies, fighting with a river at their backs; the Cenomani allies were sent back across the river and the bridges broken, and the triarii's spears were given to the front line (Polybius 2.32-33).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A consular levy of Romans, Latins and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 2.32-33; Plutarch, Marcellus 4; Orosius 4.13.14; Zonaras 8.20; historyofwar.org (Battle of the River Clusius); attalus.org (223 BC)", "note": "Insubres (Gauls) about 50,000; Orosius gives 9,000 killed and 17,000 captured. Earlier that year the consuls had suffered losses crossing the Po near the Adda (Polybius 2.32.1-3)." }, { "id": 204, "key": "-222-clastidium", "name": "Clastidium", "year": -222, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "222 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic War of 225-222 BCE", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "Clastidium (Casteggio), territory of the Marici", "lat": 45.02, "lon": 9.13, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Claudius Marcellus", "commanders_b": "Viridomarus (Britomartus), killed", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "A flying column of about two-thirds of the consular cavalry, Roman and allied, with 600 light infantry (Plutarch, Marcellus 6); about 3,200 horse by en.wikipedia; the foot did not engage.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian allied cavalry.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 2.34; Plutarch, Marcellus 6-7; Florus 1.20; en.wikipedia Battle of Clastidium", "note": "Gauls: Gaesatae and Insubres. Marcellus killed Viridomarus in single combat and dedicated the spolia opima." }, { "id": 205, "key": "-222-mediolanum", "name": "Mediolanum", "year": -222, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "222 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic War of 225-222 BCE", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "Mediolanum (Milan), the Insubrian capital", "lat": 45.46, "lon": 9.19, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A rearguard battle followed by the capture of the city; no en.wikipedia article.", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Scipio's consular army, legions with Latin and Italian allies, which had just taken Acerrae (Polybius 2.34-35).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A consular levy of Romans, Latins and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 2.34-35; en.wikipedia Battle of Clastidium (aftermath)", "note": "The Insubres attacked Scipio's rear as he drew off from Mediolanum and were beaten off with difficulty; he then took the city and the Insubres surrendered. Acerrae had fallen without a recorded assault after Clastidium." }, { "id": 206, "key": "-219-dimale-siege", "name": "Dimale (siege)", "year": -219, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "219 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Illyrian War", "theatre": "Illyria", "place": "Dimale (Dimallum), at Krotine near Berat", "lat": 40.7, "lon": 19.75, "loc": "approx", "country": "Albania", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Illyrians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Aemilius Paullus, Marcus Livius Salinator", "commanders_b": "garrison of Demetrius of Pharos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Illyrians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The consular army of 219, legions with Latin and Italian allies carried over by a fleet crewed partly by naval allies; Dimale was stormed within seven days (Polybius 3.18).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Socii navales, including the Greek cities of Italy, crewed the fleet; the assault was made by Roman and Italian troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 3.16-18; Appian, Illyrian Wars 8; Zonaras 8.20; en.wikipedia Second Illyrian War", "note": "The neighbouring Illyrian towns then submitted to Rome." }, { "id": 207, "key": "-219-pharos", "name": "Pharos", "year": -219, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "219 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Illyrian War", "theatre": "Illyria", "place": "Pharos (Stari Grad), island of Hvar", "lat": 43.18, "lon": 16.6, "loc": "approx", "country": "Croatia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Illyrians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Aemilius Paullus", "commanders_b": "Demetrius of Pharos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Illyrians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Paullus's consular army: the main body landed by night in a wooded hollow while twenty ships drew Demetrius and his 6,000 men out to the harbour, then cut them off from the city (Polybius 3.18-19).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Socii navales, including the Greek cities of Italy, crewed the ships; the landing force was Roman and Italian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 3.18-19; Appian, Illyrian Wars 8; Zonaras 8.20; en.wikipedia Second Illyrian War", "note": "Demetrius fled to Philip V of Macedon; Pharos (a Greek colony held by his Illyrians) was taken and its walls razed. en.wikipedia says the last Illyrian forces on the island surrendered in 218." }, { "id": 208, "key": "-218-rhone-cavalry-skirmish", "name": "Rhône (cavalry skirmish)", "year": -218, "month": 9, "day": null, "date": "September 218 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Transalpine Gaul", "place": "Near Hannibal's crossing of the Rhône, above its mouth", "lat": 43.95, "lon": 4.7, "loc": "region", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Numidia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Cornelius Scipio (consul, in overall command)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A small cavalry clash with no article of its own; the first fight between Roman and Hannibalic troops.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "300 picked Roman cavalry, guided by Massaliots and joined by Celtic mercenaries in Massaliot service, against 500 Numidian horse (Polybius 3.41, 3.44-45).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Massaliot (Greek) guides accompanied the Roman cavalry; the troopers were Roman and Italian.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 3.44-45; Livy 21.29", "note": "Polybius gives about 140 Romans and Celts and over 200 Numidians killed." }, { "id": 209, "key": "-218-ticinus", "name": "Ticinus", "year": -218, "month": 11, "day": null, "date": "late November 218 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "West bank of the Ticinus, near Ticinum (Pavia)", "lat": 45.2, "lon": 9.0, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Iberians", "Numidia" ], "allies_b": [ "Gauls" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hannibal, Maharbal", "commanders_b": "Publius Cornelius Scipio (wounded)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Scipio's cavalry, Roman, Latin-Italian and Gallic (about 3,600 by modern reckoning, some 2,000 of them Gauls), with the velites of his four legions (Polybius 3.65).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian cavalry and Cisalpine Gallic horse; no Greek units are recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 3.64-65; Livy 21.45-46; en.wikipedia Battle of the Ticinus", "note": "The exact site is unknown." }, { "id": 210, "key": "-218-trebia", "name": "Trebia", "year": -218, "month": 12, "day": null, "date": "December 218 BCE (about the winter solstice)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "West bank of the lower Trebia, near Placentia", "lat": 44.99, "lon": 9.57, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Gauls", "Iberians", "Numidia" ], "allies_b": [ "Gauls" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hannibal, Mago", "commanders_b": "Tiberius Sempronius Longus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The united consular armies: four legions with 16,000 Roman and 20,000 allied infantry and 4,000 cavalry (Polybius 3.72), with the loyal Cenomani Gauls (Livy 21.55).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Celtic", "Etruscan" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans, Latins and Italian socii with Cenomani Gauls; the Greek allies served mostly in the fleet.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Polybius 3.68-74; Livy 21.52-56; en.wikipedia Battle of the Trebia", "note": "Wikipedia gives 22/23 December; the sources say only that it was near the winter solstice." }, { "id": 211, "key": "-218-mutina-boian-ambush", "name": "Mutina (Boian ambush)", "year": -218, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring or early summer 218 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "Woods on the road to Mutina, between the Po and Mutina", "lat": 44.68, "lon": 10.75, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Gauls" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (Boii and Insubres)", "commanders_b": "Lucius Manlius Vulso (praetor)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No standard battle name: the Boii twice ambushed Manlius in woods on his march to relieve Mutina; he took refuge at Tannetum.", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "The praetor's army in Cisalpine Gaul, given by Livy as two Roman legions with 10,000 allied infantry and 1,600 cavalry (Livy 21.17, 21.25).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A normal army of Roman citizens and Latin and Italian socii; the Greek allies of southern Italy served chiefly at sea.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 3.40; Livy 21.25-26", "note": "The Boii (with the Insubres) rose when the colonies of Placentia and Cremona were founded." }, { "id": 212, "key": "-218-lilybaeum-sea", "name": "Lilybaeum (sea)", "year": -218, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 218 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Off Lilybaeum (Marsala), western Sicily", "lat": 37.8, "lon": 12.4, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (praetor)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "About 20 quinqueremes and triremes of the Sicilian command, with legionaries put aboard as marines; Carthage lost seven ships captured out of 35 (Livy 21.49-50).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The rowers of Roman fleets were largely socii navales, among whom the Greek cities of southern Italy and Sicily were prominent; Hiero of Syracuse had warned the praetor.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 21.49-50; en.wikipedia Battle of Lilybaeum", "note": "" }, { "id": 213, "key": "-218-cissa", "name": "Cissa", "year": -218, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 218 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Cissa (Kissa), near Tarraco, Catalonia", "lat": 41.12, "lon": 1.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [ "Iberians" ], "allies_b": [ "Iberians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus", "commanders_b": "Hanno (captured), Indibilis", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Two Roman legions and two allied contingents landed at Emporiae (modern estimates about 8,000 Roman and 14,000 allied infantry with 2,200 cavalry), with newly won Iberian auxiliaries; 20,000-25,000 in all.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Greek cities of Emporiae and Massalia gave the landing a base, but the line was Roman, Italian and Iberian.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 3.76; Livy 21.60; en.wikipedia Battle of Cissa", "note": "The site of Cissa is unknown; it was near Tarraco." }, { "id": 214, "key": "-217-lake-trasimene", "name": "Lake Trasimene", "year": -217, "month": 6, "day": 21, "date": "21 June 217 BCE (Roman calendar)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "North shore of Lake Trasimene, Umbria", "lat": 43.2, "lon": 12.09, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Gauls", "Iberians", "Numidia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hannibal, Maharbal", "commanders_b": "Gaius Flaminius (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Flaminius' consular army of two Roman legions and two allied contingents, about 25,000 men (Polybius 3.80-85).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Etruscan" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Hiero of Syracuse had sent 500 Cretan archers and 1,000 peltasts to the Romans that winter (Polybius 3.75), but it is not known which army they joined.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Polybius 3.80-85; Livy 22.4-7; Ovid, Fasti 6.765-768; en.wikipedia Battle of Lake Trasimene", "note": "Ovid's date is in the Roman calendar; the exact site on the north shore is disputed." }, { "id": 215, "key": "-217-umbrian-lake", "name": "Umbrian Lake", "year": -217, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 217 BCE (a few days after Trasimene)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Umbria", "place": "Plestine lake or marshes (Colfiorito), Umbria", "lat": 43.03, "lon": 12.88, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Maharbal", "commanders_b": "Gaius Centenius (propraetor)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "4,000 Roman and allied cavalry sent ahead by the consul Gnaeus Servilius Geminus; half were killed, the rest captured (Polybius 3.86).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Cavalry of a consular army, Roman and Italian.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 3.86; Livy 22.8; Appian, Hannibalica 11; en.wikipedia Second Punic War", "note": "Appian names the Plestine lake; Livy says only Umbria, and Zonaras places it near Spoletium." }, { "id": 216, "key": "-217-ager-falernus", "name": "Ager Falernus", "year": -217, "month": 9, "day": null, "date": "autumn (September) 217 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Pass by Mount Callicula, at the edge of the Ager Falernus", "lat": 41.18, "lon": 14.55, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Iberians" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hannibal, Hasdrubal (in charge of the oxen)", "commanders_b": "Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus (dictator)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The dictator's four legions with allies; the fighting fell on the 4,000 men holding the pass, of whom about 1,000 were killed (Livy 22.15-18).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A normal Roman and Italian army; any Greek light troops sent by Hiero would have been a small share.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 3.92-94; Livy 22.15-18; en.wikipedia Battle of Ager Falernus", "note": "Hannibal's ruse with burning brushwood on the horns of oxen." }, { "id": 217, "key": "-217-spoletium", "name": "Spoletium", "year": -217, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 217 BCE (soon after Trasimene)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Italy", "place": "Spoletium (Spoleto), Umbria", "lat": 42.74, "lon": 12.74, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (the colonists of Spoletium)", "commanders_b": "Hannibal", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An assault on a Latin colony beaten off; no standard battle name and no Roman field army.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The settlers of the Latin colony of Spoletium (founded 241 BCE) defending their walls; no figures (Livy 22.9.1-3).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Latin colony in Umbria.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 22.9.1-3; en.wikipedia Spoleto", "note": "Livy says Hannibal was repulsed with heavy loss and, judging from one colony what Rome itself would be, turned away into Picenum." }, { "id": 218, "key": "-217-ebro-sea", "name": "Ebro (sea)", "year": -217, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 217 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Mouth of the Ebro, Catalonia", "lat": 40.72, "lon": 0.86, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus", "commanders_b": "Himilco (fleet), Hasdrubal Barca (on shore)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "35 Roman quinqueremes with picked legionaries as marines, and Massaliot ships (Polybius 3.95 names two Massaliot scouts; Wikipedia gives 20 Massaliot triremes); 25 of 40 Carthaginian ships were taken.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Ships of Massalia (Greek) sailed with the Roman fleet, whose rowers were largely socii navales.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 3.95-96; Livy 22.19-20; en.wikipedia Battle of Ebro River", "note": "Massalia is the Greek ally." }, { "id": 219, "key": "-217-geronium", "name": "Geronium", "year": -217, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 217 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "Gerunium (Geronium), near Casacalenda, Molise", "lat": 41.76, "lon": 14.73, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Gauls", "Iberians", "Numidia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hannibal", "commanders_b": "Marcus Minucius Rufus, Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Minucius' half of the dictator's army, two legions with allies, rescued by Fabius with the other two (Polybius 3.103-105).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A normal Roman and Italian army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 3.100-105; Livy 22.18-30; en.wikipedia Battle of Geronium", "note": "Earlier Minucius had won a skirmish against Hannibal's foragers; in the main battle he was ambushed and saved only by Fabius." }, { "id": 220, "key": "-216-cannae", "name": "Cannae", "year": -216, "month": 8, "day": 2, "date": "2 August 216 BCE (Roman calendar)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Cannae, on the Aufidus, Apulia", "lat": 41.31, "lon": 16.13, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Gauls", "Iberians", "Numidia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hannibal, Hasdrubal, Maharbal, Hanno", "commanders_b": "Lucius Aemilius Paullus (killed), Gaius Terentius Varro, Gnaeus Servilius Geminus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Eight Roman legions and as many allied (socii) contingents, about 80,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry (Polybius 3.107, 3.113).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Hiero's 1,000 archers and slingers, sent early in 216 (Livy 22.37), may have served; the army was overwhelmingly Latin- and Oscan-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Polybius 3.107-117; Livy 22.44-50; en.wikipedia Battle of Cannae", "note": "" }, { "id": 221, "key": "-216-nola", "name": "Nola", "year": -216, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 216 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Nola, Campania", "lat": 40.93, "lon": 14.53, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Claudius Marcellus", "commanders_b": "Hannibal", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Marcellus' army, formed from the fleet's legion and survivors of Cannae, which made a sudden sortie from the gates of Nola (Livy 23.14-16).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian troops in an Oscan town.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 23.14-16; Plutarch, Marcellus 10-11; en.wikipedia Battle of Nola (216 BC)", "note": "A minor Roman success; Livy's figures are probably inflated." }, { "id": 222, "key": "-216-casilinum-siege", "name": "Casilinum (siege)", "year": -216, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 216 to early 215 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Casilinum (modern Capua), on the Volturnus", "lat": 41.11, "lon": 14.21, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hannibal", "commanders_b": "Marcus Anicius (Praenestine commander); Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus outside", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "A garrison of Latin and Etruscan allies, about 570 Praenestines and 460 Perusians with a few Romans and Latins, who beat off assaults until starved into surrender (Livy 23.17-19).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Etruscan" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The defenders were cohorts from Praeneste (Latin) and Perusia (Etruscan).", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 23.17-19; en.wikipedia Casilinum", "note": "The town fell by capitulation on terms after a long blockade with assaults and mining." }, { "id": 223, "key": "-216-silva-litana", "name": "Silva Litana", "year": -216, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 216 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "Silva Litana, a forest in the territory of the Boii (Emilia)", "lat": 44.41, "lon": 11.09, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Gauls" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (Boii)", "commanders_b": "Lucius Postumius Albinus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Two Roman legions with allied troops raised along the Adriatic coast, 25,000 men (Livy 23.24).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans and Adriatic Italian allies (Picentes, Umbrians and others).", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 23.24; Polybius 3.118; Frontinus, Stratagems 1.6.4; en.wikipedia Battle of Silva Litana", "note": "The Boii cut the trees to fall on the column; Postumius' skull was made into a cup." }, { "id": 224, "key": "-215-nola", "name": "Nola", "year": -215, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August 215 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Before the walls of Nola, Campania", "lat": 40.93, "lon": 14.53, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Claudius Marcellus", "commanders_b": "Hannibal, Hanno", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Marcellus' army at Nola, about two legions with allies, with loyal Nolans (Livy 23.42-46).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A normal Roman and Italian army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 23.42-46; Plutarch, Marcellus 12; en.wikipedia Battle of Nola (215 BC)", "note": "Livy claims a clear Roman victory; modern historians think his figures inflated." }, { "id": 225, "key": "-215-dertosa", "name": "Dertosa", "year": -215, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 215 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "South bank of the Ebro near Ibera (Dertosa, modern Tortosa)", "lat": 40.81, "lon": 0.52, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Iberians", "Numidia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus, Publius Cornelius Scipio", "commanders_b": "Hasdrubal Barca", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The Scipios' army of two Roman legions and two allied contingents with some Iberian auxiliaries, about 25,000 by modern estimate (Livy 23.28-29 gives no figures).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman, Italian and Iberian troops; Greek Emporiae and Massalia supported the Romans from the coast.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 23.26-29; en.wikipedia Battle of Ibera", "note": "Also called the battle of Ibera (the Wikipedia title). Some lists date it to 216." }, { "id": 226, "key": "-215-cumae", "name": "Cumae", "year": -215, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 215 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Hamae and Cumae, Campania", "lat": 40.85, "lon": 14.05, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage", "Capua" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (consul)", "commanders_b": "Marius Alfius (Capuan medix), Hannibal", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Gracchus' army of volones (slave volunteers) and allied troops, with the people of Cumae; it surprised the Capuans at Hamae (over 2,000 killed) and then held Cumae against Hannibal's assault (Livy 23.35-37).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The volones were slaves of mixed origin; Cumae, a Greek foundation, was by then largely Oscan-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 23.35-37; en.wikipedia Battle of Cumae (215 BC)", "note": "Two actions: the night attack on the Capuans at Hamae, and Hannibal's failed attack on Cumae with a siege tower." }, { "id": 227, "key": "-215-grumentum", "name": "Grumentum", "year": -215, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "215 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Lucania", "place": "Near Grumentum, Lucania", "lat": 40.28, "lon": 15.9, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tiberius Sempronius Longus", "commanders_b": "Hanno", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from a short notice in Livy; no Wikipedia article.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The Roman force in Lucania under Sempronius Longus; Livy gives no strength, only that Hanno lost over 2,000 men (Livy 23.37).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A normal Roman and Italian force.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 23.37", "note": "" }, { "id": 228, "key": "-215-decimomannu", "name": "Decimomannu", "year": -215, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 215 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Sardinia", "place": "Between Cornus and Caralis, southern Sardinia", "lat": 39.31, "lon": 8.97, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Sardinians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Titus Manlius Torquatus", "commanders_b": "Hasdrubal the Bald (captured), Hampsicora (suicide), Hiostus (killed), Hanno, Mago", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The Sardinian garrison legion and a new legion brought by Manlius, about 22,000 infantry and 1,200 cavalry (Livy 23.34, 23.40).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A normal Roman and Italian army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 23.32, 23.34, 23.40-41; en.wikipedia Battle of Decimomannu", "note": "Also called the battle of Cornus or Caralis; Wikipedia's coordinates point to Cornus, which was stormed soon after. Includes the earlier defeat of Hiostus." }, { "id": 229, "key": "-215-sardinia-sea", "name": "Sardinia (sea)", "year": -215, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 215 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Sardinia", "place": "At sea between Sardinia and Africa", "lat": 38.7, "lon": 9.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Titus Otacilius Crassus (propraetor)", "commanders_b": "unknown (the fleet returning from Hasdrubal's Sardinian expedition)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No standard name ('naval battle near Sardinia' in Wikipedia's list).", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The Roman fleet of Sicily under Otacilius, which took seven Carthaginian ships with their crews (Livy 23.41).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The fleet was rowed largely by socii navales, many from the Greek cities of southern Italy and Sicily.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 23.41; en.wikipedia List of battles of the Second Punic War", "note": "" }, { "id": 230, "key": "-215-iliturgi", "name": "Iliturgi", "year": -215, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "215 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Iliturgi (Cerro Maquiz, Mengíbar), on the upper Baetis", "lat": 37.99, "lon": -3.8, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus, Publius Cornelius Scipio", "commanders_b": "Hasdrubal Barca, Mago, Hamilcar son of Bomilcar", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The Scipios' Roman and Italian legions in Spain, perhaps with Iberian allies; Livy gives no strength (Livy 23.49).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman, Italian and Iberian troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 23.49; en.wikipedia Illiturgis, Hasdrubal Barca", "note": "The Scipios relieved Iliturgi; most historians consider Livy's victories in Spain of 215-214 unhistorical or inflated." }, { "id": 231, "key": "-215-intibili", "name": "Intibili", "year": -215, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "215 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Intibili (site uncertain, perhaps near Traiguera, Castellón)", "lat": 40.53, "lon": 0.29, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus, Publius Cornelius Scipio", "commanders_b": "Hasdrubal Barca, Mago, Hamilcar son of Bomilcar", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "Known only from Livy's annalistic account.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The Scipios' Roman and Italian legions in Spain; Livy gives no strength (Livy 23.49).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman, Italian and Iberian troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 23.49", "note": "Doubted like the other Spanish victories Livy reports for 215-214." }, { "id": 232, "key": "-214-beneventum", "name": "Beneventum", "year": -214, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 214 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "On the Calor near Beneventum", "lat": 41.13, "lon": 14.78, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Bruttians", "Lucanians", "Numidia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (proconsul)", "commanders_b": "Hanno", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Gracchus' two legions of volones, slaves enlisted after Cannae and promised freedom for victory, with allied troops (Livy 24.14-16).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The volones were slaves of mixed origin, some perhaps Greek; the rest were Italian socii.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 24.14-16; en.wikipedia Battle of Beneventum (214 BC)", "note": "Hanno's 17,000 infantry were mostly Bruttians and Lucanians, with 1,200 Numidian and Moorish horse." }, { "id": 233, "key": "-214-nola", "name": "Nola", "year": -214, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "214 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Before Nola, Campania", "lat": 40.93, "lon": 14.53, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Claudius Marcellus, Gaius Claudius Nero", "commanders_b": "Hannibal", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Marcellus' consular army at Nola; Nero's cavalry, sent round to take Hannibal in the rear, failed to arrive (Livy 24.17).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A normal Roman and Italian army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 24.17; en.wikipedia Battle of Nola (214 BC)", "note": "Livy claims a Roman victory; modern lists call it inconclusive. Hannibal withdrew." }, { "id": 234, "key": "-214-casilinum-siege", "name": "Casilinum (siege)", "year": -214, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "214 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Casilinum (modern Capua), on the Volturnus", "lat": 41.11, "lon": 14.21, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Capua", "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus (consul), Marcus Claudius Marcellus (consul)", "commanders_b": "Statius Metius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege ending in surrender, followed by a massacre of the garrison as it marched out.", "main_enemy": "Capua", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The two consular armies of Fabius and Marcellus, who pressed costly assaults until the garrison of 2,000 Campanians and 700 Hannibalic soldiers surrendered (Livy 24.19).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Normal Roman and Italian armies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 24.19; Plutarch, Marcellus 21", "note": "The en.wikipedia Casilinum article dates the recapture to 215; Livy places it in 214." }, { "id": 235, "key": "-214-leontini-siege", "name": "Leontini (siege)", "year": -214, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "214 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Leontini (Lentini), eastern Sicily", "lat": 37.29, "lon": 15.0, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Syracuse" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Claudius Marcellus (consul)", "commanders_b": "Hippocrates", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Syracuse", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Marcellus' army in Sicily, which took the town at the first assault; 2,000 Roman deserters found there were executed (Livy 24.30).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman legions and Italian allies; Sicilian Greek allies of Rome supplied the army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 24.30; Plutarch, Marcellus 14", "note": "The storming of Leontini led Syracuse to break with Rome." }, { "id": 236, "key": "-214-apollonia", "name": "Apollonia", "year": -214, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 214 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Macedonian War", "theatre": "Illyria", "place": "Philip's siege camp before Apollonia, on the Aous", "lat": 40.72, "lon": 19.47, "loc": "approx", "country": "Albania", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Macedon" ], "allies_a": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Valerius Laevinus (propraetor), Quintus Naevius Crista (prefect)", "commanders_b": "Philip V", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "2,000 picked men of Laevinus' legion and fleet under Naevius Crista, who slipped into Apollonia and then stormed Philip's camp by night (Livy 24.40).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legionaries and marines; the townsmen of Apollonia (Greek) were allies, not part of the Roman force.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 24.40; en.wikipedia First Macedonian War", "note": "Known only from Livy; some modern historians think the scale of the rout exaggerated. Apollonia is the allied Greek city." }, { "id": 237, "key": "-214-castrum-album", "name": "Castrum Album", "year": -214, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "214 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Castrum Album (perhaps near Alicante)", "lat": 38.35, "lon": -0.48, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "Publius Cornelius Scipio, Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "A surprise attack on a camp rather than a battle.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The Scipios' army; Carthaginian cavalry surprised it and killed about 2,000 men (Livy 24.41).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman, Italian and Iberian troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 24.41; en.wikipedia Battle of Munda (214 BC)", "note": "One of Livy's Spanish episodes of 214 that most historians doubt." }, { "id": 238, "key": "-214-iliturgi", "name": "Iliturgi", "year": -214, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "214 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Iliturgi, on the upper Baetis", "lat": 37.99, "lon": -3.8, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus", "commanders_b": "Hasdrubal Barca, Mago, Hasdrubal son of Gisco", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "A legion under Gnaeus Scipio that broke through to the besieged Roman garrison of Iliturgi (Livy 24.41).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 24.41; en.wikipedia Battle of Munda (214 BC)", "note": "Livy claims 12,000 enemy killed; it may be a doublet of the relief of 215." }, { "id": 239, "key": "-214-munda", "name": "Munda", "year": -214, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "214 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Near Munda (perhaps Montilla), Baetica", "lat": 37.59, "lon": -4.64, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus (wounded), Publius Cornelius Scipio", "commanders_b": "Hasdrubal Barca, Mago, Hasdrubal son of Gisco", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The Scipios' Roman and Italian legions in Spain; Livy gives no Roman strength (Livy 24.42).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman, Italian and Iberian troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 24.42; en.wikipedia Battle of Munda (214 BC)", "note": "Livy says the Romans were winning when Gnaeus was wounded and the recall sounded; most historians doubt these Spanish victories." }, { "id": 240, "key": "-214-auringis", "name": "Auringis", "year": -214, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "214 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Auringis or Orongi (perhaps Jaén)", "lat": 37.77, "lon": -3.79, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Cornelius Scipio, Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus", "commanders_b": "Hasdrubal Barca, Mago", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The Scipios' Roman and Italian legions in Spain (Livy 24.42).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman, Italian and Iberian troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 24.42; en.wikipedia Battle of Munda (214 BC)", "note": "Another of Livy's doubted Spanish victories of 214, fought after the retreat from Munda." }, { "id": 241, "key": "-213-syracuse-siege", "name": "Syracuse (siege)", "year": -213, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 213 to autumn 212 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Syracuse, Sicily", "lat": 37.08, "lon": 15.28, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Syracuse" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Carthage" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Claudius Marcellus, Appius Claudius Pulcher", "commanders_b": "Hippocrates, Epicydes, Archimedes (engineer), Himilco, Bomilcar", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Syracuse", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "The Roman army of Sicily, including the legions formed of the survivors of Cannae (perhaps 16,000-18,000 men), and a fleet of 60 quinqueremes that attacked the sea walls of Achradina (Polybius 8.3-7; Livy 24.34).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Syracusan exiles and pro-Roman Sicilian Greeks served with Marcellus, and Greek socii navales rowed part of the fleet; the legions were Roman and Italian.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 8.3-7, 8.37; Livy 24.33-34, 25.23-31; Plutarch, Marcellus 14-19; en.wikipedia Siege of Syracuse (213-212 BC)", "note": "Livy places the start of the siege in 214; Wikipedia and most modern accounts in 213. The city fell in 212 and Archimedes was killed." }, { "id": 242, "key": "-213-megara-hyblaea-siege", "name": "Megara Hyblaea (siege)", "year": -213, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "213 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Megara Hyblaea, north of Syracuse", "lat": 37.2, "lon": 15.18, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Syracuse" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Claudius Marcellus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A storming known from a single sentence of Livy.", "main_enemy": "Syracuse", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Part of Marcellus' army before Syracuse, which stormed and sacked the town (Livy 24.35).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman legions and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 24.35", "note": "" }, { "id": 243, "key": "-213-acrillae", "name": "Acrillae", "year": -213, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "213 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Near Acrillae, south-eastern Sicily", "lat": 37.05, "lon": 14.7, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Syracuse" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Claudius Marcellus", "commanders_b": "Hippocrates", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Syracuse", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Marcellus' marching column, which surprised Hippocrates' army of 10,000 foot and 500 horse while it was fortifying camp and killed some 8,000 (Livy 24.35).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman legions and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 24.35-36", "note": "The site of Acrillae is not securely identified." }, { "id": 244, "key": "-213-arpi", "name": "Arpi", "year": -213, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "213 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Arpi, near Foggia, Apulia", "lat": 41.51, "lon": 15.58, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Fabius Maximus (consul 213, son of Verrucosus)", "commanders_b": "unknown (the Carthaginian garrison)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A recapture by night assault; no Wikipedia article.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The consul's army, which broke in by night during a storm and fought in the streets until 1,000 Spaniards of the garrison went over to it (Livy 24.46-47).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A normal Roman and Italian army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 24.46-47", "note": "" }, { "id": 245, "key": "-212-tarentum", "name": "Tarentum", "year": -212, "month": 3, "day": null, "date": "winter 213/212 BCE (March 212 in Wikipedia)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Calabria (Messapia)", "place": "Tarentum (Taranto)", "lat": 40.47, "lon": 17.24, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Tarentum" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hannibal, Philemenus and Nico (Tarentine conspirators)", "commanders_b": "Marcus Livius (Macatus)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The Roman garrison of Tarentum, perhaps 5,000 men, surprised at night; the survivors held the citadel to the end of the siege (Polybius 8.24-34; Livy 25.7-11).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Italian garrison in a Greek city.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 8.24-34; Livy 25.7-11; en.wikipedia Battle of Tarentum (212 BC)", "note": "Tarentine conspirators let Hannibal in; the citadel held out until 209." }, { "id": 246, "key": "-212-syracuse-relief-battle", "name": "Syracuse (relief battle)", "year": -212, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "212 BCE (before the plague of that autumn)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "The Roman siege camps before Syracuse, near the Anapus", "lat": 37.05, "lon": 15.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage", "Syracuse" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Claudius Marcellus, Titus Quinctius Crispinus (in the old camp)", "commanders_b": "Himilco, Hippocrates (relief army), Epicydes (sally from the city)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A relief attack inside the siege of Syracuse, counted separately as in the ancient Greek battles set.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Marcellus' army before Syracuse, divided between his own lines and the old camp under Crispinus; both beat off the simultaneous attacks of Hippocrates from outside and Epicydes from the city (Livy 25.26).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Syracusan exiles and Sicilian Greek allies served with Marcellus, but the army was mainly the Roman and Italian legions of Sicily.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 25.26; en.wikipedia Siege of Syracuse (213-212 BC)", "note": "The Carthaginian relief army then camped by the marshes and was destroyed by plague, which killed Himilco and Hippocrates (Livy 25.26)." }, { "id": 247, "key": "-212-thurii", "name": "Thurii", "year": -212, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "212 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Italy", "place": "Before Thurii, on the Gulf of Taranto", "lat": 39.72, "lon": 16.49, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hanno, Mago", "commanders_b": "Marcus Atinius (commander of the garrison)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A garrison lured into an ambush before the town went over to Hannibal; no standard battle name.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The small Roman garrison of Thurii under Atinius, which marched out with the young men of Thurii against Hanno's infantry and was routed when Mago's hidden cavalry charged (Livy 25.15).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Thurine levies that marched out with the garrison were Greek, but they fled at once and were in league with the enemy; the garrison was Roman and Italian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 25.15.7-17", "note": "Thurii is the Greek city on the Carthaginian side; it then received the Carthaginians, letting Atinius and the Roman survivors leave by sea." }, { "id": 248, "key": "-212-campi-veteres-death-of-gracchus", "name": "Campi Veteres (death of Gracchus)", "year": -212, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 212 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Lucania", "place": "Campi Veteres, Lucania (site unknown)", "lat": 40.65, "lon": 15.75, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mago", "commanders_b": "Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus (proconsul, killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An ambush of a small party rather than a battle.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The proconsul with his lictors and a small cavalry escort, betrayed by the Lucanian Flavus (Livy 25.16-17).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A small Roman escort.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 25.16-17; Polybius 8.35; Appian, Hannibalica 35", "note": "Livy gives three versions of the place; Campi Veteres is the one he prefers." }, { "id": 249, "key": "-212-beneventum", "name": "Beneventum", "year": -212, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 212 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "Hanno's camp near Beneventum", "lat": 41.13, "lon": 14.78, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Fulvius Flaccus (consul)", "commanders_b": "Hanno", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The consul Fulvius' army, which stormed Hanno's supply camp (Livy 25.13-14); Wikipedia gives 18,400 men.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A normal Roman and Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 25.13-14; en.wikipedia Battle of Beneventum (212 BC)", "note": "Hanno had gathered grain there for Capua." }, { "id": 250, "key": "-212-capua", "name": "Capua", "year": -212, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "212 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Before Capua, Campania", "lat": 41.08, "lon": 14.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Capua" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hannibal", "commanders_b": "Quintus Fulvius Flaccus, Appius Claudius Pulcher (consuls)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The two consular armies, four Roman legions with as many allied contingents; they lost about 1,500 men and withdrew (Livy 25.18-19).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Normal Roman and Italian armies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 25.18-19; en.wikipedia Battle of Capua (212 BC)", "note": "Hannibal raised the first Roman blockade of Capua." }, { "id": 251, "key": "-212-silarus", "name": "Silarus", "year": -212, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "212 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Lucania", "place": "On the Silarus (Sele) river", "lat": 40.55, "lon": 15.1, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hannibal", "commanders_b": "Marcus Centenius Penula (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "8,000 men given to Centenius from the regular armies and about as many volunteers he raised, 16,000 in all (Livy 25.19).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian troops with volunteers from Campania, Lucania and Samnium.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 25.19; en.wikipedia Battle of the Silarus", "note": "Known only from Livy; some modern historians doubt it." }, { "id": 252, "key": "-212-herdonia", "name": "Herdonia", "year": -212, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "212 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Herdonia (Ordona), Apulia", "lat": 41.32, "lon": 15.63, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hannibal", "commanders_b": "Gnaeus Fulvius Flaccus (praetor)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The praetor's army of two legions with allies, about 18,000 men, of whom some 2,000 escaped (Livy 25.21).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A normal Roman and Italian army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 25.21; en.wikipedia Battle of Herdonia (212 BC)", "note": "Some modern historians suspect a doublet of the battle of 210." }, { "id": 253, "key": "-211-upper-baetis", "name": "Upper Baetis", "year": -211, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "211 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Castulo and Ilorci, on the upper Baetis (Guadalquivir)", "lat": 38.04, "lon": -3.62, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Numidia", "Iberians" ], "allies_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hasdrubal Barca, Mago, Hasdrubal son of Gisco, Masinissa, Indibilis", "commanders_b": "Publius Cornelius Scipio (killed), Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "About 30,000 Romans and Italian allies of the two Scipios' armies, with 20,000 Celtiberian mercenaries who deserted Gnaeus before his battle (Livy 25.32-36).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Celtic", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman, Italian, Celtiberian and Iberian troops.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 25.32-36; Appian, Iberica 16; en.wikipedia Battle of the Upper Baetis", "note": "A double battle a few days apart: Publius fell near Castulo, Gnaeus near Ilorci. Livy dates it to 212; most modern accounts to 211." }, { "id": 254, "key": "-211-marcius-night-attack", "name": "Marcius' night attack", "year": -211, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "211 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Carthaginian camps south of the Ebro (site unknown)", "lat": 40.9, "lon": 0.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Marcius Septimus (eques, elected commander by the troops)", "commanders_b": "Hasdrubal son of Gisco", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "No standard name; Livy cites Claudius Quadrigarius, Valerius Antias and Piso for wildly different figures.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The survivors of the Scipios' armies, rallied by Marcius together with the garrisons left in Spain (Livy 25.37-39).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian survivors of the Scipios' legions.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 25.37-39", "note": "Livy says Marcius beat off an attack on his camp and then took two Carthaginian camps; modern historians doubt the scale." }, { "id": 255, "key": "-211-capua-siege", "name": "Capua (siege)", "year": -211, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "212 to 211 BCE (fell 211)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Capua and the Roman siege lines around it", "lat": 41.08, "lon": 14.25, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Capua", "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Fulvius Flaccus, Appius Claudius Pulcher (mortally wounded), Gaius Claudius Nero", "commanders_b": "Hannibal, Bostar, Hanno, Vibius Virrius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Capua", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Two proconsular armies and the praetor Nero's army behind a double ring of works; their velites, carried on the cavalry's horses, beat the Capuan horse (Polybius 9.3-7; Livy 26.1-16).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Normal Roman and Italian armies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 9.3-9; Livy 26.1-16; en.wikipedia Siege of Capua (211 BC)", "note": "Includes the 'Second Battle of Capua' of en.wikipedia's lists: Hannibal's attack on the siege lines failed; his march on Rome did not draw the besiegers off, and Capua surrendered. Distinct from the battle of 212 (-212-capua), in which Hannibal drove off the first blockade." }, { "id": 256, "key": "-211-himera", "name": "Himera", "year": -211, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 212 or 211 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "On the (southern) Himera river, Sicily", "lat": 37.3, "lon": 14.0, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Claudius Marcellus", "commanders_b": "Hanno, Epicydes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Marcellus' army from Syracuse; the Numidians of Muttines, offended by Hanno, held aloof and the Carthaginians were routed (Livy 25.40-41).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman legions and Italian allies, perhaps with Sicilian Greek allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 25.40-41", "note": "Livy narrates it at the end of 212; it is usually dated 211." }, { "id": 257, "key": "-211-zacynthus-siege", "name": "Zacynthus (siege)", "year": -211, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 211 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Macedonian War", "theatre": "Greece", "place": "Zacynthus (Zakynthos), Ionian Sea", "lat": 37.78, "lon": 20.9, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Macedon" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Valerius Laevinus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known from one sentence of Livy; the citadel was not taken.", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Laevinus' legion and fleet, which took the town by storm except for the citadel (Livy 26.24).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legionaries and marines; the fleet's rowers included Greek socii navales.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 26.24; en.wikipedia First Macedonian War", "note": "Zacynthus had been Philip's since 217. Oeniadae and Nasus were also captured that year (no details)." }, { "id": 258, "key": "-210-salapia", "name": "Salapia", "year": -210, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "210 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Italy", "place": "Salapia, Apulia, by the lagoon of Salpi near Trinitapoli", "lat": 41.38, "lon": 16.03, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Numidia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Claudius Marcellus (consul)", "commanders_b": "unknown (the Numidian garrison)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A town betrayed to the Romans, with hard fighting against the garrison; no standard battle name.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Marcellus' consular army, let into the town by the faction of Blattius; the 500 Numidian horsemen of the garrison fought on foot to the last and only 50 were taken alive (Livy 26.38).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A normal Roman and Italian army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 26.38; Appian, Hannibalica 45-47", "note": "Livy calls the loss of these Numidian horsemen a heavier blow to Hannibal than the loss of the town." }, { "id": 259, "key": "-210-aegina", "name": "Aegina", "year": -210, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "210 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Macedonian War", "theatre": "Greece", "place": "Aegina, Saronic Gulf", "lat": 37.75, "lon": 23.43, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [ "Aetolian League" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Sulpicius Galba (proconsul), Dorimachus (Aetolian)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A capture whose fighting is not described.", "main_enemy": "Greek cities", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Sulpicius' fleet and its landing troops, acting with the Aetolians; the captured Aeginetans were sold or ransomed (Polybius 9.42).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman legionaries and marines; the Aetolians (Greek) were a separate allied force, and Greek socii navales may have rowed part of the fleet.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 9.42.5-8, 22.8.9-10; en.wikipedia First Macedonian War", "note": "Aegina is the Greek city. Under the Roman-Aetolian treaty the land went to the Aetolians, who sold the island to Attalus I for thirty talents." }, { "id": 260, "key": "-210-anticyra-siege", "name": "Anticyra (siege)", "year": -210, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 210 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Macedonian War", "theatre": "Greece", "place": "Anticyra, on the Corinthian Gulf", "lat": 38.38, "lon": 22.63, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [ "Aetolian League" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Valerius Laevinus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A short siege ending in surrender.", "main_enemy": "Greek cities", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Laevinus' fleet attacking from the sea while the Aetolians attacked by land; the town surrendered after a few days and its people were enslaved (Livy 26.26; Polybius 9.39).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman marines and fleet; the Aetolian allies (Greek) were a separate force.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 26.26; Polybius 9.39; en.wikipedia First Macedonian War", "note": "Livy says Anticyra in Locris; Polybius' Anticyra is the Phocian town, used here." }, { "id": 261, "key": "-210-echinus-siege", "name": "Echinus (siege)", "year": -210, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "210 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Macedonian War", "theatre": "Greece", "place": "Echinus, on the Malian Gulf, Phthiotis", "lat": 38.87, "lon": 22.71, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Macedon" ], "side_b": [ "Rome", "Aetolian League" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Philip V", "commanders_b": "Publius Sulpicius Galba (proconsul), Dorimachus (Aetolian strategos)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Sulpicius' fleet and its landing troops (the legion that served in Greece), attacking Philip's siege lines with the Aetolian army (Polybius 9.41-42).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman legionaries and marines; the Aetolians (Greek) fought as a separate allied army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 9.41-42; en.wikipedia First Macedonian War", "note": "Philip beat off the relief attempt and Echinus surrendered." }, { "id": 262, "key": "-210-herdonia", "name": "Herdonia", "year": -210, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "210 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Herdonia (Ordona), Apulia", "lat": 41.32, "lon": 15.63, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hannibal", "commanders_b": "Gnaeus Fulvius Centumalus (proconsul, killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Two Roman legions with allies, drawn up in two lines; eleven of twelve military tribunes fell (Livy 27.1).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A normal Roman and Italian army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 27.1; en.wikipedia Battle of Herdonia (210 BC)", "note": "" }, { "id": 263, "key": "-210-numistro", "name": "Numistro", "year": -210, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "210 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Lucania", "place": "Numistro, Lucania (near Muro Lucano)", "lat": 40.75, "lon": 15.49, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Claudius Marcellus (consul)", "commanders_b": "Hannibal", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Marcellus' consular army: the first legion and the right ala of allies, relieved during the fighting by the third legion and the left ala (Livy 27.2).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A normal Roman and Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 27.2; Plutarch, Marcellus 24; Frontinus 2.2.6; en.wikipedia Battle of Numistro", "note": "Ended at nightfall; Hannibal withdrew next day. Its historicity is doubted by some modern historians. Wikipedia's coordinates (in Calabria) are wrong; Numistro was in Lucania." }, { "id": 264, "key": "-210-sapriportis-sea", "name": "Sapriportis (sea)", "year": -210, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "210 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Calabria (Messapia)", "place": "Off Sapriportis, about 15 miles from Tarentum", "lat": 40.35, "lon": 17.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Tarentum" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Democrates", "commanders_b": "Decimus Quinctius (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Tarentum", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "About 20 ships gathered at Rhegium: Roman ships with others from the allied Greek cities of Rhegium and Velia and from Paestum, partly rowed by men taken on at Croton and Thurii (Livy 26.39).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Livy names ships of Rhegium, Velia and Paestum and rowers from Croton and Thurii, mostly Greek-speaking allies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 26.39; en.wikipedia Battle of Sapriportis", "note": "The Tarentine fleet sought to cut supplies to the Roman citadel." }, { "id": 265, "key": "-209-new-carthage-siege", "name": "New Carthage (siege)", "year": -209, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "early 209 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "New Carthage (Cartagena)", "lat": 37.6, "lon": -0.98, "loc": "known", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Cornelius Scipio (Africanus), Gaius Laelius", "commanders_b": "Mago (garrison commander, captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "25,000 infantry and 2,500 cavalry of the Roman and Italian legions in Spain, with 35 ships under Laelius; 500 men waded the lagoon to scale the north wall (Polybius 10.9-15).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian legions; the fleet's crews included Greek socii navales.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 10.9-15; Livy 26.42-46; en.wikipedia Battle of Cartagena (209 BC)", "note": "Polybius dates it to 209; Livy to 210. A combined land and sea assault." }, { "id": 266, "key": "-209-canusium", "name": "Canusium", "year": -209, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 209 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Near Canusium (Canosa di Puglia), Apulia", "lat": 41.22, "lon": 16.07, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Claudius Marcellus (proconsul)", "commanders_b": "Hannibal", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Marcellus' army of two legions with allied troops (Livy 27.12-14).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A normal Roman and Italian army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 27.12-14; Plutarch, Marcellus 25-26; en.wikipedia Battle of Asculum (209 BC)", "note": "Also called Asculum. Hannibal won the first day, Marcellus claimed the second; heavy losses on both sides." }, { "id": 267, "key": "-209-tarentum", "name": "Tarentum", "year": -209, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "209 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Calabria (Messapia)", "place": "Tarentum (Taranto)", "lat": 40.47, "lon": 17.24, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Tarentum", "Bruttians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus (consul), Marcus Livius (in the citadel)", "commanders_b": "Carthalo (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Fabius' consular army (about 20,000), which escaladed the walls where the Bruttian garrison commander let it in, with the citadel garrison and ships attacking the sea wall (Livy 27.15-16).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Italian army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 27.15-16; Plutarch, Fabius 21-23; en.wikipedia Battle of Tarentum (209 BC)", "note": "Taken by assault with help from treachery; the Tarentines and the garrison were massacred and some 30,000 enslaved." }, { "id": 268, "key": "-209-lamia-first-battle", "name": "Lamia (first battle)", "year": -209, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 209 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Macedonian War", "theatre": "Greece", "place": "Near Lamia, Malis", "lat": 38.9, "lon": 22.43, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Macedon" ], "side_b": [ "Aetolian League", "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Pergamon" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Philip V", "commanders_b": "Pyrrhias (Aetolian strategos)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Rome was a small allied contingent, not the main army.", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "About 1,000 Roman soldiers sent from the fleet by Publius Sulpicius Galba, fighting in Pyrrhias' Aetolian army with Attalus' Pergamene auxiliaries (Livy 27.30).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman contingent was legionaries from the fleet; the Aetolians and Pergamenes (Greek) were allies.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 27.30; en.wikipedia First Battle of Lamia", "note": "The Aetolians lost about 1,000 men." }, { "id": 269, "key": "-209-lamia-second-battle", "name": "Lamia (second battle)", "year": -209, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 209 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Macedonian War", "theatre": "Greece", "place": "Near Lamia, Malis", "lat": 38.9, "lon": 22.43, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Macedon" ], "side_b": [ "Aetolian League", "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Pergamon" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Philip V", "commanders_b": "Pyrrhias (Aetolian strategos)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Rome was a small allied contingent, not the main army.", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "The same Roman contingent of about 1,000 from Sulpicius' fleet, with the Aetolians and Pergamenes (Livy 27.30).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman contingent was legionaries from the fleet; the Aetolians and Pergamenes (Greek) were allies.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 27.30; en.wikipedia List of battles before 301", "note": "The Aetolians again lost about 1,000 and withdrew inside Lamia." }, { "id": 270, "key": "-209-elis", "name": "Elis", "year": -209, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "209 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Macedonian War", "theatre": "Greece", "place": "Before Elis, in the Peloponnese", "lat": 37.89, "lon": 21.38, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Macedon" ], "allies_a": [ "Greek cities", "Aetolian League" ], "allies_b": [ "Achaean League" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Sulpicius Galba (proconsul)", "commanders_b": "Philip V, Cycliadas (Achaean strategos)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "About 4,000 soldiers landed from Sulpicius' fleet, who sallied with the Eleans and Aetolians; Philip was unhorsed and withdrew (Livy 27.31-32).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman troops were legionaries and marines; the Eleans and Aetolians (Greek) were allies.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 27.31-32; en.wikipedia First Macedonian War", "note": "Elis is the allied Greek city. A Roman victory, against the draw of the ancient Greek battles set: Philip's attack on Elis was beaten off by the sally of Sulpicius' 4,000 Romans with the Eleans and Aetolians; the king was unhorsed and carried off on another horse, and his only gain was the fort of Phyricus, taken the next day (Livy 27.32). Livy narrates these events under 208; the modern date is 209." }, { "id": 271, "key": "-208-baecula", "name": "Baecula", "year": -208, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 208 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Baecula (Santo Tomé, Jaén), upper Baetis", "lat": 38.01, "lon": -3.12, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [ "Iberians" ], "allies_b": [ "Iberians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Cornelius Scipio (Africanus), Gaius Laelius", "commanders_b": "Hasdrubal Barca", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "About 30,000 Roman and Italian troops with some 10,000 Iberian auxiliaries (modern estimate; Polybius 10.38-40).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman, Italian and Iberian troops.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 10.38-40; Livy 27.18-19; en.wikipedia Battle of Baecula", "note": "Hasdrubal escaped with most of his army and marched for Italy." }, { "id": 272, "key": "-208-petelia", "name": "Petelia", "year": -208, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 208 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Bruttium", "place": "Below the hill of Petelia (Strongoli), Bruttium", "lat": 39.27, "lon": 17.05, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hannibal", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Part of the Roman garrison of Tarentum marching to the siege of Locri; 2,000 were killed and 1,500 captured (Livy 27.26).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian garrison troops.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 27.26; en.wikipedia Battle of Petelia", "note": "An ambush with 3,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry." }, { "id": 273, "key": "-208-locri-siege", "name": "Locri (siege)", "year": -208, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 208 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Bruttium", "place": "Locri Epizephyrii, Bruttium", "lat": 38.22, "lon": 16.23, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hannibal, Mago", "commanders_b": "Lucius Cincius Alimentus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege raised by a relief force, with little recorded fighting.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Cincius' force from Sicily with siege engines and ships; it fled to the ships when Hannibal's Numidians came up (Livy 27.28).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman troops from Sicily; the ships' crews may have included Greek socii navales.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 27.28", "note": "Locri (Greek) was Hannibal's ally with a Carthaginian garrison." }, { "id": 274, "key": "-208-venusia-ambush-of-marcellus", "name": "Venusia (ambush of Marcellus)", "year": -208, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 208 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "A wooded hill between Venusia and Bantia", "lat": 40.9, "lon": 15.88, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hannibal", "commanders_b": "Marcus Claudius Marcellus (consul, killed), Titus Quinctius Crispinus (consul, mortally wounded)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An ambush of a reconnoitring party, not a battle of armies.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The consuls' escort of about 220 cavalry, most of them Etruscans with 40 from Fregellae (Livy 27.26-27).", "languages": [ "Etruscan", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Livy names the escort as Etruscans and Fregellans.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 10.32; Livy 27.26-27; Plutarch, Marcellus 29", "note": "The death of Marcellus." }, { "id": 275, "key": "-208-clupea-sea", "name": "Clupea (sea)", "year": -208, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "208 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "Off Clupea (Kelibia), Cape Bon", "lat": 36.85, "lon": 11.15, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Valerius Laevinus (proconsul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Laevinus' fleet of about 100 ships from Sicily, which defeated 83 Carthaginian ships and took 18 (Livy 27.29).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Sicilian fleet was rowed largely by socii navales, many from the Greek cities of Sicily and southern Italy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 27.29; en.wikipedia List of battles of the Second Punic War", "note": "" }, { "id": 276, "key": "-207-metaurus", "name": "Metaurus", "year": -207, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 207 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Umbria (ager Gallicus)", "place": "On the Metaurus river, near Sena Gallica", "lat": 43.78, "lon": 13.01, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Iberians", "Ligurians", "Gauls" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Livius Salinator, Gaius Claudius Nero (consuls), Lucius Porcius Licinus (praetor)", "commanders_b": "Hasdrubal Barca (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The armies of Livius and Porcius (four legions with allies) joined by Nero's 6,000 picked infantry and 1,000 cavalry from the south, about 37,000 in all (Polybius 11.1-3; Livy 27.43-49).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Etruscan" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman legions with Latin, Italian and Etruscan-Umbrian allies.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Polybius 11.1-3; Livy 27.43-49; en.wikipedia Battle of the Metaurus", "note": "Wikipedia gives 22-24 June according to the version; the exact site on the river is disputed." }, { "id": 277, "key": "-207-grumentum", "name": "Grumentum", "year": -207, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 207 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Lucania", "place": "Before Grumentum, Lucania", "lat": 40.28, "lon": 15.91, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Claudius Nero (consul)", "commanders_b": "Hannibal", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Nero's consular army, given by Livy as 40,000 infantry and 2,500 cavalry (Livy 27.40-42).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A normal Roman and Italian army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 27.41-42; en.wikipedia Battle of Grumentum", "note": "Livy claims a Roman victory; some lists call it indecisive, since Hannibal slipped away." }, { "id": 278, "key": "-207-utica-sea", "name": "Utica (sea)", "year": -207, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "207 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "Off Utica, Africa", "lat": 37.1, "lon": 10.15, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Valerius Laevinus (proconsul)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Laevinus' fleet of 100 ships, which met 70 Carthaginian ships, took 17 and sank 4 (Livy 28.4).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Sicilian fleet was rowed largely by socii navales, many from the Greek cities of Sicily and southern Italy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 28.4; en.wikipedia List of battles of the Second Punic War", "note": "Known only from Livy." }, { "id": 279, "key": "-207-celtiberia-silanus", "name": "Celtiberia (Silanus)", "year": -207, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "207 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "The camps of Mago and Hanno in Celtiberia (site unknown)", "lat": 41.2, "lon": -2.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Junius Silanus (propraetor)", "commanders_b": "Hanno (captured), Mago", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No standard name; Silanus surprised the camps of newly raised Celtiberians.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "A detachment of 10,000 infantry and 500 cavalry sent by Scipio (Livy 28.1-2).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian troops.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 28.1-2; en.wikipedia Battle of Ilipa (background)", "note": "" }, { "id": 280, "key": "-207-orongis-siege", "name": "Orongis (siege)", "year": -207, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "207 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Orongis, a town of the Maesesses (site uncertain, perhaps near Jaén)", "lat": 37.77, "lon": -3.79, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Iberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cornelius Scipio", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A town stormed; known only from Livy.", "main_enemy": "Iberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "A detachment of Scipio's army under his brother Lucius, which stormed the town (Livy 28.3).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 28.3", "note": "Hasdrubal son of Gisco had used the town as a base." }, { "id": 281, "key": "-206-ilipa", "name": "Ilipa", "year": -206, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 206 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "East of Ilipa (Alcalá del Río), near Seville", "lat": 37.55, "lon": -5.94, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [ "Iberians" ], "allies_b": [ "Iberians", "Numidia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Cornelius Scipio (Africanus), Marcus Junius Silanus, Lucius Marcius Septimus", "commanders_b": "Hasdrubal son of Gisco, Mago, Masinissa", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "45,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry (Polybius 11.20): the Roman and Italian legions on the wings and Iberian allies in the centre, among them 3,000 foot and 500 horse of the chief Culchas (Livy 28.13).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman, Italian and Iberian troops.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 11.20-24; Livy 28.12-16; en.wikipedia Battle of Ilipa", "note": "Some date it to 207; also called Silpia or Carmona in some lists." }, { "id": 282, "key": "-206-iliturgi-siege", "name": "Iliturgi (siege)", "year": -206, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "206 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Iliturgi (Cerro Maquiz, Mengíbar)", "lat": 37.99, "lon": -3.8, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Iberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Cornelius Scipio (Africanus), Gaius Laelius", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Iberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Scipio's army, attacking in two divisions; the town was stormed and its people massacred for having killed Roman fugitives in 211 (Livy 28.19-20).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian legions.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 28.19-20; Appian, Iberica 32; en.wikipedia Illiturgis", "note": "" }, { "id": 283, "key": "-206-astapa-siege", "name": "Astapa (siege)", "year": -206, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "206 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Astapa (Estepa), Baetica", "lat": 37.29, "lon": -4.88, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Iberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Marcius Septimus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Iberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "A detachment of Scipio's army under Marcius; the townsmen sallied and died fighting after killing their families (Livy 28.22-23).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 28.22-23; Appian, Iberica 33", "note": "" }, { "id": 284, "key": "-206-carteia", "name": "Carteia", "year": -206, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "206 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Near the mouth of the Baetis (Guadalquivir)", "lat": 36.78, "lon": -6.35, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Marcius Septimus", "commanders_b": "Hanno", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Marcius' detachment of Roman and allied infantry and cavalry; Hanno had 4,000 newly hired Celtiberians among about 6,000 men.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 28.30; en.wikipedia Battle of Carteia", "note": "Also called the battle of the Guadalquivir (anachronistic). Wikipedia places it at the mouth of the river, not at Carteia itself." }, { "id": 285, "key": "-206-carteia-sea", "name": "Carteia (sea)", "year": -206, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "206 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Off Carteia, in the Strait of Gibraltar", "lat": 36.15, "lon": -5.4, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Laelius", "commanders_b": "Adherbal", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Laelius' squadron of one large ship and seven triremes; he sank two Carthaginian triremes and disabled a third (Livy 28.30).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman ships were rowed largely by socii navales, among whom the Greek cities were prominent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 28.30; en.wikipedia Battle of Carteia (naval)", "note": "Livy calls Laelius' flagship a septireme; Wikipedia a quinquereme." }, { "id": 286, "key": "-206-new-carthage", "name": "New Carthage", "year": -206, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "206 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Before New Carthage (Cartagena)", "lat": 37.6, "lon": -0.98, "loc": "known", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (the Roman garrison)", "commanders_b": "Mago", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A repulsed night attack on a city.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The Roman garrison of New Carthage, which sallied and drove Mago's landing force back to its ships (Livy 28.36).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian garrison troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 28.36; en.wikipedia Battle of Carteia (naval)", "note": "Mago's last attempt in Spain before he sailed to the Balearics and Liguria." }, { "id": 287, "key": "-206-ilergetan-revolt", "name": "Ilergetan revolt", "year": -206, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 206 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "A valley in the land of the Ilergetes, north of the Ebro (site unknown)", "lat": 41.6, "lon": 0.6, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Iberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Cornelius Scipio (Africanus), Gaius Laelius", "commanders_b": "Indibilis, Mandonius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No standard name.", "main_enemy": "Iberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Scipio's Roman and Italian legions, including the pardoned mutineers of Sucro (Polybius 11.31-33; Livy 28.31-34).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian legions.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 11.31-33; Livy 28.31-34; en.wikipedia Indibilis", "note": "Livy gives the rebels 20,000 infantry and 2,500 cavalry." }, { "id": 288, "key": "-205-indibilis-revolt", "name": "Indibilis' revolt", "year": -205, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "205 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "North of the Ebro, near the lands of the Ilergetes (site unknown)", "lat": 41.6, "lon": 0.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Iberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cornelius Lentulus, Lucius Manlius Acidinus", "commanders_b": "Indibilis (killed), Mandonius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No standard name.", "main_enemy": "Iberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The two Roman armies left in Spain under Lentulus and Acidinus (Livy 29.1-3).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian legions.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 29.1-3; en.wikipedia Indibilis", "note": "The rebels are given 30,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry." }, { "id": 289, "key": "-205-locri-siege", "name": "Locri (siege)", "year": -205, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "205 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Bruttium", "place": "Locri Epizephyrii, Bruttium", "lat": 38.22, "lon": 16.23, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Cornelius Scipio (consul), Quintus Pleminius", "commanders_b": "Hannibal, Hamilcar (garrison commander)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "3,000 men from the Rhegium garrison under Pleminius, who escaladed one citadel, and troops Scipio brought by sea from Messana, who beat off Hannibal's assault (Livy 29.6-8).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and allied troops from Rhegium, a Greek allied city, with Locrian exiles as guides.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 29.6-8", "note": "Locrians helped the Romans; the defenders were Carthaginian garrisons in the two citadels. Followed by Pleminius' notorious misrule." }, { "id": 290, "key": "-204-salaeca", "name": "Salaeca", "year": -204, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "204 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "Near the tower of Salaeca, about 15 miles from Utica", "lat": 37.0, "lon": 10.0, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Cornelius Scipio (Africanus), Masinissa", "commanders_b": "Hanno son of Hamilcar (killed or captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A cavalry ambush; no article of its own.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Scipio's Roman and Italian cavalry in ambush, with Masinissa's Numidian horse as the lure (Livy 29.34).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian cavalry with Numidian allies; the horses and arms of the 300 Roman troopers came from Sicilian (Greek) nobles.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 29.34; en.wikipedia Battle of Utica (203 BC)", "note": "Livy gives versions of 1,000 or 2,000 killed and of Hanno's death or capture." }, { "id": 291, "key": "-204-utica-siege", "name": "Utica (siege)", "year": -204, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 204 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "Utica, Africa", "lat": 37.06, "lon": 10.06, "loc": "known", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_b": [ "Numidia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hasdrubal son of Gisco, Syphax", "commanders_b": "Publius Cornelius Scipio (Africanus)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Scipio's invasion army of 25,000-30,000: the two legions of Cannae survivors raised to about 6,200 each with volunteers, two Latin allied legions, Masinissa's Numidians, and the fleet attacking the sea walls (Livy 29.24-26, 29.35).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Berber", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army was formed in Sicily, but its soldiers were Roman and Italian; Greek socii navales rowed part of the fleet.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 14.1-2; Livy 29.35; en.wikipedia Battle of Utica (204 BC)", "note": "After about 40 days the arrival of Hasdrubal and Syphax forced Scipio to raise the siege and winter at Castra Cornelia. Utica held out to the end of the war." }, { "id": 292, "key": "-204-crotona", "name": "Crotona", "year": -204, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "204 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Bruttium", "place": "In the territory of Croton, Bruttium", "lat": 39.08, "lon": 17.12, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Sempronius Tuditanus (consul), Publius Licinius Crassus (proconsul)", "commanders_b": "Hannibal", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Sempronius' two newly raised legions, joined for the second fight by Crassus' two legions (Livy 29.36).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian legions.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 29.36; en.wikipedia Battle of Crotona", "note": "Two engagements in Livy 29.36: Hannibal beat Sempronius in a running fight (about 1,200 Romans killed), then the combined armies of Sempronius and Crassus beat Hannibal (Livy claims 4,000 killed); en.wikipedia lists it as a drawn battle. Distinct from the obscure battle of 203 under the consul Gnaeus Servilius Caepio (-203-croton, Livy 30.19)." }, { "id": 293, "key": "-203-utica", "name": "Utica", "year": -203, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 203 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "The camps of Hasdrubal and Syphax near Utica", "lat": 37.06, "lon": 10.06, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage", "Numidia" ], "allies_a": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Cornelius Scipio (Africanus), Gaius Laelius, Masinissa", "commanders_b": "Hasdrubal son of Gisco, Syphax", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Scipio's four legions (two Roman, two Latin) with Masinissa's Numidians, who fired the enemy camps by night (Polybius 14.1-6; Livy 30.3-6).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian legions with Numidian allies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 14.1-6; Livy 30.3-6; en.wikipedia Battle of Utica (203 BC)", "note": "The burning of the camps." }, { "id": 294, "key": "-203-great-plains", "name": "Great Plains", "year": -203, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 203 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "The Great Plains (Campi Magni) on the Bagradas", "lat": 36.61, "lon": 8.94, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage", "Numidia" ], "allies_a": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Cornelius Scipio (Africanus), Gaius Laelius, Masinissa", "commanders_b": "Hasdrubal son of Gisco, Syphax", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Two Roman legions in the centre and two Latin allied legions, about 20,000, with Laelius' Roman and Italian cavalry on the right and Masinissa's Numidians on the left (Polybius 14.8; Livy 30.8).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian legions with Numidian allies.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Polybius 14.7-8; Livy 30.7-8; en.wikipedia Battle of the Great Plains", "note": "4,000 Celtiberian mercenaries fought to the death on the Carthaginian side." }, { "id": 295, "key": "-203-castra-cornelia-sea", "name": "Castra Cornelia (sea)", "year": -203, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 203 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "The Roman naval station by Utica and Castra Cornelia", "lat": 37.12, "lon": 10.15, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "Publius Cornelius Scipio (Africanus)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Scipio's warships behind a wall of transports lashed four deep and manned by picked soldiers; the Carthaginians towed off about 60 transports (Polybius 14.10; Livy 30.9-10).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The fleet's rowers were largely socii navales, many from the Greek cities of Sicily and southern Italy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 14.10; Livy 30.9-10; en.wikipedia List of battles of the Second Punic War", "note": "A minor Carthaginian success; the Roman warships were saved. Wikipedia's list names it Castra Cornelia." }, { "id": 296, "key": "-203-cirta", "name": "Cirta", "year": -203, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "203 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "East of Cirta (Constantine), Numidia", "lat": 36.37, "lon": 6.75, "loc": "region", "country": "Algeria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_a": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Laelius, Masinissa", "commanders_b": "Syphax (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Numidia", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Part of Scipio's army under Laelius, with velites set among Masinissa's Numidian squadrons and the legionaries advancing behind (Livy 30.11-12).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Berber", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian troops with Numidian allies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 30.11-12; en.wikipedia Battle of Cirta", "note": "Masinissa (Massylii) was a principal; Syphax led the Masaesyli. Cirta surrendered after." }, { "id": 297, "key": "-203-insubria", "name": "Insubria", "year": -203, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "203 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "In the land of the Insubres (site unknown, perhaps near Mediolanum)", "lat": 45.47, "lon": 9.17, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Gauls", "Ligurians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Quinctilius Varus (praetor), Marcus Cornelius Cethegus (proconsul)", "commanders_b": "Mago (wounded)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Four legions with allies, about 35,000, two legions in the front line and two in reserve, with Varus leading the cavalry (Livy 30.18).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian legions.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 30.18; en.wikipedia Battle of Insubria", "note": "Mago died of his wound on the voyage to Africa." }, { "id": 298, "key": "-203-croton", "name": "Croton", "year": -203, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "203 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Bruttium", "place": "In the territory of Croton, Bruttium", "lat": 39.08, "lon": 17.12, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Servilius Caepio (consul)", "commanders_b": "Hannibal", "outcome": "unknown", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "Livy himself calls the report of this battle obscure.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The consul's army in Bruttium; no details survive (Livy 30.19).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A normal Roman and Italian army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 30.19", "note": "Valerius Antias claimed 5,000 enemy killed; Livy doubts it." }, { "id": 299, "key": "-202-zama", "name": "Zama", "year": -202, "month": 10, "day": 19, "date": "19 October 202 BCE (traditional date)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "Near Zama (Naraggara), south-west of Carthage", "lat": 36.3, "lon": 9.45, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_b": [ "Gauls", "Ligurians", "Numidia", "Berbers" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Cornelius Scipio (Africanus), Gaius Laelius, Masinissa", "commanders_b": "Hannibal", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Two Roman legions (the Cannae survivors with volunteers) and two Latin allied legions, about 29,000-30,000, with 1,500 Roman and Italian cavalry under Laelius, and Masinissa's 6,000 Numidian infantry and 4,000 cavalry plus 600 horse under Dacamas (Polybius 15.5-14; Livy 30.29-35).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian legions with Numidian allies; no Greek units are recorded.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Polybius 15.5-16; Livy 30.29-35; en.wikipedia Battle of Zama", "note": "The 19 October date (from Wikipedia's list) rests on an eclipse linked to the battle; many give only autumn 202. Livy's 4,000 Macedonians in Hannibal's army are doubted." }, { "id": 300, "key": "-202-vermina", "name": "Vermina", "year": -202, "month": 12, "day": 17, "date": "17 December 202 BCE (first day of the Saturnalia, Roman calendar)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Punic War", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "On Vermina's line of march, inland from Carthage (site unknown)", "lat": 36.0, "lon": 9.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Cornelius Scipio (Africanus) and his officers", "commanders_b": "Vermina son of Syphax", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No standard name; known only from Livy.", "main_enemy": "Numidia", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Part of Scipio's army, mainly cavalry and light troops; Livy gives no figures for the Roman side (Livy 30.36).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 30.36", "note": "Livy says 15,000 Numidians were killed and 1,200 captured; Vermina escaped. Fought after Zama, before the peace of 201." }, { "id": 301, "key": "-200-antipatrea-siege", "name": "Antipatrea (siege)", "year": -200, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "200 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Macedonian War", "theatre": "Dassaretis (Illyria)", "place": "Antipatrea, a town in a narrow pass of the Apsus (probably Berat)", "lat": 40.7, "lon": 19.95, "loc": "approx", "country": "Albania", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Macedon" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Apustius (legate of Publius Sulpicius Galba)", "commanders_b": "Unknown (the townsmen and Macedonian garrison)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A storming told in a few lines of Livy; modern works do not treat it as a battle.", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "A detachment of Sulpicius's consular army sent out from the camp near Apollonia under the legate Lucius Apustius; no numbers are given (Livy 31.27).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A detachment of the Italian consular army; no Greek contingents are recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 31.27.1-5; en.wikipedia Second Macedonian War", "note": "After talks with the leading men failed, Apustius took the town by force, killed the men of military age, razed the walls and burned it; the forts of Corrhagum, Gerrunium and Orgessum fell in the same raid. Antipatrea is usually placed at Berat." }, { "id": 302, "key": "-200-chalcis-raid", "name": "Chalcis (raid)", "year": -200, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "200 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Macedonian War", "theatre": "Euboea", "place": "Chalcis, Euboea", "lat": 38.46, "lon": 23.6, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Macedon" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Claudius Centho", "commanders_b": "Macedonian garrison (its commander Sopater was killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A night raid: the town was stormed and its arsenals burned, then abandoned.", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "A raiding force from the Roman fleet at Corcyra: 20 triremes and about 1,000 soldiers (Livy 31.22-23).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The soldiers were Roman and Italian; some crews may have come from the Greek naval allies (socii navales) of southern Italy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 31.22-23; en.wikipedia Second Macedonian War", "note": "Guided by Chalcidian exiles, the Romans scaled the walls, killed the garrison, burned the granaries and arsenal and withdrew before Philip V arrived." }, { "id": 303, "key": "-200-cremona", "name": "Cremona", "year": -200, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "200 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic wars in northern Italy", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "Near Cremona, on the Po", "lat": 45.13, "lon": 10.02, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Ligurians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Furius Purpureo", "commanders_b": "Hamilcar (a Carthaginian officer, killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "The praetor Furius's force of Latin allies joined by the consul's army sent ahead from Etruria: two legions with allied contingents, about 18,000 foot and 2,400 horse by modern estimate (Livy 31.10, 31.21).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian army; no Greek contingents are recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 31.10, 31.21-22; en.wikipedia Battle of Cremona (200 BC)", "note": "Insubres, Cenomani and Boii with Ligurian tribes had sacked Placentia; Livy gives 35,000 Gauls killed or captured." }, { "id": 304, "key": "-199-eordaea-pass", "name": "Eordaea Pass", "year": -199, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "199 BCE (summer)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Macedonian War", "theatre": "Upper Macedonia", "place": "The pass from Lyncestis into Eordaea (probably the Kirli Derven pass near Vevi), blocked by Philip with a field-work", "lat": 40.77, "lon": 21.62, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Macedon" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Sulpicius Galba", "commanders_b": "Philip V", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The forcing of a fortified pass; named by its place, rarely treated as a battle of its own.", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Sulpicius's consular army of two legions with Latin and Italian allies; the light troops and legionaries forced the Macedonian position on wooded, broken ground where the phalanx could not use its pikes (Livy 31.39). No numbers are given for the battle.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army had crossed from Italy; no Greek contingents are recorded in the fight.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 31.39; Mommsen, History of Rome, book 3 ch. 8; en.wikipedia Second Macedonian War", "note": "Fought some days after Ottolobus: Philip blocked the pass with ditch and rampart, the Macedonians were partly turned and partly broken with heavy loss, and Sulpicius went on to ravage Eordaea, Elimea and Orestis." }, { "id": 305, "key": "-199-ottolobus", "name": "Ottolobus", "year": -199, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "199 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Macedonian War", "theatre": "Upper Macedonia", "place": "Ottolobus, in Lyncus", "lat": 41.0, "lon": 21.4, "loc": "region", "country": "North Macedonia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Macedon" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Sulpicius Galba", "commanders_b": "Philip V", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Sulpicius Galba's consular army, two legions with Latin and Italian allies and their cavalry, invading Macedonia from Dassaretis (Livy 31.33-39); no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "No Greek contingents are recorded with Galba; the Aetolians, Dardanians and Illyrians fought separately.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 31.36-39", "note": "A cavalry-led action in which Philip's foragers and cavalry were routed and he withdrew; the site in Lyncus is not securely identified (perhaps near Bitola)." }, { "id": 306, "key": "-199-oreus-siege", "name": "Oreus (siege)", "year": -199, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "199 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Macedonian War", "theatre": "Euboea", "place": "Oreus (Histiaea), northern Euboea", "lat": 38.95, "lon": 23.09, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Macedon" ], "allies_a": [ "Pergamon", "Rhodes" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Apustius, Attalus I", "commanders_b": "Macedonian garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Marines and crews of the Roman fleet under the legate Apustius with siege engines, attacking one side of the town while Attalus attacked the other (Livy 31.46).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Pergamene and Rhodian squadrons (allies) fought beside the Roman fleet, whose crews included Greek socii navales from southern Italy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 31.46; en.wikipedia Second Macedonian War", "note": "The town was taken after a siege of some length; type is land, with naval support." }, { "id": 307, "key": "-199-cassandreia-siege", "name": "Cassandreia (siege)", "year": -199, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "199 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Macedonian War", "theatre": "Chalcidice", "place": "Cassandreia, Pallene", "lat": 40.04, "lon": 23.42, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Macedon" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Pergamon", "Rhodes" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Macedonian garrison", "commanders_b": "Lucius Apustius, Attalus I", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A failed attempt on the walls, briefly told.", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Landing parties of the Roman fleet with the Pergamene and Rhodian fleets (Livy 31.45).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman fleet crews included Greek socii navales; the allied Greek squadrons are listed as allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 31.45; en.wikipedia Second Macedonian War", "note": "" }, { "id": 308, "key": "-198-aous", "name": "Aous", "year": -198, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "198 BCE (early summer)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Macedonian War", "theatre": "Epirus", "place": "The Aoi Stena gorge of the Aous (Vjose), near Kelcyre", "lat": 40.31, "lon": 20.19, "loc": "approx", "country": "Albania", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Macedon" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Titus Quinctius Flamininus", "commanders_b": "Philip V", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Flamininus's consular army, the two legions and allies of Villius with 8,000 infantry and 800 cavalry of new levies; 4,000 infantry and 300 cavalry were led round the Macedonian position by a shepherd sent by the Epirote Charops (Livy 32.8-12; Plutarch, Flamininus 4).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Epirote guides helped, but no Greek contingents are recorded in the Roman army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 32.9-12; Plutarch, Flamininus 3-5; en.wikipedia Second Macedonian War", "note": "After some forty days of stand-off; Macedonian losses about 2,000. The gorge is usually placed at Kelcyre, some put it nearer Tepelene." }, { "id": 309, "key": "-198-phaloria-siege", "name": "Phaloria (siege)", "year": -198, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "198 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Macedonian War", "theatre": "Thessaly", "place": "Phaloria (Phaloreia), western Thessaly", "lat": 39.62, "lon": 21.7, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Macedon" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Titus Quinctius Flamininus", "commanders_b": "Macedonian garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Flamininus's consular army of two legions with Latin and Italian allies (Livy 32.15).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Italian army of Flamininus; no Greek units are named.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 32.15", "note": "Stormed after the Macedonian garrison of 2,000 refused terms; the town was burned." }, { "id": 310, "key": "-198-atrax-siege", "name": "Atrax (siege)", "year": -198, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "198 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Macedonian War", "theatre": "Thessaly", "place": "Atrax, on the Peneus west of Larissa", "lat": 39.56, "lon": 22.21, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Macedon" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Athamania" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Macedonian garrison", "commanders_b": "Titus Quinctius Flamininus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Flamininus's legions with a siege train; the breach they made was held by a Macedonian phalanx (Livy 32.17-18).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman legions and Italian allies did the fighting; Amynander's Athamanians were allies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 32.17-18; en.wikipedia Second Macedonian War", "note": "Flamininus abandoned the siege after the assault on the breach failed." }, { "id": 311, "key": "-198-eretria-siege", "name": "Eretria (siege)", "year": -198, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "198 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Macedonian War", "theatre": "Euboea", "place": "Eretria, Euboea", "lat": 38.39, "lon": 23.79, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Macedon" ], "allies_a": [ "Pergamon", "Rhodes" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Quinctius Flamininus, Attalus I", "commanders_b": "Macedonian garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "The Roman fleet under the legate Lucius Flamininus with its marines and siege engines, with the Pergamene and Rhodian fleets (Livy 32.16).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Greek socii navales served in the Roman fleet; the Pergamene and Rhodian contingents were allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 32.16; en.wikipedia Second Macedonian War", "note": "Taken by assault after fierce fighting; Carystus then surrendered without a fight." }, { "id": 312, "key": "-198-elatia-siege", "name": "Elatia (siege)", "year": -198, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "198 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Macedonian War", "theatre": "Phocis", "place": "Elateia, Phocis", "lat": 38.63, "lon": 22.78, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Macedon" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Titus Quinctius Flamininus", "commanders_b": "Macedonian garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Flamininus's consular army of two legions with Italian allies and a siege train (Livy 32.24).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Italian army of Flamininus; no Greek units are named.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 32.18, 32.24; en.wikipedia Second Macedonian War", "note": "Stormed with rams and ladders; the garrison held out briefly in the citadel." }, { "id": 313, "key": "-198-corinth-siege", "name": "Corinth (siege)", "year": -198, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "198 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Macedonian War", "theatre": "Peloponnese", "place": "Corinth", "lat": 37.91, "lon": 22.88, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Macedon" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Pergamon", "Achaean League" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Androsthenes; relieved by Philocles", "commanders_b": "Lucius Quinctius Flamininus, Attalus I", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Troops and marines of the Roman fleet under Lucius Flamininus, besieging with Attalus and the newly allied Achaeans (Livy 32.23).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Achaean and Pergamene forces were allies; the Roman part came from the fleet.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 32.19-23; en.wikipedia Second Macedonian War", "note": "Abandoned when Philocles brought 1,500 men from Macedonian-held Argos into the city; Italian deserters fought hard among the defenders." }, { "id": 314, "key": "-197-cynoscephalae", "name": "Cynoscephalae", "year": -197, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 197 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Macedonian War", "theatre": "Thessaly", "place": "The Cynoscephalae hills, between Pharsalus and Pherae", "lat": 39.42, "lon": 22.55, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Macedon" ], "allies_a": [ "Aetolian League", "Athamania" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Titus Quinctius Flamininus", "commanders_b": "Philip V", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Two legions with Latin and Italian allies and 20 elephants, about 26,000 men in all with 6,000 Aetolian foot and 400 horse, 1,200 Athamanians, and 500 Cretans of Gortyn and 300 Apolloniates (Livy 33.3; Polybius 18.19-27).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Within the Roman army only the Cretan and Apolloniate auxiliaries were Greek; the Aetolian and Athamanian allies added about 7,600 more, roughly a quarter of the whole.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 3, "sources": "Polybius 18.18-27; Livy 33.3-10; Plutarch, Flamininus 7-8; en.wikipedia Battle of Cynoscephalae", "note": "Macedonian losses about 8,000 killed and 5,000 captured, Roman about 700." }, { "id": 315, "key": "-197-mincius", "name": "Mincius", "year": -197, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "197 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic wars in northern Italy", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "On the Mincius (Mincio) river", "lat": 45.25, "lon": 10.7, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Cornelius Cethegus", "commanders_b": "Insubrian chiefs; Hamilcar (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "The consul Cethegus's army of two legions with Latin and Italian allies (Livy 32.29-30).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 32.29-30", "note": "The Insubres were defeated after the Cenomani withdrew from their side; Livy reports 35,000 killed." }, { "id": 316, "key": "-197-leucas-siege", "name": "Leucas (siege)", "year": -197, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "197 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Macedonian War", "theatre": "Acarnania", "place": "Leucas", "lat": 38.82, "lon": 20.71, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Quinctius Flamininus", "commanders_b": "Acarnanian League forces", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Greek cities", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "The Roman fleet under Lucius Flamininus with troops brought from Corcyra (Livy 33.16-17).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Soldiers and marines of the Roman fleet, some crews drawn from Greek socii navales.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 33.16-17; en.wikipedia Second Macedonian War", "note": "Opponent: the Acarnanian League, Philip's ally. After repeated assaults the city was entered with the help of traitors, with fighting in the streets." }, { "id": 317, "key": "-196-turda", "name": "Turda", "year": -196, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "196 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Spanish revolt of 197-195 BCE", "theatre": "Hispania Citerior", "place": "Near the town of Turda (site unknown)", "lat": 40.34, "lon": -1.11, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Iberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Minucius Thermus", "commanders_b": "Budares (captured), Baesadines", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Iberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The praetor's army of Hither Spain, usually a legion with Latin and Italian allies; the sources give no details.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A praetorian army of Romans and Italian allies; no Greek units are recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 33.44", "note": "Livy reports 12,000 of the enemy killed. Turda's site is unknown; some suggest Turba in Edetania (near Teruel)." }, { "id": 318, "key": "-196-comum", "name": "Comum", "year": -196, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "196 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic wars in northern Italy", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "Near Comum (Como)", "lat": 45.81, "lon": 9.08, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Claudius Marcellus", "commanders_b": "Insubrian chiefs", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "The consul Marcellus's army of two legions with Latin and Italian allies (Livy 33.36-37).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 33.36-37", "note": "Against the Insubres and the Comenses; Livy reports 40,000 killed (doubtless inflated). Earlier that year the Boii under Corolamus had ambushed Marcellus on the march, killing about 3,000 (Livy 33.36)." }, { "id": 319, "key": "-195-emporiae", "name": "Emporiae", "year": -195, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "195 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Spanish revolt of 197-195 BCE", "theatre": "Hispania Citerior", "place": "Near Emporiae (Empuries)", "lat": 42.13, "lon": 3.11, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Iberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Porcius Cato", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Iberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Cato's consular army of two legions with Latin and Italian allies, landed with the fleet at Rhoda and Emporiae (Livy 34.8-16).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Greek town of Emporiae was Cato's base, but no Greek contingent is recorded in the battle.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 34.11-16; Appian, Iberica 40", "note": "Cato attacked the camp of the rebel Spaniards of the north-east (Indigetes and neighbours) at dawn and routed them." }, { "id": 320, "key": "-195-iliturgi", "name": "Iliturgi", "year": -195, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "195 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Spanish revolt of 197-195 BCE", "theatre": "Hispania Ulterior", "place": "Near Iliturgi, on the upper Baetis", "lat": 37.98, "lon": -3.82, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Helvius", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "An escort of 6,000 men given to the outgoing praetor Helvius by Appius Claudius Nero (Livy 34.10).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian troops of the Spanish garrison.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 34.10", "note": "Helvius beat some 20,000 Celtiberians and then took Iliturgi. Livy tells it under 195; some modern accounts date it 196 or 197." }, { "id": 321, "key": "-195-gythium-siege", "name": "Gythium (siege)", "year": -195, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "195 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "War against Nabis", "theatre": "Laconia", "place": "Gythium, port of Sparta", "lat": 36.76, "lon": 22.57, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sparta" ], "allies_a": [ "Rhodes", "Pergamon", "Achaean League" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Titus and Lucius Quinctius Flamininus, Eumenes II, Sosilas of Rhodes", "commanders_b": "Dexagoridas, Gorgopas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sparta", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "The Roman fleet of 40 ships under Lucius Flamininus with its marines, joined for the final assault by Titus Flamininus with 4,000 soldiers (Livy 34.29).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Rhodian (18 ships) and Pergamene (40 ships) squadrons and the Achaeans fought as allies; the Roman part was Italian with some Greek crews.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 34.29; en.wikipedia Battle of Gythium; en.wikipedia Roman-Spartan War", "note": "Gorgopas surrendered the town on terms after Dexagoridas, who had offered to betray it, was killed." }, { "id": 322, "key": "-195-sparta-siege", "name": "Sparta (siege)", "year": -195, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "195 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "War against Nabis", "theatre": "Laconia", "place": "Sparta", "lat": 37.08, "lon": 22.43, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sparta" ], "allies_a": [ "Achaean League", "Macedon", "Pergamon", "Rhodes" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Titus Quinctius Flamininus", "commanders_b": "Nabis, Pythagoras", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sparta", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Flamininus's army of about 50,000 with its allies: the Roman legions and Italian allies, 10,000 Achaean foot and 1,000 horse, 1,500 Macedonians and 400 Thessalian horse sent by Philip V, Spartan exiles under Agesipolis, and marines from the fleets (Livy 34.26-29, 34.38-40).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The Roman army itself was Italian; the allied Greek contingents (Achaean, Macedonian, Thessalian, exiles, Rhodian and Pergamene marines) made up perhaps a third of the whole.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 34.26-40; en.wikipedia Roman-Spartan War", "note": "The Romans beat the Spartans outside the walls, broke into the city and were driven back by fires; Nabis then accepted Roman terms. The city was not taken." }, { "id": 323, "key": "-195-litana-forest", "name": "Litana Forest", "year": -195, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "195 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic wars in northern Italy", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "The Litana forest, in the land of the Boii", "lat": 44.4, "lon": 11.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Valerius Flaccus", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "The consul Valerius Flaccus's army of two legions with Latin and Italian allies (Livy 34.22).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 34.22", "note": "Against the Boii; Livy gives 8,000 killed. Not the ambush in the same forest in 216 BCE; the forest's site (between Bononia and Mutina, or in the Apennines) is uncertain." }, { "id": 324, "key": "-194-mediolanum", "name": "Mediolanum", "year": -194, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "194 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic wars in northern Italy", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "Near Mediolanum (Milan)", "lat": 45.46, "lon": 9.19, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Valerius Flaccus", "commanders_b": "Dorulacus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "The proconsul Valerius Flaccus's army of legions and Latin and Italian allies (Livy 34.46).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 34.46", "note": "Against the Insubres and Boii who had crossed the Po under Dorulacus; Livy gives 10,000 killed." }, { "id": 325, "key": "-194-placentia", "name": "Placentia", "year": -194, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "194 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic wars in northern Italy", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "Near Placentia, on the border of the Boii", "lat": 45.05, "lon": 9.69, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tiberius Sempronius Longus", "commanders_b": "Boiorix", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "The consul's two legions and two allied alae, about 20,000 men; a cohort of extraordinarii restored the camp (Livy 34.46-48).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 34.46-48; en.wikipedia Battle of Placentia (194 BC)", "note": "A hard fight at the Roman camp: Romans lost 5,000, the Boii 11,000 (Livy); the consul then withdrew to Placentia." }, { "id": 326, "key": "-194-ilipa", "name": "Ilipa", "year": -194, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "194 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Lusitanian raids", "theatre": "Hispania Ulterior", "place": "Near Ilipa, on the Baetis", "lat": 37.52, "lon": -5.98, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Lusitanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Lusitanians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The praetor's army of Further Spain, a legion with Latin and Italian allies (normal establishment; Livy 35.1 gives no details).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A praetorian army of Romans and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 35.1", "note": "Scipio caught Lusitanian raiders returning laden with booty. Not the battle of Ilipa of 206 BCE." }, { "id": 327, "key": "-193-mutina", "name": "Mutina", "year": -193, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "193 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic wars in northern Italy", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "Near Mutina (Modena)", "lat": 44.65, "lon": 10.93, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cornelius Merula", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Two Roman legions and two allied alae, with Latin and Italian cavalry (Livy 35.4-5).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 35.4-6; en.wikipedia Battle of Mutina (193 BC)", "note": "Against the Boii; Livy gives 14,000 Boii killed and about 5,000 Roman dead." }, { "id": 328, "key": "-193-toletum", "name": "Toletum", "year": -193, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "193 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Spanish wars", "theatre": "Hispania Ulterior", "place": "Near Toletum (Toledo)", "lat": 39.86, "lon": -4.03, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Fulvius Nobilior", "commanders_b": "Hilermus (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The praetor's army of Further Spain, legionaries with Latin and Italian allies (normal establishment; not described in Livy 35.7).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A praetorian army of Romans and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 35.7; en.wikipedia Celtiberian Wars", "note": "Against a coalition of Vaccaei, Vettones and Celtiberians." }, { "id": 329, "key": "-193-licabrum-siege", "name": "Licabrum (siege)", "year": -193, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "193 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Spanish wars", "theatre": "Hispania Citerior", "place": "Licabrum (site unknown)", "lat": 37.47, "lon": -4.44, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Iberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Flaminius", "commanders_b": "Corribilo (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known from one sentence of Livy; site unknown.", "main_enemy": "Iberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The praetor's army of Hither Spain (normal establishment; not described).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A praetorian army of Romans and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 35.22", "note": "Taken by siege works and assault; perhaps Igabrum (Cabra), which is uncertain." }, { "id": 330, "key": "-192-pisae", "name": "Pisae", "year": -192, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "192 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Ligurian wars", "theatre": "Etruria and Liguria", "place": "In the territory of Pisae", "lat": 43.72, "lon": 10.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ligurians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Minucius Thermus", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Named only by the territory of Pisae.", "main_enemy": "Ligurians", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The proconsul Minucius Thermus's army of legions and Latin and Italian allies, with Numidian horsemen (Livy 35.3, 35.11, 35.21).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 35.21; en.wikipedia Apuani", "note": "Ligurians had threatened Pisae since 193; Livy reports 9,000 killed." }, { "id": 331, "key": "-192-toletum-siege", "name": "Toletum (siege)", "year": -192, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "192 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Spanish wars", "theatre": "Hispania Ulterior", "place": "Toletum (Toledo)", "lat": 39.86, "lon": -4.03, "loc": "known", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Fulvius Nobilior", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Briefly told by Livy.", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The propraetor's army of Further Spain (normal establishment; not described).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A praetorian army of Romans and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 35.22", "note": "Nobilior beat a relieving army of Vettones and took Toletum by siege works." }, { "id": 332, "key": "-191-thermopylae", "name": "Thermopylae", "year": -191, "month": 4, "day": null, "date": "April 191 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Seleucid War", "theatre": "Central Greece", "place": "The pass of Thermopylae and the heights of Callidromus", "lat": 38.8, "lon": 22.53, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Seleucids" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Aetolian League" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Manius Acilius Glabrio, Marcus Porcius Cato, Lucius Valerius Flaccus", "commanders_b": "Antiochus III", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Seleucids", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Glabrio's consular army, about 20,000 infantry, 2,000 cavalry and 15 elephants of Romans and Latin and Italian allies; Cato and Flaccus led 2,000 men each against the Aetolian-held forts (Livy 36.14-19).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army had crossed from Italy; Philip V and the Achaeans were allies but their troops were not in the battle.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 36.15-19; Appian, Syriaca 17-20; Plutarch, Cato Maior 13-14; en.wikipedia Battle of Thermopylae (191 BC)", "note": "en.wikipedia gives 24 April 191 BCE, a modern reckoning. Aetolians held the forts of Callidromus, Teichius and Rhoduntia for Antiochus." }, { "id": 333, "key": "-191-corycus", "name": "Corycus", "year": -191, "month": 9, "day": null, "date": "September 191 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Roman-Seleucid War", "theatre": "Ionia", "place": "Off Cape Corycus, between Teos and Erythrae", "lat": 38.2, "lon": 26.55, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Seleucids" ], "allies_a": [ "Pergamon", "Carthage" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Livius Salinator, Eumenes II", "commanders_b": "Polyxenidas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Seleucids", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "About 81 Roman decked ships, including the ships due under treaty from Rhegium, Locri and the allied cities of the Naples coast, with six Carthaginian ships and 24 Pergamene warships (Livy 36.42-45).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Livy names Rhegium, Locri and the Naples coast as sources of ships, so Greek socii navales manned a good part of the Roman fleet.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 36.42-45; Appian, Syriaca 22; en.wikipedia Battle of Corycus", "note": "Seleucid losses 23 ships; one Carthaginian ship lost. A Rhodian squadron of 25 arrived after the battle." }, { "id": 334, "key": "-191-heraclea-trachinia-siege", "name": "Heraclea Trachinia (siege)", "year": -191, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "191 BCE (summer)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Seleucid War (Aetolian War)", "theatre": "Central Greece", "place": "Heraclea in Trachis, near Thermopylae", "lat": 38.79, "lon": 22.46, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Aetolian League" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Manius Acilius Glabrio", "commanders_b": "Damocritus (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Aetolian League", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Glabrio's consular army of legions and Latin and Italian allies with siege works (Livy 36.22-24).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Italian army that had fought at Thermopylae.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 36.22-24; en.wikipedia Roman-Seleucid War", "note": "Stormed after a siege of about 24 days; the Aetolians in the citadel surrendered." }, { "id": 335, "key": "-191-naupactus-siege", "name": "Naupactus (siege)", "year": -191, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "191 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Seleucid War (Aetolian War)", "theatre": "Aetolia", "place": "Naupactus", "lat": 38.39, "lon": 21.83, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Aetolian League" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Manius Acilius Glabrio", "commanders_b": "Aetolian League forces", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Aetolian League", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Glabrio's consular army with siege works (Livy 36.30, 36.34-35).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 36.30, 36.34-35; en.wikipedia Roman-Seleucid War", "note": "After about two months of assaults the siege was lifted on a truce arranged by Flamininus when the town was near falling; the city was not taken (by the siege rule a defence, hence draw)." }, { "id": 336, "key": "-190-myonessus", "name": "Myonessus", "year": -190, "month": 9, "day": null, "date": "September 190 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Roman-Seleucid War", "theatre": "Ionia", "place": "Off Cape Myonnesus, between Teos and Lebedus", "lat": 38.08, "lon": 26.9, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Seleucids" ], "allies_a": [ "Rhodes" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Aemilius Regillus, Eudamus of Rhodes", "commanders_b": "Polyxenidas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Seleucids", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "58 Roman warships with 22 Rhodian ships under Eudamus (Livy 37.29-30).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman fleet was the one raised in 191-190 with ships and crews from the Greek allied cities of southern Italy (socii navales); the Rhodians were allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 37.27-30; Appian, Syriaca 27; en.wikipedia Battle of Myonessus", "note": "Seleucid losses 29 sunk and 13 captured of 89; it gave Rome control of the Aegean." }, { "id": 337, "key": "-190-magnesia", "name": "Magnesia", "year": -190, "month": 12, "day": null, "date": "December 190 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Seleucid War", "theatre": "Lydia", "place": "Plain of the Hermus, near Magnesia ad Sipylum", "lat": 38.62, "lon": 27.43, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Seleucids" ], "allies_a": [ "Pergamon", "Achaean League" ], "allies_b": [ "Cappadocia", "Galatians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cornelius Scipio, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, Eumenes II", "commanders_b": "Antiochus III", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Seleucids", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Two Roman legions and two of Latin allies of 5,400 men each, about 3,000 cavalry (800 of them Eumenes's), some 3,000 Achaean and Pergamene light infantry, 500 Cretans and 500 Trallians, 2,000 Macedonian and Thracian volunteers guarding the camp, and 16 African elephants, about 30,000 in all (Livy 37.39).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Greek speakers (Achaean and Pergamene light troops, Cretans, Macedonian volunteers, Eumenes's horse) came to roughly 15% of the coalition, mostly in allied contingents.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 3, "sources": "Livy 37.38-44; Appian, Syriaca 30-36; en.wikipedia Battle of Magnesia", "note": "December 190 or January 189 BCE. Scipio Africanus was ill and absent; Domitius had effective command. Ariarathes IV of Cappadocia sent troops to Antiochus." }, { "id": 338, "key": "-190-amphissa-siege", "name": "Amphissa (siege)", "year": -190, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "190 BCE (spring)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Seleucid War (Aetolian War)", "theatre": "Locris", "place": "Amphissa and its citadel, held by the Aetolians", "lat": 38.53, "lon": 22.38, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Aetolian League" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Manius Acilius Glabrio, then Lucius Cornelius Scipio with Scipio Africanus", "commanders_b": "Aetolian garrison", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege broken off by a truce, not by the defence.", "main_enemy": "Aetolian League", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Glabrio's consular army of 191, two legions with Latin and Italian allies and siege engines, relieved by Lucius Scipio's new army of two legions with some 5,000 volunteer veterans of Africanus (Livy 37.4-7).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Italian consular armies; no Greek contingents are recorded at the siege.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 37.4-7; Polybius 21.4-5", "note": "Glabrio's rams brought down part of the wall and the townsmen withdrew to the citadel; the Scipios then granted the Aetolians a six-month truce so that the army could march to Asia, and the siege was given up (by the siege rule a defence, hence draw, as at Naupactus)." }, { "id": 339, "key": "-190-lamia-siege", "name": "Lamia (siege)", "year": -190, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "190 BCE (spring)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Seleucid War (Aetolian War)", "theatre": "Central Greece", "place": "Lamia", "lat": 38.9, "lon": 22.43, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Aetolian League" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Manius Acilius Glabrio", "commanders_b": "Aetolian garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Aetolian League", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Glabrio's proconsular army with siege works (Livy 37.4-5).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 37.4-5", "note": "Stormed on the day the walls were breached; Glabrio then besieged Amphissa until the Scipios arrived." }, { "id": 340, "key": "-190-lycon", "name": "Lycon", "year": -190, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "190 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Lusitanian raids", "theatre": "Hispania Ulterior", "place": "Near the town of Lycon, in the land of the Bastetani", "lat": 37.5, "lon": -2.8, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Lusitanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Unknown", "commanders_b": "Lucius Aemilius Paullus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Lusitanians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The praetor's army of Further Spain (normal establishment; not described).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A praetorian army of Romans and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 37.46, 37.57", "note": "Paullus lost 6,000 men and was driven back to his camp; he beat the Lusitanians the next year (Livy 37.57)." }, { "id": 341, "key": "-190-phocaea-siege", "name": "Phocaea (siege)", "year": -190, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "190 BCE (autumn)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Seleucid War", "theatre": "Ionia", "place": "Phocaea", "lat": 38.67, "lon": 26.75, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Aemilius Regillus", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Greek cities", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Marines and crews of the Roman fleet after Myonessus (Livy 37.31-32).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Fleet soldiers, some crews from Greek socii navales.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 37.31-32", "note": "Phocaea had gone over to Antiochus; after failed assaults it surrendered and was sacked by the soldiers against Aemilius's orders." }, { "id": 342, "key": "-189-mount-olympus", "name": "Mount Olympus", "year": -189, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "189 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Galatian War", "theatre": "Galatia", "place": "Mount Olympus in Galatia (Cile Dagi or Alis Dagi)", "lat": 39.98, "lon": 32.45, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Galatians" ], "allies_a": [ "Pergamon" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Manlius Vulso, Attalus", "commanders_b": "Gaulotus (Tolistobogii and Trocmi)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Galatians", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Manlius Vulso's army of about 10,000 legionaries with Latin and Italian allies, velites, Cretan archers, slingers, Trallian and Thracian light troops, and about 2,800 Pergamenes under Attalus and Athenaeus; some 30,000-35,000 in all by Grainger's estimate (Livy 38.12-23).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Cretan archers and Achaean and other Greek volunteers served under Roman command; the Pergamene contingent was allied.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 38.18-23; Polybius 21.37; en.wikipedia Galatian War", "note": "The Galatians held the heights and were broken by the Roman missile troops before the legions stormed the position; Livy's 40,000 killed or captured is considered exaggerated. The mountain is uncertainly identified." }, { "id": 343, "key": "-189-ancyra-mount-magaba", "name": "Ancyra (Mount Magaba)", "year": -189, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "189 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Galatian War", "theatre": "Galatia", "place": "Mount Magaba, east of Ancyra (probably Elmadag)", "lat": 39.85, "lon": 33.05, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Galatians" ], "allies_a": [ "Pergamon" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Manlius Vulso", "commanders_b": "Combolomarus (Tectosages and Trocmi)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Galatians", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "The same army as at Mount Olympus: legions and Italian allies with light troops and Pergamene allies (Livy 38.24-27).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Greek auxiliaries and Pergamene allies were a small part of the force.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 38.24-27; en.wikipedia Galatian War", "note": "Against the Tectosages and Trocmi; Livy gives about 8,000 killed." }, { "id": 344, "key": "-189-ambracia-siege", "name": "Ambracia (siege)", "year": -189, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "189 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Seleucid War (Aetolian War)", "theatre": "Epirus", "place": "Ambracia (Arta)", "lat": 39.16, "lon": 20.98, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Aetolian League" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Fulvius Nobilior", "commanders_b": "Aetolian garrison and the Ambraciots", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Aetolian League", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Fulvius Nobilior's consular army of two legions with Latin and Italian allies and a siege train, with Epirote support (Livy 38.3-9; Polybius 21.27-28).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The consul's Italian army; local Epirote help is mentioned but not as a fighting unit.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 21.25-30; Livy 38.3-9; en.wikipedia Roman-Seleucid War", "note": "Famous for the fighting in the Roman mine and the defenders' smoke counter-mine; the city surrendered on terms when the Aetolians sued for peace." }, { "id": 345, "key": "-189-same-siege", "name": "Same (siege)", "year": -189, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "189 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Seleucid War (Aetolian War)", "theatre": "Ionian islands", "place": "Same, Cephallenia", "lat": 38.25, "lon": 20.65, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Fulvius Nobilior", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Greek cities", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Fulvius Nobilior's army with siege works, supported by 100 slingers from Aegium, Patrae and Dyme (Livy 38.28-29).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Achaean slingers from Aegium, Patrae and Dyme served with the Romans.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 38.28-29", "note": "Same refused to accept terms and was stormed after a siege of four months; the inhabitants were sold." }, { "id": 346, "key": "-188-thracian-ambush", "name": "Thracian ambush", "year": -188, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "188 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Galatian War (return march)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "A defile on the road beyond Cypsela, near the Hebrus", "lat": 40.95, "lon": 26.35, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Thracians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Manlius Vulso (Quintus Minucius Thermus killed)", "commanders_b": "Unknown (Astii, Caeni, Maduateni, Coreli)", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A named ambush only by its region.", "main_enemy": "Thracians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Manlius Vulso's army returning from Asia with its baggage train (Livy 38.40-41).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The legions and Italian allies of the Asian army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 38.40-41", "note": "The army fought its way through but lost much of its baggage and the legate Minucius Thermus." }, { "id": 347, "key": "-187-mons-auginus", "name": "Mons Auginus", "year": -187, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "187 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Ligurian wars", "theatre": "Liguria", "place": "Mons Auginus, in the northern Apennines", "lat": 44.3, "lon": 10.6, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ligurians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Flaminius", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A mountain assault in a campaign of subjugation; Livy names the mountain, standard works hardly treat it as a battle.", "main_enemy": "Ligurians", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consul Flaminius's army of two legions with Latin and Italian allies (normal establishment; Livy 39.2).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 39.2", "note": "Against the Friniates and Apuani; site unknown." }, { "id": 348, "key": "-187-suismontium", "name": "Suismontium", "year": -187, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "187 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Ligurian wars", "theatre": "Liguria", "place": "Mons Ballista and Suismontium, in the northern Apennines", "lat": 44.4, "lon": 10.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ligurians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Aemilius Lepidus", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A mountain assault in a campaign of subjugation, named by Livy only by the mountains.", "main_enemy": "Ligurians", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consul Aemilius Lepidus's army of two legions with Latin and Italian allies (normal establishment; Livy 39.2).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 39.2", "note": "Against the Friniates; Ballista is sometimes put at Monte Valestra (Reggio Emilia Apennines)." }, { "id": 349, "key": "-186-saltus-marcius", "name": "Saltus Marcius", "year": -186, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "186 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Ligurian wars", "theatre": "Liguria", "place": "A wooded pass in the land of the Apuani, later called the Saltus Marcius (probably in the Garfagnana)", "lat": 44.1, "lon": 10.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Ligurians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Unknown (Apuani)", "commanders_b": "Quintus Marcius Philippus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ligurians", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consul Marcius's army of legions and Latin allies; it lost 4,000 men, three standards of the second legion and eleven of the Latin allies (Livy 39.20).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 39.20; en.wikipedia Apuani; en.wikipedia Quintus Marcius Philippus (consul 186 BC)", "note": "A named ambush." }, { "id": 350, "key": "-186-hasta", "name": "Hasta", "year": -186, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "186 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Lusitanian raids", "theatre": "Hispania Ulterior", "place": "Near Hasta (Hasta Regia, near Jerez)", "lat": 36.73, "lon": -6.07, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Lusitanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Atinius (killed)", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Lusitanians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The praetor's army of Further Spain (normal establishment; not described).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A praetorian army of Romans and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 39.21", "note": "Atinius beat the Lusitanians near Hasta (6,000 killed) and then stormed the town, but was mortally wounded in the assault." }, { "id": 351, "key": "-186-calagurris", "name": "Calagurris", "year": -186, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "186 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Spanish wars", "theatre": "Hispania Citerior", "place": "Near Calagurris (Calahorra), on the Ebro", "lat": 42.3, "lon": -1.97, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Manlius Acidinus", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The praetor's army of Hither Spain (normal establishment; not described).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A praetorian army of Romans and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 39.21", "note": "After an indecisive first battle the Celtiberians attacked again near Calagurris and were routed (Livy gives 12,000 killed)." }, { "id": 352, "key": "-185-toletum", "name": "Toletum", "year": -185, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "185 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Spanish wars", "theatre": "Carpetania", "place": "Between Dipo and Toletum, Carpetania", "lat": 39.8, "lon": -4.3, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Celtiberians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Unknown", "commanders_b": "Gaius Calpurnius Piso, Lucius Quinctius Crispinus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The combined praetorian armies of both Spanish provinces, Romans, Latin allies and Spanish auxiliaries (Livy 39.30).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans, Italian allies and native auxiliaries; no Greek units.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 39.30; en.wikipedia Celtiberian Wars", "note": "A foragers' clash grew into a battle; the praetors lost about 5,000 men and were driven to their camp. Opponents: Celtiberians, Vettones and Carpetani." }, { "id": 353, "key": "-185-tagus", "name": "Tagus", "year": -185, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "185 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Spanish wars", "theatre": "Carpetania", "place": "At a ford of the Tagus, near Toletum", "lat": 39.85, "lon": -4.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Calpurnius Piso, Lucius Quinctius Crispinus", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The combined praetorian armies of both Spanish provinces, Roman legionaries, Latin allies and Spanish auxiliaries (Livy 39.30-31).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans, Italian allies and native auxiliaries; no Greek units.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 39.30-31; en.wikipedia Celtiberian Wars", "note": "A decisive Roman victory a few days after the defeat near Toletum; Livy says few of the enemy escaped." }, { "id": 354, "key": "-182-urbicua-siege", "name": "Urbicua (siege)", "year": -182, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "182 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Celtiberian War", "theatre": "Celtiberia", "place": "Urbicua (site unknown)", "lat": 40.5, "lon": -2.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Fulvius Flaccus", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Briefly told; the relief battles are not named.", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The praetor Fulvius Flaccus's army of Hither Spain, a legion with Latin allies and Spanish auxiliaries (normal establishment).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans, Italian allies and native auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 40.16; en.wikipedia Celtiberian Wars", "note": "Flaccus took the town after beating off Celtiberian relief attempts." }, { "id": 355, "key": "-181-aebura", "name": "Aebura", "year": -181, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "181 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Celtiberian War", "theatre": "Carpetania", "place": "Near Aebura (perhaps Cuerva, Toledo)", "lat": 39.66, "lon": -4.21, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Fulvius Flaccus", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Flaccus's army of Roman legionaries, Latin allies and native Spanish auxiliaries, reinforced by 3,000 Roman and 6,000 allied infantry with 500 cavalry; it lost about 200 Romans, 830 allies and 2,400 native auxiliaries (Livy 40.30-32).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Livy lists Romans, Latin allies and Spanish auxiliaries; no Greek units.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 40.30-32; en.wikipedia Celtiberian Wars", "note": "Livy gives 23,000 Celtiberians killed and 4,700 captured; en.wikipedia's Celtiberian Wars article dates it 182." }, { "id": 356, "key": "-181-contrebia", "name": "Contrebia", "year": -181, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "181 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Celtiberian War", "theatre": "Celtiberia", "place": "Contrebia (probably Contrebia Carbica, near Huete)", "lat": 40.08, "lon": -2.63, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Fulvius Flaccus", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Flaccus's army of Roman legionaries, Latin allies and Spanish auxiliaries (Livy 40.33).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans, Italian allies and native auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 40.33; en.wikipedia Celtiberian Wars", "note": "The town surrendered, and a Celtiberian relief army arriving late was caught and destroyed (about 12,000 killed)." }, { "id": 357, "key": "-181-albingaunum", "name": "Albingaunum", "year": -181, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "181 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Ligurian wars", "theatre": "Liguria", "place": "Paullus's camp in the land of the Ingauni, near Albingaunum (Albenga)", "lat": 44.05, "lon": 8.21, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ligurians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Aemilius Paullus", "commanders_b": "Unknown (Ingauni)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The battle has no name of its own; named here for the Ingaunian town.", "main_enemy": "Ligurians", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The proconsul Paullus's army of legions and Latin allies, besieged for some days in its camp (Livy 40.25-28).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 40.25-28", "note": "Paullus broke out of his blockaded camp and routed the Ingauni (Livy gives 15,000 killed), ending their war." }, { "id": 358, "key": "-180-manlian-pass", "name": "Manlian Pass", "year": -180, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "180 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Celtiberian War", "theatre": "Celtiberia", "place": "The Saltus Manlianus, in the Iberian mountains (site unknown)", "lat": 41.0, "lon": -2.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Fulvius Flaccus", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Flaccus's veteran army on its march out of the province, legions with Latin allies, Spanish auxiliaries and Roman and allied cavalry (Livy 40.39-40).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans, Italian allies and native auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 40.39-40; en.wikipedia Battle of Manlian Pass", "note": "An ambush that Flaccus turned into a victory (17,000 Celtiberians killed, about 4,400 Roman losses). en.wikipedia's List of Roman battles gives 181, its article 180." }, { "id": 359, "key": "-179-complega", "name": "Complega", "year": -179, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "179 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Celtiberian War", "theatre": "Celtiberia", "place": "Near Complega, a newly fortified Celtiberian town (site unknown)", "lat": 41.7, "lon": -1.7, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Told briefly by Appian alone.", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Gracchus's praetorian army of Hither Spain, legions with Latin allies and Spanish auxiliaries (normal establishment; Appian gives no numbers).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans, Italian allies and native auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 43; en.wikipedia Celtiberian Wars", "note": "Soon after the relief of Caravis the Complegans came to Gracchus's camp as suppliants with olive branches and then attacked; he abandoned the camp in feigned flight, fell on them while they plundered it, killed most of them and took Complega and the country around." }, { "id": 360, "key": "-179-caravis", "name": "Caravis", "year": -179, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "179 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Celtiberian War", "theatre": "Celtiberia", "place": "Caravis (Magallon, Zaragoza)", "lat": 41.83, "lon": -1.46, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A relief action told briefly by Appian.", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Gracchus's praetorian army of Hither Spain, legions with Latin allies and Spanish auxiliaries (normal establishment).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans, Italian allies and native auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 43; en.wikipedia Celtiberian Wars", "note": "Gracchus relieved the allied town, besieged by some 20,000 Celtiberians." }, { "id": 361, "key": "-179-alce", "name": "Alce", "year": -179, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "179 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Celtiberian War", "theatre": "Celtiberia", "place": "Alce (site unknown)", "lat": 40.5, "lon": -2.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus", "commanders_b": "Thurrus (later submitted)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Gracchus's army of legions with Latin allies and Spanish auxiliaries (Livy 40.47-49).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans, Italian allies and native auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 40.48-49; en.wikipedia Celtiberian Wars", "note": "Gracchus stormed the Celtiberian camp before Alce (Livy: 9,000 killed, 109 Romans lost) and then took the town." }, { "id": 362, "key": "-179-mons-chaunus", "name": "Mons Chaunus", "year": -179, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "179 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Celtiberian War", "theatre": "Celtiberia", "place": "Mons Chaunus (the Moncayo)", "lat": 41.79, "lon": -1.84, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Gracchus's army of legions with Latin allies and Spanish auxiliaries (Livy 40.50).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans, Italian allies and native auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 40.50; en.wikipedia Celtiberian Wars", "note": "A hard-fought indecisive battle, followed three days later by a second in which the Celtiberians were routed (22,000 killed per Livy)." }, { "id": 363, "key": "-178-lacus-timavi", "name": "Lacus Timavi", "year": -178, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "178 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Istrian War", "theatre": "Istria", "place": "The Roman camp near the Timavus springs (Lacus Timavi)", "lat": 45.79, "lon": 13.59, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Illyrians" ], "allies_a": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aulus Manlius Vulso, Titus Aelius (tribune)", "commanders_b": "Aepulo", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Illyrians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The consul Manlius Vulso's army of two legions with Latin allies, 3,000 Gallic auxiliaries under the chief Catmelus, and a supporting fleet (Livy 41.1-4).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans, Latin allies and Gallic auxiliaries; no Greek units.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 41.1-4; en.wikipedia Histri", "note": "Opponent: the Histri. They surprised and took the Roman camp, then were caught feasting in it and cut down (8,000 killed) when the legions returned." }, { "id": 364, "key": "-177-nesactium-siege", "name": "Nesactium (siege)", "year": -177, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "177 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Istrian War", "theatre": "Istria", "place": "Nesactium (Nesazio), Istria", "lat": 44.92, "lon": 13.97, "loc": "known", "country": "Croatia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Illyrians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Claudius Pulcher, Marcus Junius Brutus, Aulus Manlius Vulso", "commanders_b": "Aepulo (killed himself)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Illyrians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The consul Claudius's army with the proconsular armies of Junius and Manlius, legions with Latin allies (Livy 41.11).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 41.11; en.wikipedia Histri", "note": "Opponent: the Histri. The Romans diverted the river that supplied the town and stormed it; Mutila and Faveria were also taken by assault." }, { "id": 365, "key": "-177-scultenna", "name": "Scultenna", "year": -177, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "177 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Ligurian wars", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "On the Scultenna (Panaro) river", "lat": 44.55, "lon": 11.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ligurians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Claudius Pulcher", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ligurians", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consul Claudius's army of legions with Latin allies (Livy 41.12).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 41.12", "note": "Livy gives 15,000 Ligurians killed." }, { "id": 366, "key": "-176-mutina-siege", "name": "Mutina (siege)", "year": -176, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "176 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Ligurian wars", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "Mutina (Modena)", "lat": 44.65, "lon": 10.93, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ligurians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Claudius Pulcher", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ligurians", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The proconsul Claudius's army of legions and Latin allies (Livy 41.16).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 41.14, 41.16", "note": "The Ligurians had taken the Roman colony late in 177; Claudius stormed it back within three days (8,000 Ligurians killed)." }, { "id": 367, "key": "-176-mons-letum", "name": "Mons Letum", "year": -176, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "176 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Ligurian wars", "theatre": "Liguria", "place": "Mons Letum, in the Apennines (site unknown)", "lat": 44.4, "lon": 10.6, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ligurians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Petillius Spurinus (killed), Gaius Valerius Laevinus", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ligurians", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consular armies of Petillius and Valerius, legions with Latin allies (Livy 41.18).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 41.18; Valerius Maximus 1.5.9", "note": "The consul Petillius was killed leading the assault on the mountain, but the Ligurians were routed (Livy gives 5,000 killed)." }, { "id": 368, "key": "-173-carystus-liguria", "name": "Carystus (Liguria)", "year": -173, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "173 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Ligurian wars", "theatre": "Liguria", "place": "Near Carystus, in the land of the Statellates (near Aquae Statiellae)", "lat": 44.68, "lon": 8.47, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ligurians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Popillius Laenas", "commanders_b": "Unknown (Statellates)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ligurians", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consul Popillius's army of legions with Latin allies; it lost about 3,000 men (Livy 42.7).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 42.7-9", "note": "Livy gives 10,000 Statellates killed; their surrender and enslavement by Popillius caused a scandal in Rome." }, { "id": 369, "key": "-171-callinicus", "name": "Callinicus", "year": -171, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "171 BCE (summer)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Macedonian War", "theatre": "Thessaly", "place": "The hill Callinicus, near the Roman camp a few km north of Larissa", "lat": 39.68, "lon": 22.42, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Macedon" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Thracians" ], "allies_b": [ "Pergamon", "Thessalian League", "Aetolian League" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Perseus, Cotys IV", "commanders_b": "Publius Licinius Crassus, Eumenes II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Licinius's army of two legions of 6,000 with 16,000 allied infantry and 800 cavalry, joined by Eumenes's 4,000 foot and 1,000 horse; the legions stayed in camp, and the fighting fell to the Italian cavalry and light infantry on the right, the cavalry and light troops of the Greek allies (Aetolians among them) on the left, 400 Thessalian horse, and Eumenes's 200 Gauls and 300 Cretans (Livy 42.31, 42.55-60).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Greek allied cavalry and light infantry formed the whole left wing, so Greek speakers were a large share of the troops engaged, though a minor share of the whole army.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy 42.57-60; en.wikipedia Battle of Callinicus; en.wikipedia Third Macedonian War", "note": "A cavalry battle; the Romans lost about 2,000 foot and 200 horse and moved their camp across the Peneus. Cotys IV led the Odrysian Thracians for Perseus." }, { "id": 370, "key": "-171-phalanna", "name": "Phalanna", "year": -171, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "171 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Macedonian War", "theatre": "Thessaly", "place": "Near Phalanna, Perrhaebia", "lat": 39.71, "lon": 22.36, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Macedon" ], "allies_a": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Licinius Crassus", "commanders_b": "Perseus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "A Roman foraging force, about 800 of whom were trapped on a hill, relieved by the consul with light infantry, cavalry, Numidians and elephants (Livy 42.65-66).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian troops with Numidian allies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 42.65-66; en.wikipedia Third Macedonian War", "note": "Perseus first captured about 1,000 carts and 600 men, then was driven off when the consul came up; Livy reports a second, much larger version from other sources." }, { "id": 371, "key": "-171-haliartus-siege", "name": "Haliartus (siege)", "year": -171, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "171 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Macedonian War", "theatre": "Boeotia", "place": "Haliartus, Boeotia", "lat": 38.37, "lon": 23.1, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [ "Pergamon" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Lucretius Gallus", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Greek cities", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "About 10,000 socii navales from the praetor Lucretius's fleet, with 2,000 Pergamene troops under Eumenes's brother Athenaeus (Livy 42.63).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The assault was made by the fleet's socii navales, recruited largely in the Greek and Oscan coastal cities of southern Italy; the Pergamenes were allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 42.63; en.wikipedia Third Macedonian War", "note": "Haliartus, a Boeotian city that sided with Perseus (with some Macedonian help), was stormed and razed; 2,500 were sold." }, { "id": 372, "key": "-170-uscana", "name": "Uscana", "year": -170, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "170 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Macedonian War", "theatre": "Illyria", "place": "Uscana, in the land of the Penestae (near Kicevo)", "lat": 41.51, "lon": 20.96, "loc": "approx", "country": "North Macedonia", "side_a": [ "Macedon" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Cretan garrison of Perseus", "commanders_b": "Appius Claudius Cento", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "About 8,000 men gathered by the legate Appius Claudius in Illyria, Roman troops with local levies (Livy 43.9-10).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman troops with Illyrian levies; contingents from the Greek coastal cities served in this command but are not named here.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 43.10; en.wikipedia Third Macedonian War", "note": "A night attack that failed when the garrison sallied; only about 1,000 escaped." }, { "id": 373, "key": "-169-uscana-siege", "name": "Uscana (siege)", "year": -169, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "winter 170/169 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Macedonian War", "theatre": "Illyria", "place": "Uscana, in the land of the Penestae", "lat": 41.51, "lon": 20.96, "loc": "approx", "country": "North Macedonia", "side_a": [ "Macedon" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Perseus", "commanders_b": "Roman garrison commanders", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "A garrison of about 4,000, Roman soldiers and Illyrian troops (Livy 43.18-19).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Livy describes the garrison as Romans and Illyrians.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 43.18-19; en.wikipedia Third Macedonian War", "note": "After an assault the garrison capitulated on terms; Perseus disarmed it and sold the townspeople. Livy dates it to Perseus's winter campaign." }, { "id": 374, "key": "-169-heracleum-siege", "name": "Heracleum (siege)", "year": -169, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "169 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Macedonian War", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Heracleum, on the coast below Olympus", "lat": 40.01, "lon": 22.59, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Macedon" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Marcius Philippus", "commanders_b": "Macedonian garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "A detachment of the consul's army, about 2,000 men (Livy 44.8-9).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian legionaries.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 44.8-9; en.wikipedia Third Macedonian War", "note": "Livy describes the wall being scaled by a shield 'testudo' of the kind young soldiers practised in the circus games." }, { "id": 375, "key": "-169-cassandreia-siege", "name": "Cassandreia (siege)", "year": -169, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "169 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Macedonian War", "theatre": "Chalcidice", "place": "Cassandreia, Pallene", "lat": 40.04, "lon": 23.42, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Macedon" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Pergamon", "Bithynia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Macedonian garrison", "commanders_b": "Gaius Marcius Figulus, Eumenes II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "The praetor Marcius Figulus's fleet with its soldiers, joined by 20 ships of Eumenes and 5 of Prusias II (Livy 44.10-12).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Fleet soldiers and crews, some from Greek socii navales; the Pergamene and Bithynian ships were allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 44.10-12; en.wikipedia Third Macedonian War", "note": "The garrison beat off the assault and Gallic auxiliaries arrived by sea from Thessalonica; the siege was given up." }, { "id": 376, "key": "-169-meliboea-siege", "name": "Meliboea (siege)", "year": -169, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "169 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Macedonian War", "theatre": "Magnesia", "place": "Meliboea, on the coast below Ossa", "lat": 39.72, "lon": 22.8, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Macedon" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Euphranor (relief)", "commanders_b": "Quintus Marcius Philippus (by detachment)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The siege was abandoned without a battle when a relief force of 2,000 approached.", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "A detachment of about 5,000 men from the consul's army (Livy 44.13).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Italian troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 44.13; en.wikipedia Third Macedonian War", "note": "The Romans burned their siege works and withdrew." }, { "id": 377, "key": "-168-pydna", "name": "Pydna", "year": -168, "month": 6, "day": 22, "date": "22 June 168 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Macedonian War", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "The plain south of Pydna, near Katerini", "lat": 40.3, "lon": 22.55, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Macedon" ], "allies_a": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Aemilius Paullus", "commanders_b": "Perseus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Two legions with Latin and Italian allies (Marrucini, Paeligni, Samnite cavalry are named), Greek, Ligurian and other auxiliaries and 22 elephants: about 29,000-37,000 men (Livy 44.40-42; Plutarch, Aemilius 16-22).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Greek allied infantry stood with the Latin and Italian allies on the flanks of the legions, a small share of the army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 3, "sources": "Livy 44.36-42; Plutarch, Aemilius 16-22; en.wikipedia Battle of Pydna", "note": "Dated by the lunar eclipse of the night before. Numidian elephants and troops had been sent by Masinissa; an Athenian decree also mentions Attalid troops." }, { "id": 378, "key": "-168-elpeus", "name": "Elpeus", "year": -168, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 168 BCE (the days before Pydna)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Macedonian War", "theatre": "Pieria (Macedonia)", "place": "The dry bed of the Elpeus (Enipeus) below Mount Olympus, where Perseus held a fortified line", "lat": 40.1, "lon": 22.52, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Macedon" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Aemilius Paullus", "commanders_b": "Perseus", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Holding attacks to pin Perseus while Nasica marched round; Livy's text breaks off in a gap.", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Paullus's consular army, two legions with Latin and Italian allies and allied auxiliaries, less the picked force sent round by Pythium with Scipio Nasica; the fighting in the river bed fell mainly to the light troops (Livy 44.35).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Greek allied auxiliaries (Cretans among them) served with the Italian army, a small share of it.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 44.35; en.wikipedia Third Macedonian War", "note": "Paullus attacked the Macedonian line in the river bed on successive mornings and drew off at midday; the outcome is lost in a lacuna of Livy. Nasica's success at Pythium then forced Perseus back to Pydna." }, { "id": 379, "key": "-168-pythium", "name": "Pythium", "year": -168, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 168 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Macedonian War", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "The pass of Pythium (Petra) over Olympus", "lat": 40.03, "lon": 22.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Macedon" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum, Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus", "commanders_b": "Milo", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "A picked flanking force: 5,000 men by Livy; by Nasica's own letter (in Plutarch) 3,000 Italian allies and 5,000 of the left wing, with 120 horse and 200 Thracians and Cretans (Livy 44.35; Plutarch, Aemilius 15-16).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Only the small Cretan detachment was Greek.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 44.35; Plutarch, Aemilius 15-16", "note": "Nasica's column turned the Macedonian line on the Elpeus, and Perseus fell back to Pydna." }, { "id": 380, "key": "-168-scodra", "name": "Scodra", "year": -168, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "168 BCE (spring)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Illyrian War", "theatre": "Illyria", "place": "Scodra (Shkoder)", "lat": 42.05, "lon": 19.49, "loc": "known", "country": "Albania", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Illyrians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Anicius Gallus", "commanders_b": "Gentius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Illyrians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Two legions (10,400 foot, 600 horse) with 10,000 Italian allied foot and 800 horse, a fleet, and 2,000 foot and 200 horse of the Parthini (Livy 44.21, 44.30-31).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romans, Italian allies and Illyrian Parthini; any Greek element came only from fleet crews.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy 44.30-32; en.wikipedia Third Illyrian War", "note": "The Illyrians sallied and were beaten back at the gates; Gentius asked for a truce and surrendered three days later. The campaign lasted about thirty days." }, { "id": 381, "key": "-156-delminium-siege", "name": "Delminium (siege)", "year": -156, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "156-155 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Dalmatian War", "theatre": "Dalmatia", "place": "Delminium (near Tomislavgrad)", "lat": 43.71, "lon": 17.23, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bosnia and Herzegovina", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Illyrians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Marcius Figulus, Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Corculum", "commanders_b": "Unknown (Dalmatae)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Illyrians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The consular armies of Marcius Figulus (156) and Scipio Nasica (155), legions with Latin and Italian allies (normal establishment; Appian, Illyrica 11).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Illyrica 11; Florus 2.25; Livy, Periochae 47", "note": "Opponent: the Dalmatae. Figulus burned much of the town with fire-darts in 156; Nasica completed its capture in 155." }, { "id": 382, "key": "-154-aegitna", "name": "Aegitna", "year": -154, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "154 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Ligurian wars", "theatre": "Transalpine Liguria", "place": "Aegitna, on the coast near Antipolis (perhaps Cannes)", "lat": 43.55, "lon": 7.01, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ligurians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Opimius", "commanders_b": "Unknown (Oxybii and Deciates)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ligurians", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consul Opimius's army, assembled at Placentia and marched over the Apennines (Polybius 33.9-10).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian consular army; Massalia, whose colonies were threatened, is not recorded as sending troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Polybius 33.8-11; attalus.org", "note": "Opimius stormed Aegitna, then defeated the Oxybii and the Deciates in the field, on behalf of Massalia's colonies Nicaea and Antipolis." }, { "id": 383, "key": "-153-vulcanalia-ambush", "name": "Vulcanalia ambush", "year": -153, "month": 8, "day": 23, "date": "23 August 153 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Celtiberian War", "theatre": "Celtiberia", "place": "A wooded defile between Segeda and the land of the Arevaci (site unknown)", "lat": 41.4, "lon": -1.9, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Celtiberians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Carus of Segeda (killed)", "commanders_b": "Quintus Fulvius Nobilior", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Nobilior's consular army of nearly 30,000, legions with Latin and Italian allies (Appian, Iberica 45).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 45; en.wikipedia Second Celtiberian War", "note": "Unnamed in Appian; sometimes called the battle of Segeda. About 6,000 Romans fell; Carus and 6,000 of his men were then cut down by the Roman cavalry. The date is the festival of Vulcan in the Roman civil calendar, after which Romans would not fight on that day." }, { "id": 384, "key": "-153-tagus", "name": "Tagus", "year": -153, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "153 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Lusitanian War", "theatre": "Hispania Ulterior", "place": "On the Tagus (site unknown)", "lat": 39.6, "lon": -6.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Lusitanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Caesarus", "commanders_b": "Lucius Mummius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Lusitanians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The praetor Mummius's army of Further Spain, Romans and Italian allies (normal establishment; Appian, Iberica 56).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A praetorian army of Romans and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 56; en.wikipedia Battle of the Tagus (153 BC)", "note": "Mummius routed the Lusitanians but lost order in the pursuit; they turned, took his camp and killed about 9,000." }, { "id": 385, "key": "-153-ocile", "name": "Ocile", "year": -153, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "153 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Lusitanian War", "theatre": "North Africa", "place": "Ocile (Okile), across the strait (probably Zilil, near Asilah)", "lat": 35.45, "lon": -6.03, "loc": "approx", "country": "Morocco", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Lusitanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Mummius", "commanders_b": "Caucaenus (the Lusitanians south of the Tagus)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Lusitanians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Mummius's rebuilt praetorian army of Further Spain (Appian, Iberica 57).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A praetorian army of Romans and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 57; en.wikipedia Lusitanian War", "note": "Lusitanian raiders who had crossed to Africa were besieging Ocile; Mummius killed many of them and raised the siege. The identification of Ocile is uncertain." }, { "id": 386, "key": "-153-numantia", "name": "Numantia", "year": -153, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "153 BCE (autumn)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Celtiberian War", "theatre": "Celtiberia", "place": "Before Numantia", "lat": 41.81, "lon": -2.44, "loc": "known", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Celtiberians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Numidia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ambo, Leuco", "commanders_b": "Quintus Fulvius Nobilior", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Nobilior's consular army with 300 Numidian cavalry and 10 elephants sent by Masinissa (Appian, Iberica 46).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian consular army with Numidian allies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 46; en.wikipedia Second Celtiberian War", "note": "The Romans drove the Numantines to their walls, then a wounded elephant panicked the others; the sortie killed about 4,000 Romans." }, { "id": 387, "key": "-153-axinium", "name": "Axinium", "year": -153, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "153 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Celtiberian War", "theatre": "Celtiberia", "place": "Axinium (site unknown)", "lat": 41.6, "lon": -2.6, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Celtiberians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Unknown", "commanders_b": "Quintus Fulvius Nobilior", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A failed attack on a town, told in one sentence.", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Nobilior's consular army after its defeat at Numantia (Appian, Iberica 47).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 47; en.wikipedia Second Celtiberian War", "note": "The attack achieved nothing and cost many men." }, { "id": 388, "key": "-152-oxthracae", "name": "Oxthracae", "year": -152, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "152 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Lusitanian War", "theatre": "Lusitania", "place": "Oxthracae, the largest town of the Lusitanians (site unknown)", "lat": 39.5, "lon": -6.8, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Lusitanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Atilius Serranus", "commanders_b": "Unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Appian says only that Atilius killed about 700 Lusitanians and took the town; not treated as a battle in modern works.", "main_enemy": "Lusitanians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The praetor Atilius's army of Further Spain, Romans and Italian allies (normal establishment; Appian, Iberica 58).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A praetorian army of Romans and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 58; en.wikipedia Lusitanian War", "note": "The neighbouring peoples, some of the Vettones among them, then submitted, but rose again when Atilius went into winter quarters. The site is unidentified; the coordinates mark only the region." }, { "id": 389, "key": "-151-pallantia-siege", "name": "Pallantia (siege)", "year": -151, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "151 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Celtiberian War", "theatre": "Land of the Vaccaei", "place": "Pallantia (Palencia), city of the Vaccaei", "lat": 42.01, "lon": -4.53, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Celtiberians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Unknown (Pallantini)", "commanders_b": "Lucius Licinius Lucullus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege given up for want of supplies; harassing attacks rather than a pitched battle.", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Lucullus's consular army, the same that had taken Cauca and besieged Intercatia (Appian, Iberica 55).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 55; en.wikipedia Celtiberian Wars", "note": "The Pallantine horsemen harassed his foragers until Lucullus, short of food, raised the siege and retreated under pursuit. Pallantia is usually placed at Palencia; some prefer Palenzuela." }, { "id": 390, "key": "-151-cauca", "name": "Cauca", "year": -151, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "151 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Celtiberian War", "theatre": "Land of the Vaccaei", "place": "Cauca (Coca, Segovia)", "lat": 41.22, "lon": -4.52, "loc": "known", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Licinius Lucullus", "commanders_b": "Unknown (Vaccaei)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The consul Lucullus's army of legions with Latin and Italian allies (Appian, Iberica 51-52).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 51-52; en.wikipedia Second Celtiberian War", "note": "Opponent: the Vaccaei, not at war with Rome. About 3,000 Caucaei fell fighting at the gates; after their surrender Lucullus's troops massacred the town." }, { "id": 391, "key": "-151-intercatia-siege", "name": "Intercatia (siege)", "year": -151, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "151 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Celtiberian War", "theatre": "Land of the Vaccaei", "place": "Intercatia (site uncertain, perhaps near Villalpando)", "lat": 41.9, "lon": -5.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Licinius Lucullus, Scipio Aemilianus", "commanders_b": "Unknown (Vaccaei)", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Lucullus's consular army (Appian, Iberica 53-54).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 53-54; en.wikipedia Second Celtiberian War", "note": "Roman assaults on the walls failed; Scipio Aemilianus won a single combat and the town made terms, paying cloaks, cattle and hostages. Not taken (by the siege rule a defence; terms favoured Rome)." }, { "id": 392, "key": "-149-carthage-siege", "name": "Carthage (siege)", "year": -149, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "149-146 BCE (the city fell in spring 146 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Punic War", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "Carthage", "lat": 36.85, "lon": 10.32, "loc": "known", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Manius Manilius, Lucius Marcius Censorinus, Lucius Calpurnius Piso, Lucius Hostilius Mancinus, Scipio Aemilianus", "commanders_b": "Hasdrubal the Boeotarch", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Two consular armies (four legions with Latin and Italian allies) and a fleet: about 40,000-50,000 men with 4,000 cavalry by modern estimate, against Appian's 80,000 foot and 4,000 horse; Numidian cavalry under Gulussa joined later (Appian, Punica 75, 93-135).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "An Italian army; only the fleet crews (socii navales) included Greeks of southern Italy, and Polybius was present as Scipio's adviser.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Appian, Punica 75-135; Polybius 38-39 (fragments); en.wikipedia Siege of Carthage (Third Punic War); en.wikipedia Third Punic War", "note": "One entry for the siege: the failed assaults of 149, the fire-ship attack, Mancinus's lodgement and Scipio's night attack on Megara in 147, and the six-day street fighting of spring 146 that ended at the Byrsa. The naval battle of 147 is a separate entry." }, { "id": 393, "key": "-149-nepheris", "name": "Nepheris", "year": -149, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "149 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Punic War", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "Hasdrubal's camp at Nepheris, south-east of Tunis", "lat": 36.63, "lon": 10.4, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hasdrubal the Boeotarch, Himilco Phameas", "commanders_b": "Manius Manilius, Scipio Aemilianus (military tribune)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Manilius's consular army of legions and Italian allies, with Scipio's cavalry squadrons covering the retreat (Appian, Punica 102-104).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Punica 102-104; en.wikipedia Third Punic War", "note": "Manilius attacked the strong camp against Scipio's advice and suffered heavily in the withdrawal across a river; a second expedition later that year made no progress." }, { "id": 394, "key": "-148-thrace", "name": "Thrace", "year": -148, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "148 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Fourth Macedonian War", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Thrace, site unknown", "lat": 41.5, "lon": 25.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Macedon" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Thracians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Caecilius Metellus", "commanders_b": "Andriscus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from brief notices; no site is named.", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Metellus's consular army that had won at Pydna, two legions with allies (en.wikipedia, from Zonaras).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "An Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zonaras 9.28; Livy, Periochae 50; en.wikipedia Fourth Macedonian War", "note": "After Pydna Andriscus raised a new army in Thrace; Metellus forced a battle before the levies were ready and routed it. Andriscus fled to the Thracian chief Byzes, who handed him over." }, { "id": 395, "key": "-148-defeat-of-juventius-thalna", "name": "Defeat of Juventius Thalna", "year": -148, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 149 or early 148 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Fourth Macedonian War", "theatre": "Macedonia or Thessaly", "place": "Site unknown (Macedonia or Thessaly)", "lat": 39.9, "lon": 22.3, "loc": "region", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Macedon" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Thracians" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Andriscus", "commanders_b": "Publius Juventius Thalna (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The battle has no name or known site in the sources.", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "The praetor Juventius's army of one legion with allied troops, probably with Greek contingents (Livy, Periochae 50; Florus 1.30; Zonaras 9.28).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A small Roman army that may have included Greek allied contingents.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy, Periochae 50; Florus 1.30; Zonaras 9.28; en.wikipedia Fourth Macedonian War", "note": "Juventius was killed and his army almost destroyed, Rome's worst defeat so far by a Hellenistic power." }, { "id": 396, "key": "-148-hippo-diarrhytus-siege", "name": "Hippo Diarrhytus (siege)", "year": -148, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "148 BCE (summer)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Punic War", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "Hippo Diarrhytus (Bizerte)", "lat": 37.27, "lon": 9.87, "loc": "known", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Unknown (the townsmen of Hippo)", "commanders_b": "Lucius Calpurnius Piso", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The consul Piso's army of legions and Italian allies with siege engines (Appian, Punica 110).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian consular army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Punica 110; en.wikipedia Third Punic War", "note": "A sortie burned the Roman siege engines and Piso gave up the siege for winter quarters." }, { "id": 397, "key": "-148-aspis-siege", "name": "Aspis (siege)", "year": -148, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "148 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Punic War", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "Aspis (Clupea, Kelibia)", "lat": 36.85, "lon": 11.1, "loc": "known", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Carthage" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Unknown", "commanders_b": "Lucius Calpurnius Piso, Lucius Hostilius Mancinus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Briefly told: assaults by land and sea that failed.", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Piso's army with Mancinus's fleet (Appian, Punica 110).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions and Italian allies, with fleet crews partly Greek socii navales.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Punica 110; en.wikipedia Third Punic War", "note": "" }, { "id": 398, "key": "-148-pydna", "name": "Pydna", "year": -148, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "148 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Fourth Macedonian War", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "The plain near Pydna", "lat": 40.37, "lon": 22.6, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Macedon" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Thracians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Caecilius Metellus", "commanders_b": "Andriscus, Telestes (defected)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Macedon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Metellus's consular army of two legions with allies, about 20,000 men by modern estimate (en.wikipedia, from Livy's Periochae and Zonaras).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "An Italian consular army; the Attalid fleet that supported the advance is not recorded in the battle.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy, Periochae 50; Zonaras 9.28; Florus 1.30; en.wikipedia Second Battle of Pydna", "note": "Andriscus won a first cavalry skirmish, but his cavalry commander Telestes deserted; Metellus then routed his army. Andriscus was beaten again in Thrace and handed over by the Thracian Byzes." }, { "id": 399, "key": "-147-port-of-carthage", "name": "Port of Carthage", "year": -147, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "147 BCE (summer)", "type": "sea", "war": "Third Punic War", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "Outside the harbours of Carthage, Gulf of Tunis", "lat": 36.84, "lon": 10.33, "loc": "known", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Scipio Aemilianus (en.wikipedia names Lucius Hostilius Mancinus)", "commanders_b": "Hasdrubal the Boeotarch", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "The Roman blockading fleet; its size is not given (Appian, Punica 121-123).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman fleets of the period were manned largely by socii navales from the Greek and Oscan coastal cities of southern Italy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Punica 121-123; en.wikipedia Battle of the Port of Carthage; en.wikipedia Third Punic War", "note": "The new Carthaginian fleet of some 50 triremes sailed out through a newly cut channel; the first day was indecisive, and in the withdrawal many Carthaginian ships jammed at the quay were sunk or taken. en.wikipedia's infobox calls it a Carthaginian victory; the blockade held." }, { "id": 400, "key": "-147-nepheris", "name": "Nepheris", "year": -147, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "winter 147/146 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Punic War", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "The Carthaginian camp and town of Nepheris", "lat": 36.63, "lon": 10.4, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Carthage" ], "allies_a": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Scipio Aemilianus, Gaius Laelius, Gulussa", "commanders_b": "Diogenes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Carthage", "opponent_group": "Carthaginians", "roman_force": "Scipio's legions and Italian allies, with Gulussa's Numidian cavalry pursuing the fugitives (Appian, Punica 126).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman and Latin-Italian army with Numidian allies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Punica 126; en.wikipedia Third Punic War", "note": "The camp was stormed from several sides; Nepheris town surrendered after a siege of about three weeks. Called the Second Battle of Nepheris in en.wikipedia's list." }, { "id": 401, "key": "-147-tribola", "name": "Tribola", "year": -147, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "147 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Lusitanian War", "theatre": "Hispania Ulterior", "place": "A wooded pass near Tribola (site unknown, perhaps in the Serrania de Ronda)", "lat": 36.8, "lon": -5.2, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Lusitanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Viriathus", "commanders_b": "Gaius Vetilius (captured and killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Lusitanians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The praetor Vetilius's army of about 10,000, Romans and Italian allies (Appian, Iberica 63).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A praetorian army of Romans and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 61-63; en.wikipedia Battle of Tribola; en.wikipedia Lusitanian War", "note": "A named ambush; about 4,000 Romans fell and 6,000 fled to Carpessus. Afterwards 5,000 Belli and Titthi sent by the quaestor were destroyed. en.wikipedia's Lusitanian War article dates it 148." }, { "id": 402, "key": "-146-chaeronea", "name": "Chaeronea", "year": -146, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "146 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Achaean War", "theatre": "Boeotia", "place": "near Chaeronea, Boeotia", "lat": 38.5, "lon": 22.85, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Achaean League" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus", "commanders_b": "about 1,000 picked Arcadians of the Achaean army (no commander named)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The destruction of a retreating contingent, named only by the place; not in en.wikipedia's Achaean War article.", "main_enemy": "Achaean League", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Metellus' army of the province of Macedonia, the force that had just won at Scarpheia: legions with their Italian allies; no numbers are given (Pausanias 7.15.4).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman-Italian provincial army; Macedonian auxiliaries may have served, but no Greek contingent is recorded on Metellus' side.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Pausanias 7.15.4; the ancient Greek battles set, Chaeronea 146 BC", "note": "After Scarpheia, Metellus overtook about a thousand picked Arcadians near Chaeronea and cut them down (Pausanias)." }, { "id": 403, "key": "-146-scarpheia", "name": "Scarpheia", "year": -146, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "146 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Achaean War", "theatre": "Central Greece (Locris)", "place": "Near Scarpheia, eastern Locris, east of Thermopylae", "lat": 38.8, "lon": 22.66, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Achaean League" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Caecilius Metellus Macedonicus", "commanders_b": "Critolaus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Achaean League", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Metellus's army of the province of Macedonia, which had just crushed Andriscus: about two legions with their Italian allies (numbers not given by Pausanias).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A legionary army from Italy; any Greek-speakers would have come from allied Greek cities of southern Italy or local auxiliaries in Macedonia, none of which are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Pausanias 7.15.2-4; Livy Per. 52; en.wikipedia Battle of Scarpheia", "note": "Critolaus disappeared after the rout (drowned in the marshes or took poison). Metellus then cut down a force of 1,000 Arcadians near Chaeronea (Pausanias 7.15.4), entered as -146-chaeronea." }, { "id": 404, "key": "-146-corinth", "name": "Corinth", "year": -146, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "146 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Achaean War", "theatre": "Peloponnese (Isthmus of Corinth)", "place": "Leucopetra on the Isthmus, before Corinth", "lat": 37.91, "lon": 22.88, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Achaean League" ], "allies_a": [ "Pergamon", "Greek cities" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Mummius", "commanders_b": "Diaeus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Achaean League", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Mummius's consular army of 23,000 infantry and 3,500 cavalry, probably two legions with Italian allies, together with Cretan archers and a Pergamene contingent under Philopoemen sent by Attalus II (Pausanias 7.16.1).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Cretan archers and Pergamene troops fought on the Roman side, but the bulk of the army was Roman and Italian.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Pausanias 7.16.1-8; Livy Per. 52; Orosius 5.3; en.wikipedia Battle of Corinth (146 BC)", "note": "Also called the battle of Leucopetra. The Achaeans had 14,000 foot and 600 horse; a flank attack by 1,000 picked Roman infantry broke them. Corinth was then sacked and destroyed. 'Greek cities' in allies = the Cretans." }, { "id": 405, "key": "-146-mount-venus", "name": "Mount Venus", "year": -146, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "146 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Lusitanian War", "theatre": "Hispania (Carpetania)", "place": "The 'mountain of Venus' covered with olive trees, beyond the Tagus (probably the Sierra de San Vicente)", "lat": 40.2, "lon": -4.7, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Lusitanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Viriathus", "commanders_b": "Gaius Plautius (Hypsaeus)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Lusitanians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The praetor's army brought from Rome, 10,000 foot and 1,300 horse (Appian, Iberica 64), with the provincial troops of Hispania Ulterior.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions and Italian allies levied in Italy; Greek-speakers would have been few.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 64; en.wikipedia Lusitanian War (the 'raid of Carpetania')", "note": "Viriathus first destroyed a detachment of 4,000 sent in pursuit, then defeated Plautius himself when he attacked the camp on the mountain. Wikipedia's Lusitanian War article calls the campaign the 'raid of Carpetania'; its list of Lusitanian wars dates its 'Battle of Mount Venus' to 143 BCE (the second fight there, entered separately)." }, { "id": 406, "key": "-144-baecor", "name": "Baecor", "year": -144, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "144 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Lusitanian War", "theatre": "Hispania Ulterior (Baetica)", "place": "Pursuit of Viriathus to Baecor, in the upper Baetis region", "lat": 37.95, "lon": -3.8, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Lusitanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Fabius Maximus Aemilianus", "commanders_b": "Viriathus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Appian names Baecor as the place to which Fabius pursued Viriathus after defeating him, not as the name of a battle.", "main_enemy": "Lusitanians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The consular army of Fabius Aemilianus, about 15,000 foot and 2,000 horse, mostly newly levied men (Appian, Iberica 65).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A freshly raised consular army of Romans and Italian allies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 65; en.wikipedia Lusitanian Wars", "note": "Fabius put Viriathus to flight, took two of his towns and killed many of his men in the pursuit to Baecor; site unidentified." }, { "id": 407, "key": "-143-mount-venus", "name": "Mount Venus", "year": -143, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "143 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Lusitanian War", "theatre": "Hispania (Carpetania)", "place": "The mountain of Venus (probably the Sierra de San Vicente)", "lat": 40.2, "lon": -4.7, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Lusitanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Viriathus", "commanders_b": "Quinctius (praetor of Hispania Ulterior)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Lusitanians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The praetor's provincial army of Hispania Ulterior, legions and Italian allies (no numbers given).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A provincial army of legions and Italian allies; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 66; en.wikipedia List of wars involving the Lusitanians (Battle of Mount Venus, 143 BC)", "note": "Viriathus fell back to the mountain of Venus, then turned on his pursuers, killed about 1,000 men and took some standards, driving the Romans back to their camp." }, { "id": 408, "key": "-142-itucca", "name": "Itucca", "year": -142, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "142 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Lusitanian War", "theatre": "Hispania Ulterior (Baetica)", "place": "Near Itucca (Itucci), Baetica", "lat": 37.7, "lon": -4.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Lusitanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Numidia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Viriathus", "commanders_b": "Quintus Fabius Maximus Servilianus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Appian describes a battle followed by repeated attacks that drove the Romans back to Itucca; the name is a place-name label.", "main_enemy": "Lusitanians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Servilianus's consular army of about 18,000 foot and 1,600 horse, with ten elephants and 300 horsemen sent from Africa by the Numidian king Micipsa (Appian, Iberica 67).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions and Italian allies with a small Numidian contingent; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 67; en.wikipedia Lusitanian Wars", "note": "About 3,000 Romans were killed. Itucci is probably the site at Torreparedones near Baena, but the identification is uncertain." }, { "id": 409, "key": "-141-erisana", "name": "Erisana", "year": -141, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "141 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Lusitanian War", "theatre": "Hispania Ulterior (Baetica)", "place": "Erisana (Erisane), a town of Viriathus besieged by the Romans", "lat": 37.6, "lon": -4.6, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Lusitanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Viriathus", "commanders_b": "Quintus Fabius Maximus Servilianus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Lusitanians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Servilianus's proconsular army, the same force of about 18,000 foot and 1,600 horse he had led the year before, with its Numidian elephants (Appian, Iberica 67-69).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions and Italian allies; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 69; Livy Per. 54; en.wikipedia Lusitanian Wars", "note": "Viriathus slipped into the besieged town by night, attacked the siege works at dawn and drove the Romans into a place hemmed in by cliffs, then let them go in return for a treaty recognizing him as a 'friend of the Roman people' (ratified 140). Dated 142 in Wikipedia and 140 in some popular accounts; 141 (Servilianus's proconsular year) follows Appian's sequence. Site unidentified." }, { "id": 410, "key": "-141-numantia", "name": "Numantia", "year": -141, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "141-140 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Numantine War", "theatre": "Hispania Citerior (Celtiberia)", "place": "Numantia, on the Duero near Garray", "lat": 41.81, "lon": -2.44, "loc": "known", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Celtiberians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "The Numantines (Arevaci)", "commanders_b": "Quintus Pompeius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The consular army of Quintus Pompeius, given by Appian as 30,000 foot and 2,000 horse, later reinforced with raw recruits from Italy (Appian, Iberica 76-78).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions and Italian allies; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 76-79; Livy Per. 54; en.wikipedia Numantine War", "note": "Pompeius was beaten in an attack on Numantia in 141; his blockade of 140 failed through sorties, cold and disease, and he made a secret peace that the Senate later disowned. Entered as one siege entry." }, { "id": 411, "key": "-141-termantia", "name": "Termantia", "year": -141, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "141 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Numantine War", "theatre": "Hispania Citerior (Celtiberia)", "place": "Termantia (Termes, modern Tiermes)", "lat": 41.33, "lon": -3.15, "loc": "known", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Celtiberians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "The Termestines (Arevaci)", "commanders_b": "Quintus Pompeius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The consular army of Quintus Pompeius (30,000 foot and 2,000 horse at the start of the campaign, according to Appian).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions and Italian allies; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 77; Diodorus 33.16-17; en.wikipedia Numantine War", "note": "Pompeius turned on Termantia after failing at Numantia and was beaten in several engagements, losing some 700 men in one of them (Appian)." }, { "id": 412, "key": "-139-baetis", "name": "Baetis", "year": -139, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "139 BCE (c.)", "type": "land", "war": "Lusitanian War", "theatre": "Hispania Ulterior", "place": "a crossing of the Baetis (Guadalquivir), on the Lusitanians' return from their raid on Saguntum", "lat": 37.9, "lon": -4.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Lusitanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Servilius Caepio", "commanders_b": "Tautalus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Appian describes a pursuit at the river crossing that wore down Tautalus' army until it surrendered, not a named battle.", "main_enemy": "Lusitanians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Caepio's army of Hispania Ulterior, legions with Italian allies and Spanish auxiliaries; no numbers are given (Appian, Iberica 75).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions, Italian allies and Spanish auxiliaries; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 75; en.wikipedia Lusitanian War", "note": "Tautalus, Viriathus' successor, had been repulsed at Saguntum; his surrender ended the Lusitanian War. 'other' in languages = Iberian." }, { "id": 413, "key": "-138-numantia", "name": "Numantia", "year": -138, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "138 BCE (or 139 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Numantine War", "theatre": "Hispania Citerior (Celtiberia)", "place": "before the walls of Numantia, on the Duero near Garray", "lat": 41.81, "lon": -2.44, "loc": "known", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Celtiberians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "The Numantines", "commanders_b": "Marcus Popillius Laenas (consul 139, proconsul 138)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Not a separately named battle in en.wikipedia's Numantine War article; known from Frontinus and the Livian epitome.", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Popillius' consular army of legions and Italian allies (numbers not given), which tried to storm Numantia with scaling-ladders and was attacked in the rear by a Numantine sortie (Frontinus 3.17.9).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions and Italian allies; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Frontinus, Strategemata 3.17.9; Livy, Per. 55 (not checked online)", "note": "The walls seemed undefended; as the Romans climbed down again, the Numantines sallied out and fell on their rear. Distinct from Pompeius' defeats (-141-numantia) and Mancinus' (-137-numantia)." }, { "id": 414, "key": "-137-numantia", "name": "Numantia", "year": -137, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "137 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Numantine War", "theatre": "Hispania Citerior (Celtiberia)", "place": "Near Numantia", "lat": 41.81, "lon": -2.44, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Celtiberians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "The Numantines", "commanders_b": "Gaius Hostilius Mancinus (with his quaestor Tiberius Gracchus)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The consular army of Mancinus, more than 20,000 Roman soldiers besides slaves and camp followers (Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus 5-7).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions and Italian allies; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 80; Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus 5-7; Livy Per. 55; en.wikipedia Numantine War", "note": "After repeated defeats before Numantia Mancinus withdrew by night, was surrounded and capitulated; Tiberius Gracchus negotiated the treaty, which the Senate repudiated, handing Mancinus over to the Numantines. Wikipedia's Numantine War article dates it 136; Mancinus was consul in 137." }, { "id": 415, "key": "-136-pallantia-siege", "name": "Pallantia (siege)", "year": -136, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "136 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Numantine War", "theatre": "Hispania Citerior (land of the Vaccaei)", "place": "Pallantia, city of the Vaccaei (probably Palencia)", "lat": 42.01, "lon": -4.53, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Celtiberians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "The Pallantines (Vaccaei)", "commanders_b": "Marcus Aemilius Lepidus Porcina, Decimus Junius Brutus (Callaicus)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "The armies of the two Spanish provinces, the proconsul Lepidus's of Citerior joined by Brutus's of Ulterior: legions and Italian allies (no numbers given).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions and Italian allies; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 80-83; Livy Per. 56; en.wikipedia Decimus Junius Brutus Callaicus", "note": "Lepidus attacked the Vaccaei without the Senate's sanction; the siege failed for lack of supplies and the Romans lost heavily in a disorderly night retreat. Dated 137 in some accounts. 'Celtiberians' here = the Vaccaei. Pallantia may also be Palenzuela." }, { "id": 416, "key": "-134-numantia-siege", "name": "Numantia (siege)", "year": -134, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "134-133 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Numantine War", "theatre": "Hispania Citerior (Celtiberia)", "place": "Numantia, on the Duero near Garray, enclosed by Scipio's ring of seven camps and a wall", "lat": 41.81, "lon": -2.44, "loc": "known", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_a": [ "Numidia", "Iberians" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus (with Jugurtha, Gaius Marius)", "commanders_b": "The Numantines (Avarus, Rhetogenes)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "About 60,000 men: some 20,000 Romans with about 40,000 allies, including Iberian contingents and the Numidian force of Jugurtha with archers, slingers and twelve elephants, plus volunteers and Scipio's band of 500 friends (Appian, Iberica 84, 89, 97).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other", "Celtic", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army was Roman, Italian, Iberian and Numidian; no Greek contingent is attested.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 84-98; Livy Per. 57-59; en.wikipedia Siege of Numantia", "note": "The town fell by starvation in summer 133; most survivors killed themselves and the rest were enslaved. 'Iberians' in allies = Scipio's Spanish allied contingents; 'other' in languages = Iberian." }, { "id": 417, "key": "-132-tauromenium-siege", "name": "Tauromenium (siege)", "year": -132, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "133-132 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Servile War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Tauromenium (Taormina)", "lat": 37.85, "lon": 15.29, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Slave rebels" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Rupilius", "commanders_b": "The rebel garrison of Eunus's kingdom", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Slave rebels", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "A consular army of legions and Italian allies sent to Sicily, with whatever Sicilian levies the province supplied (no numbers given).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The legions came from Italy; Greek-speaking Sicilian levies, who had fought the rebels from the start, probably served alongside them.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Diodorus 34/35.2.20-21; Orosius 5.9; en.wikipedia First Servile War", "note": "Calpurnius Piso besieged the town without success in 133; Rupilius starved it out and took it in 132 through treachery. The rebels were mainly slaves from the Greek East (Eunus, a Syrian, styled himself King Antiochus)." }, { "id": 418, "key": "-132-enna-siege", "name": "Enna (siege)", "year": -132, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "132 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Servile War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Enna, the rebel capital", "lat": 37.57, "lon": 14.28, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Slave rebels" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Rupilius", "commanders_b": "Eunus, Cleon (killed in a sortie)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Slave rebels", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "Rupilius's consular army of legions and Italian allies, with Sicilian levies (no numbers given).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The legions came from Italy; Greek-speaking Sicilian levies probably served alongside them.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Diodorus 34/35.2.21-23; Orosius 5.9; Valerius Maximus 2.7.9; en.wikipedia First Servile War", "note": "Cleon fell in a sally against the siege lines; the city was betrayed. Eunus fled, was captured and died in prison at Morgantina." }, { "id": 419, "key": "-130-leucae", "name": "Leucae", "year": -130, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "130 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "War of Aristonicus", "theatre": "Asia (Ionia)", "place": "Near Leucae, between Phocaea and Smyrna", "lat": 38.64, "lon": 26.9, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Pergamon" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Bithynia", "Pontus", "Cappadocia", "Paphlagonia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aristonicus (Eumenes III)", "commanders_b": "Publius Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus (captured and killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pergamon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "The consul Crassus's army from Italy (size not recorded), with contingents of the client kings Nicomedes II of Bithynia, Mithridates V of Pontus, Ariarathes V of Cappadocia and Pylaemenes of Paphlagonia (Eutropius 4.20; Orosius 5.10).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "other" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The war was fought largely with the levies of the Greek cities of Asia and of the Hellenistic client kingdoms, which the sources name as Crassus's helpers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Strabo 14.1.38; Justin 36.4; Eutropius 4.20; Orosius 5.10; Valerius Maximus 3.2.12; en.wikipedia Eumenes III", "note": "'Pergamon' here = the rebel claimant Aristonicus (Eumenes III) and his army of Pergamenes, freed slaves and Thracian mercenaries. Crassus was captured (by Thracians, Valerius Maximus) and killed, early 130. Ariarathes V also died in this war." }, { "id": 420, "key": "-130-stratonicea", "name": "Stratonicea", "year": -130, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "130-129 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "War of Aristonicus", "theatre": "Asia (Mysia/Lydia)", "place": "Stratonicea on the Caicus, where Aristonicus took refuge after his defeat", "lat": 39.1, "lon": 27.7, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pergamon" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Perperna", "commanders_b": "Aristonicus (Eumenes III)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pergamon", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "The consul Perperna's army (size not recorded), fighting alongside the forces of the Greek cities and client kings of Asia.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman effort in Asia rested heavily on the levies of the Greek cities and Hellenistic client kings.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Strabo 14.1.38; Justin 36.4; Florus 1.35; Eutropius 4.20; en.wikipedia Eumenes III", "note": "Perperna defeated Aristonicus in their first encounter (130), then besieged him in Stratonicea and starved him into surrender (129). The battle site is disputed; one entry for battle and siege." }, { "id": 421, "key": "-123-entremont-siege", "name": "Entremont (siege)", "year": -123, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "123 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman conquest of Gallia Narbonensis", "theatre": "Transalpine Gaul (Provence)", "place": "Entremont, oppidum of the Salluvii, just north of Aix-en-Provence", "lat": 43.55, "lon": 5.44, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Sextius Calvinus", "commanders_b": "Teutomalius (Toutomotulus), king of the Salluvii", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The sources record Sextius's defeat of the Salluvii; the capture of Entremont is known mainly from archaeology (destruction layer, siege missiles).", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "A consular army of legions and Italian allies sent at the request of Massalia (no numbers given).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions and Italian allies; the war was fought on behalf of Greek Massalia, but no Massaliote troops are attested in the field.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy Per. 61; Diodorus 34/35.23; Strabo 4.1.5; en.wikipedia Battle of Vindalium (background)", "note": "Date 123 or 122. 'Gauls' = the Salluvii (Celto-Ligurian). Sextius founded Aquae Sextiae nearby." }, { "id": 422, "key": "-121-isere", "name": "Isere", "year": -121, "month": 8, "day": 8, "date": "8 August 121 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman conquest of Gallia Narbonensis", "theatre": "Transalpine Gaul (Rhone valley)", "place": "Confluence of the Isere (Isara) and the Rhone, near Valence", "lat": 44.98, "lon": 4.86, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Fabius Maximus (Allobrogicus), Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus", "commanders_b": "Bituitus, king of the Arverni", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "The consular army of Fabius Maximus joined with Domitius's, fewer than 30,000 men (Strabo 4.1.11), legions and Italian allies, probably with Domitius's elephants.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions and Italian allies; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy Per. 61; Strabo 4.1.11, 4.2.3; Orosius 5.14; Appian, Celtica 12; en.wikipedia Battle of the Isere River", "note": "'Gauls' = the Arverni and Allobroges with remaining Salluvii; the ancient figures of 120,000-200,000 Gauls and huge Gallic losses are surely exaggerated. Name written without accent (Isère). Led to the annexation of the Rhone valley." }, { "id": 423, "key": "-121-vindalium", "name": "Vindalium", "year": -121, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "121 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman conquest of Gallia Narbonensis", "theatre": "Transalpine Gaul (Rhone valley)", "place": "Vindalium, near the Rhone-Sorgue confluence (probably Mourre de Seve, Sorgues), north-east of Avignon", "lat": 44.01, "lon": 4.87, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus", "commanders_b": "Allobroges (no commander named)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "The proconsul Domitius's army of legions and Italian allies with war elephants, which panicked the Allobrogian horses (Orosius 5.13; Florus 1.37).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions and Italian allies; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy Per. 61; Orosius 5.13.2; Florus 1.37; en.wikipedia Battle of Vindalium", "note": "Orosius gives 20,000 Allobroges killed and 3,000 captured. 'Gauls' = the Allobroges." }, { "id": 424, "key": "-119-lete", "name": "Lete", "year": -119, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "119 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Wars against the Scordisci", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Near Lete, north of Thessalonica", "lat": 40.72, "lon": 22.97, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Annius (quaestor)", "commanders_b": "The Scordisci (no commander named)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known from an honorific inscription; not a named battle in the literary sources.", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "The garrison army of the province of Macedonia under the quaestor, after the governor Sextus Pompeius had fallen in battle (the Lete decree).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The provincial army was Roman and Italian; Macedonian (Greek-speaking) local troops may have served, but the decree's details are uncertain.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Lete decree for Marcus Annius (Syll.3 700); en.wikipedia Scordisci", "note": "The decree honours Annius for defeating the invading Gauls (Scordisci) after the death of the praetor Sextus Pompeius, and again in a second engagement." }, { "id": 425, "key": "-114-thrace-defeat-of-cato", "name": "Thrace (defeat of Cato)", "year": -114, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "114 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Wars against the Scordisci", "theatre": "Macedonia and Thrace", "place": "in Thrace (Livy), site unknown", "lat": 41.8, "lon": 23.6, "loc": "region", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Gauls" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the Scordisci (no commander named)", "commanders_b": "Gaius Porcius Cato (consul)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No conventional name and no recorded site: the Scordisci destroyed Cato's army somewhere in Thrace.", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "The consul Cato's army sent to Macedonia, legions and Italian allies with the provincial forces; it was destroyed (Livy, Per. 63; Eutropius 4.24).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A consular army from Italy; Macedonian (Greek-speaking) provincial troops may have served, but none are recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy, Per. 63; Eutropius 4.24", "note": "'Gauls' = the Scordisci. Cato escaped; he was later convicted of extortion in Macedonia (Velleius 2.8.1)." }, { "id": 426, "key": "-113-noreia", "name": "Noreia", "year": -113, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "113 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Cimbrian War", "theatre": "Noricum", "place": "Near Noreia, Noricum (site unknown)", "lat": 46.9, "lon": 14.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Austria", "side_a": [ "Cimbri and Teutones" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Cimbri (no commander named)", "commanders_b": "Gnaeus Papirius Carbo", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Cimbri and Teutones", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The consul Carbo's army, legions and Italian allies (size not given in the sources).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A consular army of Romans and Italian allies; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy Per. 63; Strabo 5.1.8; Appian, Celtica 13; Velleius 2.12; en.wikipedia Battle of Noreia", "note": "Carbo tried to ambush the Cimbri after a parley and was himself routed; a storm saved part of the army. Carbo was consul in 113; the Wikipedia Cimbrian War article implies 112." }, { "id": 427, "key": "-110-suthul", "name": "Suthul", "year": -110, "month": 1, "day": null, "date": "January 110 BCE (winter 110/109)", "type": "land", "war": "Jugurthine War", "theatre": "Numidia", "place": "Before the town of Suthul, where Jugurtha's treasury lay, probably near Calama (Guelma)", "lat": 36.46, "lon": 7.43, "loc": "approx", "country": "Algeria", "side_a": [ "Numidia" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Jugurtha", "commanders_b": "Aulus Postumius Albinus (propraetor)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Numidia", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The consular army of Spurius Albinus left under his brother Aulus, perhaps 40,000 men in three legions with allies, including a Ligurian cohort and two squadrons of Thracian cavalry who deserted to Jugurtha (Sallust, Jugurtha 38).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions and Italian allies with Ligurian and Thracian auxiliaries; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sallust, Jugurtha 37-39; Livy Per. 64; en.wikipedia Battle of Suthul", "note": "Aulus's siege of Suthul failed; Jugurtha lured him away and stormed his camp by night, and the survivors passed under the yoke. The Suthul-Calama identification is doubted by some. 'other' in languages = Ligurian." }, { "id": 428, "key": "-109-gallia-narbonensis-defeat-of-silanus", "name": "Gallia Narbonensis (defeat of Silanus)", "year": -109, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "109 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Cimbrian War", "theatre": "Transalpine Gaul", "place": "Transalpine Gaul (Gallia Narbonensis), site unknown", "lat": 44.5, "lon": 4.8, "loc": "region", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Cimbri and Teutones" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Cimbri (no commander named)", "commanders_b": "Marcus Junius Silanus (consul)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No conventional name and no recorded site: the Cimbri defeated Silanus in the Roman province beyond the Alps.", "main_enemy": "Cimbri and Teutones", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The consul Silanus' consular army, Roman legions with Italian allies; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A consular army of Romans and Italian allies; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy, Per. 65; en.wikipedia Cimbrian War", "note": "The Cimbri had asked Rome for land to settle before the battle (Livy, Per. 65)." }, { "id": 429, "key": "-109-muthul", "name": "Muthul", "year": -109, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "109 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Jugurthine War", "theatre": "Numidia", "place": "Plain by the river Muthul (probably the Mellegue), near the Algerian-Tunisian border", "lat": 36.1, "lon": 8.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Caecilius Metellus (Numidicus), Gaius Marius, Publius Rutilius Rufus", "commanders_b": "Jugurtha, Bomilcar", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Numidia", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Metellus's consular army, the remnants of Albinus's army retrained and reinforced: legions and Italian allied cohorts with cavalry, slingers and archers (Sallust, Jugurtha 43-50).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions and Italian allies with light auxiliaries; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Sallust, Jugurtha 48-53; en.wikipedia Battle of the Muthul", "note": "Jugurtha ambushed the Roman column on the march; Metellus beat off the Numidian infantry and Rutilius routed Bomilcar's force and its 44 elephants. Jugurtha escaped and the war went on, so the Wikipedia list calls it indecisive and its infobox a Numidian strategic success; on the field the Romans won." }, { "id": 430, "key": "-109-zama-siege", "name": "Zama (siege)", "year": -109, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "109 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Jugurthine War", "theatre": "Numidia", "place": "Zama (probably Zama Regia, modern Jama)", "lat": 36.0, "lon": 9.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Numidia" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Jugurtha", "commanders_b": "Quintus Caecilius Metellus, Gaius Marius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Numidia", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Metellus's consular army of legions and Italian allies (Sallust gives no numbers).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions and Italian allies; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sallust, Jugurtha 56-61; en.wikipedia Jugurthine War", "note": "The assaults failed while Jugurtha attacked the Roman camp and Marius's force at Sicca; Metellus raised the siege and went into winter quarters." }, { "id": 431, "key": "-108-thala-siege", "name": "Thala (siege)", "year": -108, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "108 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Jugurthine War", "theatre": "Numidia", "place": "Thala, Jugurtha's desert stronghold", "lat": 35.57, "lon": 8.67, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Caecilius Metellus", "commanders_b": "Jugurtha (escaped), Roman deserters in the garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Numidia", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Metellus's proconsular army of legions and Italian allies, marching across the desert with water carried on pack animals (Sallust, Jugurtha 75).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions and Italian allies; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sallust, Jugurtha 75-76; en.wikipedia Jugurthine War", "note": "Thala fell after a forty-day siege; Roman deserters inside burned the palace and themselves. The identification with modern Thala is uncertain." }, { "id": 432, "key": "-107-burdigala", "name": "Burdigala", "year": -107, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "107 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Cimbrian War", "theatre": "Transalpine Gaul (Garonne)", "place": "In the territory of the Nitiobriges (near Agen), on the Garonne above Burdigala", "lat": 44.2, "lon": 0.62, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Gauls" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Divico (Tigurini)", "commanders_b": "Lucius Cassius Longinus (killed), Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus (killed), Gaius Popillius Laenas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "The consul Cassius's army, legions and Italian allies (Wikipedia gives about 40,000; the sources give no figure).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A consular army of Romans and Italian allies; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy Per. 65; Caesar, Gallic War 1.7, 1.12; Orosius 5.15.23; en.wikipedia Battle of Burdigala", "note": "Wikipedia names it after Burdigala (Bordeaux), but Livy Per. 65 places it in the land of the Nitiobriges, hence Agen. 'Gauls' = the Tigurini, a canton of the Helvetii allied with the Cimbri. The survivors under Popillius passed under the yoke." }, { "id": 433, "key": "-107-capsa-siege", "name": "Capsa (siege)", "year": -107, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "107 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Jugurthine War", "theatre": "Numidia (south)", "place": "Capsa (Gafsa)", "lat": 34.42, "lon": 8.78, "loc": "known", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Marius", "commanders_b": "The townsmen of Capsa", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A surprise attack at dawn after a desert march; the town surrendered almost at once, so there was little real fighting.", "main_enemy": "Numidia", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Marius's consular army, Metellus's veterans with the new levies including the capite censi, and Latin and allied cavalry (Sallust, Jugurtha 84-91).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions and Italian allies; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sallust, Jugurtha 89-91; en.wikipedia Jugurthine War", "note": "Marius had the town burned and the adult males killed." }, { "id": 434, "key": "-106-mulucha-siege", "name": "Mulucha (siege)", "year": -106, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "106 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Jugurthine War", "theatre": "Western Numidia", "place": "A rock fortress near the river Muluccha (probably the Moulouya), holding Jugurtha's treasure", "lat": 34.8, "lon": -2.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Morocco", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Marius", "commanders_b": "Jugurtha's garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Numidia", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Marius's army of legions and Italian allies with auxiliary cohorts; a Ligurian private of the auxiliary cohorts found the path up the rock that let a picked party take the fort from behind (Sallust, Jugurtha 93-94).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions and Italian allies with Ligurian auxiliaries; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sallust, Jugurtha 92-94; en.wikipedia Jugurthine War", "note": "Wikipedia dates it late 107; Sulla, quaestor of 107, arrived during the siege. Whether Sallust's Muluccha is the Moulouya is disputed, so the site is only regional. 'other' in languages = Ligurian." }, { "id": 435, "key": "-106-cirta-first-battle", "name": "Cirta (first battle)", "year": -106, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "106 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Jugurthine War", "theatre": "Numidia", "place": "On the march towards winter quarters, on two hills in the region of Cirta", "lat": 36.3, "lon": 6.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Algeria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Mauretania" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Marius, Lucius Cornelius Sulla", "commanders_b": "Jugurtha, Bocchus I of Mauretania", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Sallust's first of two battles near Cirta; Wikipedia's 'Second Battle of Cirta' article treats it as part of one action.", "main_enemy": "Numidia", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Marius's army of legions and Italian allies, with Sulla's cavalry and Manlius's slingers, archers and Ligurian cohorts (Sallust, Jugurtha 97-100).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions and Italian allies with Ligurian and light auxiliaries; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sallust, Jugurtha 97-99; Orosius 5.15; en.wikipedia Second Battle of Cirta", "note": "Attacked late in the day, Marius held two hills overnight and at dawn routed the Numidians and Mauretanians, who were sleeping off their celebrations. Dated 107 in Wikipedia's Jugurthine War article." }, { "id": 436, "key": "-106-cirta-second-battle", "name": "Cirta (second battle)", "year": -106, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "106 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Jugurthine War", "theatre": "Numidia", "place": "Near Cirta (Constantine)", "lat": 36.36, "lon": 6.61, "loc": "approx", "country": "Algeria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Mauretania" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Marius, Lucius Cornelius Sulla", "commanders_b": "Jugurtha, Bocchus I, Volux", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Numidia", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Marius's army marching in square: legions and Italian allies, Sulla's cavalry on the right, Manlius with the slingers, archers and Ligurian cohorts on the left (Sallust, Jugurtha 100-101); Wikipedia gives 30,000-40,000.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions and Italian allies with Ligurian and light auxiliaries; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sallust, Jugurtha 100-101; Orosius 5.15; en.wikipedia Second Battle of Cirta", "note": "The Numidian, Gaetulian and Mauretanian army attacked the Roman column from all sides and was routed. Bocchus then opened the talks that led to Jugurtha's betrayal to Sulla (105)." }, { "id": 437, "key": "-105-arausio", "name": "Arausio", "year": -105, "month": 10, "day": 6, "date": "6 October 105 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Cimbrian War", "theatre": "Transalpine Gaul (Rhone valley)", "place": "Between Arausio (Orange) and the Rhone", "lat": 44.13, "lon": 4.8, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Cimbri and Teutones" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Boiorix (Cimbri), Teutobod (Teutones)", "commanders_b": "Quintus Servilius Caepio (proconsul), Gnaeus Mallius Maximus (consul)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Cimbri and Teutones", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Two armies in separate camps, the proconsul Caepio's and the consul Mallius's, legions and Italian allies; Livy (after Valerius Antias) gives 80,000 soldiers and 40,000 servants and camp followers killed (Per. 67).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Two consular armies of Romans and Italian allies; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Livy Per. 67; Plutarch, Lucullus 27; Orosius 5.16; Dio fr. 91; Granius Licinianus 33; en.wikipedia Battle of Arausio", "note": "The date is from Plutarch (Lucullus 27). Shortly before, the legate Marcus Aurelius Scaurus's force was overwhelmed and he was captured and killed (not entered separately). The casualty figures are generally thought inflated." }, { "id": 438, "key": "-104-heraclea", "name": "Heraclea", "year": -104, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "104 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Servile War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "near Heraclea (Minoa), on the south coast of Sicily", "lat": 37.39, "lon": 13.28, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Slave rebels" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the rebel slaves of the district of Heraclea, who soon chose Salvius (Tryphon) as king", "commanders_b": "a detachment of 600 soldiers sent by the praetor Publius Licinius Nerva", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No conventional battle name; the place is given only as near Heraclea.", "main_enemy": "Slave rebels", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "600 soldiers sent by the praetor Nerva from the Roman garrison of Sicily (Diodorus 36.4); their origin is not recorded.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "unknown", "greek_basis": "unknown", "greek_note": "The detachment came from the praetor's forces in Sicily; whether its men were Italians or Greek-speaking Sicilians is not recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Diodorus 36.4 (Photius' epitome); en.wikipedia Second Servile War", "note": "The rebels held a strong position and destroyed the detachment; the victory brought in more slaves and the rising spread (en.wikipedia: 'beaten and slaughtered')." }, { "id": 439, "key": "-104-morgantina", "name": "Morgantina", "year": -104, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "104 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Servile War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Before Morgantina, besieged by the rebels", "lat": 37.43, "lon": 14.48, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Slave rebels" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Salvius (Tryphon)", "commanders_b": "Publius Licinius Nerva (praetor)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Slave rebels", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "The praetor's provincial force, largely the militia of the Sicilian cities with some troops from Italy (Diodorus 36.4).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Diodorus describes Nerva's army as raised in Sicily, whose cities were Greek-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Diodorus 36.4.5-8; en.wikipedia Second Servile War", "note": "Salvius routed the relief force and took its camp; the fate of Morgantina itself is told differently (Wikipedia says it fell; Diodorus has the defenders hold out with the help of slaves promised their freedom)." }, { "id": 440, "key": "-103-scirthaea", "name": "Scirthaea", "year": -103, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "103 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Servile War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Near Scirthaea, west-central Sicily, some 12 miles from the Roman camp", "lat": 37.62, "lon": 13.3, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Slave rebels" ], "allies_a": [ "Bithynia", "Greek cities" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Licinius Lucullus (propraetor)", "commanders_b": "Salvius Tryphon, Athenion", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Slave rebels", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "About 17,000 men: 14,000 Romans and Italians, 800 Bithynians, Thessalians and Acarnanians, 600 Lucanians under Cleptius and 600 others (Diodorus 36.8.1).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Thessalian and Acarnanian contingents (with Bithynians, 800 in all) fought on the Roman side, a small fraction of the army.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Diodorus 36.8; Florus 2.7; en.wikipedia Second Servile War", "note": "Athenion was wounded and feigned death; about 20,000 rebels were killed (Diodorus) and the rest fled to Triocala. 'Greek cities' in allies = the Thessalians and Acarnanians." }, { "id": 441, "key": "-103-triocala-siege", "name": "Triocala (siege)", "year": -103, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "103 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Servile War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Triocala, Tryphon's fortress (Caltabellotta)", "lat": 37.58, "lon": 13.22, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Slave rebels" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Salvius Tryphon", "commanders_b": "Lucius Licinius Lucullus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Slave rebels", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "Lucullus's army of about 17,000 Romans, Italians, Lucanians, Bithynians, Thessalians and Acarnanians (Diodorus 36.8.1).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The same army as at Scirthaea, with small Thessalian and Acarnanian contingents.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Diodorus 36.8-9; en.wikipedia Second Servile War", "note": "The siege made no progress; learning he was superseded, Lucullus burned his works and disbanded his army. The site of Triocala at Caltabellotta is generally accepted." }, { "id": 442, "key": "-102-sicily-defeat-of-servilius", "name": "Sicily (defeat of Servilius)", "year": -102, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "102 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Servile War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Sicily, site unknown (the praetor's camp)", "lat": 37.6, "lon": 14.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Slave rebels" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Athenion", "commanders_b": "Gaius Servilius (praetor)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No conventional name: a surprise attack on the praetor's camp, site unknown.", "main_enemy": "Slave rebels", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "The praetor Servilius' provincial forces, raised after his predecessor Lucullus had burned his siege works and disbanded his army; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "unknown", "greek_basis": "unknown", "greek_note": "The sources do not say whether Servilius' army was Italian or raised from the Greek-speaking Sicilian cities.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Diodorus 36.9 (Photius' epitome); en.wikipedia Second Servile War", "note": "Athenion surprised Servilius' camp and routed and dispersed his army; the revolt went on until the consul Aquillius arrived." }, { "id": 443, "key": "-102-aquae-sextiae", "name": "Aquae Sextiae", "year": -102, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "102 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Cimbrian War", "theatre": "Transalpine Gaul (Provence)", "place": "Near Aquae Sextiae (Aix-en-Provence), probably in the plain towards Pourrieres below Mont Sainte-Victoire", "lat": 43.5, "lon": 5.7, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Cimbri and Teutones" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Marius, Marcus Claudius Marcellus", "commanders_b": "Teutobod (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Cimbri and Teutones", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Marius's reformed army, perhaps six legions with Italian allies and auxiliaries (modern estimates 32,000-40,000); Ligurian auxiliaries opened the first fight against the Ambrones, and Marcellus led 3,000 men in the decisive ambush (Plutarch, Marius 19-21).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions, Italian allies and Ligurian auxiliaries; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Plutarch, Marius 18-21; Livy Per. 68; Velleius 2.12; Orosius 5.16; en.wikipedia Battle of Aquae Sextiae", "note": "Two engagements: first the clash with the Ambrones at the river, then, two days later, the main battle against the Teutones. 'Cimbri and Teutones' = the Teutones and Ambrones. 'other' in languages = Ligurian. Wikipedia's coordinates are at Aix itself." }, { "id": 444, "key": "-102-tridentum", "name": "Tridentum", "year": -102, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 102 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Cimbrian War", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul (Adige valley)", "place": "The Athesis (Adige) valley below Tridentum (Trento)", "lat": 45.95, "lon": 11.05, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Cimbri and Teutones" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Boiorix", "commanders_b": "Quintus Lutatius Catulus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Cimbri and Teutones", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Catulus's consular army of legions and Italian allies, about 20,000 men (Plutarch, Marius 25, gives 20,300 the next year); the primus pilus Gnaeus Petreius of Atina won the grass crown for breaking out with his legion (Pliny, NH 22.11).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A consular army of Romans and Italian allies; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Marius 23; Pliny, NH 22.11; Livy Per. 68; en.wikipedia Battle of Tridentum", "note": "Catulus abandoned the Adige line and fell back south of the Po; a garrison left in a fort across the river was overpowered and let go on terms by the Cimbri (Plutarch). Counted as a Cimbric success (Roman withdrawal); Wikipedia calls it a Roman tactical withdrawal." }, { "id": 445, "key": "-101-vercellae", "name": "Vercellae", "year": -101, "month": 7, "day": 30, "date": "30 July 101 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Cimbrian War", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "The Raudine Plain (Campi Raudii), near Vercellae", "lat": 45.32, "lon": 8.42, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Cimbri and Teutones" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Marius, Quintus Lutatius Catulus, Lucius Cornelius Sulla (cavalry)", "commanders_b": "Boiorix (killed), Lugius (killed), Claodicus and Caesorix (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Cimbri and Teutones", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Marius's 32,000 men and Catulus's 20,300 (Plutarch, Marius 25, from Sulla's memoirs), legions and Italian allies, with cavalry under Sulla.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Two consular armies of Romans and Italian allies; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Plutarch, Marius 24-27; Livy Per. 68; Velleius 2.12; Florus 1.38; Orosius 5.16; en.wikipedia Battle of Vercellae", "note": "'Cimbri and Teutones' = the Cimbri. Site disputed (near Vercelli; Rovigo and other sites have been proposed). Marius gave citizenship to two cohorts from Camerinum for their valour in this war (Valerius Maximus 5.2.8)." }, { "id": 446, "key": "-101-sicily-death-of-athenion", "name": "Sicily (death of Athenion)", "year": -101, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "101 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Servile War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Sicily, site unknown", "lat": 37.6, "lon": 14.2, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Slave rebels" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Manius Aquillius (consul)", "commanders_b": "Athenion (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No conventional name: the decisive battle of the war, in which Aquillius is said to have killed Athenion with his own hand; site unknown.", "main_enemy": "Slave rebels", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "The consul Aquillius' army from Italy, legions with Italian allies; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A consular army from Italy; Sicilian (Greek-speaking) levies may have served, but none are recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Diodorus 36.10; Florus 2.7; en.wikipedia Second Servile War", "note": "The last 1,000 rebels (under Satyrus, Diodorus) surrendered in 100 BCE and were sent to fight beasts at Rome; there was no battle in 100 BCE." }, { "id": 447, "key": "-97-castulo", "name": "Castulo", "year": -97, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "97 BCE (winter quarters)", "type": "land", "war": "Celtiberian war of Titus Didius", "theatre": "Hispania Citerior (Oretania)", "place": "Castulo (near Linares, Jaen) and a neighbouring Oretanian town", "lat": 38.04, "lon": -3.63, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Iberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Sertorius (military tribune under Titus Didius)", "commanders_b": "the people of Castulo and their Oretanian neighbours", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A night attack on the winter quarters and a reprisal raid on the attackers' town; no conventional battle name.", "main_enemy": "Iberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Part of Titus Didius' army wintering in Castulo, legionaries of the province of Hispania Citerior, rallied by the military tribune Sertorius after a night attack on their quarters (Plutarch, Sertorius 3).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legionaries of the Spanish province; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Sertorius 3.3-5 (Perrin's note dates it to 97 BC)", "note": "Plutarch calls Castulo a Celtiberian city; the attackers came from the neighbouring Oritani (Oretani). Sertorius killed those who had entered, dressed his men in their armour, took the Oretanian town by surprise and sold the survivors." }, { "id": 448, "key": "-97-colenda-siege", "name": "Colenda (siege)", "year": -97, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 97-96 BCE (nine months; Appian gives no year)", "type": "land", "war": "Celtiberian war of Titus Didius", "theatre": "Hispania Citerior (Celtiberia)", "place": "Colenda, a Celtiberian town of uncertain site (Cuellar, Segovia, has been suggested)", "lat": 41.4, "lon": -4.3, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Titus Didius (proconsul)", "commanders_b": "the Colendans", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A nine-month siege ending in the town's fall; Appian does not describe assaults or sorties, so it may fail the siege rule.", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Didius' proconsular army of Hispania Citerior, legions with Italian allies; no numbers are given (Appian, Iberica 99-100).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions and Italian allies; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Iberica 99-100; en.wikipedia Titus Didius", "note": "The inhabitants were sold into slavery. Didius also killed some 20,000 Arevaci in an unnamed battle and moved Termes down from its hill (Appian); neither is entered." }, { "id": 449, "key": "-96-cappadocia-sulla", "name": "Cappadocia (Sulla)", "year": -96, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "96 BCE (some 92 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Sulla's mission to Cappadocia", "theatre": "Cappadocia", "place": "Cappadocia, site unknown", "lat": 38.7, "lon": 35.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Cappadocia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Armenia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cornelius Sulla (propraetor of Cilicia)", "commanders_b": "Gordius (for the Pontic-backed king Ariarathes IX); an Armenian force that came to his aid", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Fighting without a named battle: Plutarch says only that Sulla killed many Cappadocians and still more Armenians, drove out Gordius and restored Ariobarzanes.", "main_enemy": "Cappadocia", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Few Roman troops of his own; Sulla relied on allied levies who joined him eagerly (Plutarch, Sulla 5.3), presumably from Cilicia and the client states and Greek cities of Asia Minor.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Plutarch says Sulla used allies rather than his own few soldiers; in Cilicia and Asia Minor these were largely Greek-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Sulla 5.3; the ancient Greek battles set, Cappadocia (Sulla) 96 BC", "note": "The date is disputed: 96 BCE (Badian) or 92 BCE. Sulla then met the Parthian envoy Orobazus on the Euphrates. 'other' in languages = the Anatolian languages of the allies." }, { "id": 450, "key": "-90-tolenus-river", "name": "Tolenus River", "year": -90, "month": 6, "day": 11, "date": "11 June 90 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Social War", "theatre": "Marsic front (Latium/Abruzzo border)", "place": "On the Tolenus (Turano), near Carseoli", "lat": 42.1, "lon": 13.08, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Italian allies" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Vettius Scato (Marsi)", "commanders_b": "Publius Rutilius Lupus (consul, killed), Gaius Marius (legate)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Italian allies", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consul Rutilius's northern army of newly raised citizen legions, crossing in two columns (Rutilius's and Marius's) on separate bridges (Appian, BC 1.43).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizen and Latin troops; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.43; Ovid, Fasti 6.563-566; Orosius 5.18; en.wikipedia Battle of the Tolenus River", "note": "Rutilius was ambushed after crossing and killed with about 8,000 men; Marius, seeing the bodies float downstream, crossed and took Scato's camp the same day. Some place the battle on the Liris." }, { "id": 451, "key": "-90-aesernia", "name": "Aesernia", "year": -90, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "early 90 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Social War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "On the approach to Aesernia (Isernia)", "lat": 41.59, "lon": 14.23, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Italian allies" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Vettius Scato (Marsi)", "commanders_b": "Lucius Julius Caesar (consul)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Italian allies", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consul's southern army, newly levied legions of Roman citizens with contingents of the loyal Latin colonies (no numbers given); about 2,000 were killed (Appian, BC 1.41).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizens and Latins; the loyal Greek cities of the south contributed little to the land armies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.41; Orosius 5.18; en.wikipedia Battle of Aesernia", "note": "Caesar was trying to relieve the besieged Latin colony of Aesernia. Orosius says he then rebuilt his army with Gallic and African troops." }, { "id": 452, "key": "-90-aesernia-siege", "name": "Aesernia (siege)", "year": -90, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "90 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Social War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "Aesernia (Isernia), Latin colony", "lat": 41.59, "lon": 14.23, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Italian allies" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Vettius Scato, the Samnites (Marius Egnatius)", "commanders_b": "Lucius Cornelius Scipio, Lucius Acilius, Marcus Claudius Marcellus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Italian allies", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The garrison and colonists of the Latin colony of Aesernia, with the Roman troops under Marcellus (no numbers given).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Latin colony and its Roman garrison.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.41; Livy Per. 73; Diodorus 37.19; en.wikipedia Social War (91-87 BC)", "note": "Scipio and Acilius escaped disguised as slaves; the town was starved into surrender late in 90 and became an Italian stronghold. Commanders of the besiegers are not securely attested." }, { "id": 453, "key": "-90-grumentum", "name": "Grumentum", "year": -90, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "90 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Social War", "theatre": "Lucania", "place": "Near Grumentum, Lucania", "lat": 40.28, "lon": 15.89, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Italian allies" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Lamponius (Lucanians)", "commanders_b": "Publius Licinius Crassus (legate)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Italian allies", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "A Roman detachment of the southern army under the legate Crassus; about 800 were lost (Appian, BC 1.41).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Latin troops; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.41; en.wikipedia Social War (91-87 BC)", "note": "Crassus fled into Grumentum after the defeat; Wikipedia's Social War article records Grumentum's capture by the rebels." }, { "id": 454, "key": "-90-acerrae", "name": "Acerrae", "year": -90, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "90 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Social War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Before Acerrae, besieged by the Samnites", "lat": 40.95, "lon": 14.37, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Italian allies" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Julius Caesar (consul)", "commanders_b": "Gaius Papius Mutilus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Italian allies", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consul's rebuilt army: Roman and Latin troops reinforced by 10,000 Gallic infantry and Numidian and Mauretanian horse and foot (Appian, BC 1.42); many Numidians deserted when Papius paraded Jugurtha's son Oxyntas.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman, Latin, Gallic and African troops; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.42; Orosius 5.18; en.wikipedia Battle of Acerrae", "note": "Papius attacked the Roman camp and was beaten off by a cavalry charge, losing about 6,000 men; the first Roman success of the war. The siege of Acerrae went on." }, { "id": 455, "key": "-90-fucine-lake", "name": "Fucine Lake", "year": -90, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "90 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Social War", "theatre": "Marsic country", "place": "In the Marsic country, near the Fucine Lake", "lat": 41.98, "lon": 13.55, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Italian allies" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Marius, Lucius Cornelius Sulla", "commanders_b": "Marsi and Marrucini (Herius Asinius, praetor of the Marrucini, killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The site is given as near the Fucine Lake by Wikipedia; Appian places the fight among vineyards and walls without naming a place.", "main_enemy": "Italian allies", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Marius's northern army (the late Rutilius's legions) with Sulla's southern force taking the enemy in the flank (Appian, BC 1.46).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizen and Latin troops; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.46; Livy Per. 73; Plutarch, Marius 33; en.wikipedia Social War (91-87 BC)", "note": "Appian gives 6,000 Marsi killed and 7,000 disarmed." }, { "id": 456, "key": "-90-teanum-sidicinum", "name": "Teanum Sidicinum", "year": -90, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "90 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Social War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "A rocky defile near Teanum Sidicinum (Teano)", "lat": 41.25, "lon": 14.07, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Italian allies" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marius Egnatius (Samnites)", "commanders_b": "Lucius Julius Caesar (consul)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Italian allies", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consul's southern army, Romans and Latins with Gallic and African auxiliaries (about 30,000 foot and 5,000 horse after its reinforcement, according to historyofwar.org's reading of Appian).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman, Latin, Gallic and African troops; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.45; historyofwar.org Battle of Teanum Sidicinum", "note": "Caesar, ill, escaped in a litter to Teanum; most of his army was lost or threw away its arms." }, { "id": 457, "key": "-90-mons-falernus", "name": "Mons Falernus", "year": -90, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "90 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Social War", "theatre": "Picenum", "place": "Mount Falernus, Picenum (perhaps near Falerone)", "lat": 43.08, "lon": 13.47, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Italian allies" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Titus Lafrenius, Gaius Vidacilius, Publius Ventidius", "commanders_b": "Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Italian allies", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Pompeius Strabo's army of Picenum, Roman citizen legions raised largely from his own clients in Picenum (no numbers given).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizen troops; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.47; en.wikipedia Social War (91-87 BC); historyofwar.org", "note": "Strabo was beaten and fell back on Firmum, where he was besieged. Possibly fought before the Tolenus; the site is uncertain." }, { "id": 458, "key": "-90-firmum", "name": "Firmum", "year": -90, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "90 BCE (autumn)", "type": "land", "war": "Social War", "theatre": "Picenum", "place": "Before Firmum (Fermo)", "lat": 43.16, "lon": 13.72, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Italian allies" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo, Servius Sulpicius Galba", "commanders_b": "Titus Lafrenius (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Italian allies", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Strabo's besieged army breaking out of Firmum while a relief force under Sulpicius fell on the besiegers' rear (Appian, BC 1.47).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizen troops; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.47; en.wikipedia Social War (91-87 BC)", "note": "The beaten rebels fled into Asculum. Wikipedia's Social War article names Sextus Julius Caesar for the relieving force; Appian names Sulpicius. Lafrenius is often emended to Afranius." }, { "id": 459, "key": "-90-asculum-siege", "name": "Asculum (siege)", "year": -90, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 90 - November 89 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Social War", "theatre": "Picenum", "place": "Asculum (Ascoli Piceno), where the war began", "lat": 42.85, "lon": 13.58, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Italian allies" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo, Sextus Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "Gaius Vidacilius (killed himself), the Picentes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Italian allies", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Pompeius Strabo's army of citizen legions, in which the young Pompey and Cicero served, with auxiliary cavalry including the turma Salluitana of Iberian horsemen from the Ebro valley, granted citizenship in the camp before Asculum on 17 November 89 (ILS 8888).", "languages": [ "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizen legions with Spanish and other auxiliaries; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.47-48; Orosius 5.18; Velleius 2.21; ILS 8888 (the Asculum bronze); en.wikipedia Battle of Asculum (89 BC)", "note": "Vidacilius forced his way into the town with eight cohorts but, failing to rouse it, killed himself. Asculum surrendered in November 89; Strabo triumphed on 25 December. 'other' in languages = Iberian." }, { "id": 460, "key": "-89-stabiae-siege", "name": "Stabiae (siege)", "year": -89, "month": 4, "day": 30, "date": "30 April 89 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Social War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Stabiae (Castellammare di Stabia)", "lat": 40.7, "lon": 14.49, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Italian allies" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cornelius Sulla", "commanders_b": "The Stabians", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Pliny records only that Sulla destroyed the town on this date; the fighting is not described.", "main_enemy": "Italian allies", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Sulla's army of citizen legions and loyal Italian troops (no numbers given).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizen and loyal Italian troops; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Pliny, NH 3.70; en.wikipedia Social War (91-87 BC)", "note": "" }, { "id": 461, "key": "-89-asculum", "name": "Asculum", "year": -89, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "89 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Social War", "theatre": "Picenum", "place": "Before Asculum (Ascoli Piceno)", "lat": 42.85, "lon": 13.58, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Italian allies" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo (consul)", "commanders_b": "Vettius Scato (Marsi)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Italian allies", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consul Strabo's army of citizen legions with auxiliaries (including Iberian cavalry), the force besieging Asculum.", "languages": [ "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizen legions with Spanish auxiliaries; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.48; Velleius 2.21; Orosius 5.18; en.wikipedia Battle of Asculum (89 BC)", "note": "Strabo defeated an Italian relief army (60,000 according to Wikipedia, citing Velleius), often seen as the turning point of the war; Wikipedia's Social War article dates it January 89 and names Vettius Scato, whose men fled over snowy mountains. The relief commander is uncertain." }, { "id": 462, "key": "-89-fucine-lake", "name": "Fucine Lake", "year": -89, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "89 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Social War", "theatre": "Marsic country", "place": "Near the Fucine Lake, at a camp of the Marsi", "lat": 41.98, "lon": 13.55, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Italian allies" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Porcius Cato (consul, killed)", "commanders_b": "Marsi (no commander named)", "outcome": "unknown", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Italian allies", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The consul Cato's army, formerly Marius's northern army of citizen legions (no numbers given).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizen troops; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.50; Livy Per. 75; Orosius 5.18.24; en.wikipedia Social War (91-87 BC)", "note": "Cato, after earlier successes, fell while attacking the Marsic camp near the lake (Appian, Livy); Orosius blames the younger Marius. Wikipedia's Social War article counts it a Roman victory, but the sources do not say how the fight ended." }, { "id": 463, "key": "-89-pompeii-siege", "name": "Pompeii (siege)", "year": -89, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "89 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Social War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Pompeii", "lat": 40.75, "lon": 14.49, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Italian allies" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cornelius Sulla (legate), Minatius Magius", "commanders_b": "The Pompeians; Lucius Cluentius (relief)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Italian allies", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Sulla's army of citizen legions with a legion raised among the Hirpini by Minatius Magius of Aeclanum (Velleius 2.16), and a fleet (Postumius Albinus's ships, whose crews killed him).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizen and loyal Italian troops; naval crews may have included Greeks from the loyal cities of Campania, but none are attested here.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.50; Velleius 2.16; Orosius 5.18; en.wikipedia Social War (91-87 BC)", "note": "Sling bullets and ballista damage from the siege survive at Pompeii. The town's fall is not explicitly recorded; Wikipedia records its capture, and it later received a Sullan colony (80 BCE)." }, { "id": 464, "key": "-89-nola", "name": "Nola", "year": -89, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "89 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Social War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Between Pompeii and Nola, ending at the walls of Nola", "lat": 40.93, "lon": 14.53, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Italian allies" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cornelius Sulla", "commanders_b": "Lucius Cluentius (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Wikipedia calls it Cluentius's relief attempt rather than a battle of Nola.", "main_enemy": "Italian allies", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Sulla's army besieging Pompeii, citizen legions and loyal Italian troops; Sulla won the grass crown here for saving his army (Pliny, NH 22.12).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizen and loyal Italian troops; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.50; Pliny, NH 22.12; en.wikipedia Social War (91-87 BC)", "note": "Cluentius first repulsed Sulla, then, reinforced by Gauls, was routed and pursued to Nola, where he and many of his men (Appian: about 20,000) were cut down at the gates." }, { "id": 465, "key": "-89-aeclanum-siege", "name": "Aeclanum (siege)", "year": -89, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "89 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Social War", "theatre": "Hirpinia", "place": "Aeclanum, town of the Hirpini", "lat": 41.06, "lon": 15.01, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Italian allies" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cornelius Sulla", "commanders_b": "The Hirpini", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Sulla set fire to the wooden walls and the town surrendered; it was then sacked, so the fighting was brief.", "main_enemy": "Italian allies", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Sulla's army of citizen legions and loyal Italian troops (no numbers given).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizen and loyal Italian troops; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.51; en.wikipedia Social War (91-87 BC)", "note": "The fall of Aeclanum brought the surrender of the other Hirpini." }, { "id": 466, "key": "-89-bovianum", "name": "Bovianum", "year": -89, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "89 BCE (by September)", "type": "land", "war": "Social War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "Bovianum, the rebels' capital in Samnium (Boiano), after a battle in the hills near Aesernia", "lat": 41.48, "lon": 14.47, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Italian allies" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cornelius Sulla", "commanders_b": "Gaius Papius Mutilus (wounded), the Samnites", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Italian allies", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Sulla's army of citizen legions and loyal Italian troops (no numbers given).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizen and loyal Italian troops; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.51; en.wikipedia Social War (91-87 BC)", "note": "Sulla surprised and routed Papius Mutilus's army by a mountain march (Mutilus fled wounded to Aesernia), then stormed Bovianum after a three-hour fight. Which Bovianum (Vetus or Undecimanorum) is disputed." }, { "id": 467, "key": "-89-canusium", "name": "Canusium", "year": -89, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "89 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Social War", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Before Canusium (Canosa di Puglia)", "lat": 41.22, "lon": 16.07, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Italian allies" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "The Samnite relief army", "commanders_b": "Gaius Cosconius (praetor)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Appian's brief account; not a named battle in Wikipedia.", "main_enemy": "Italian allies", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The praetor Cosconius's army in Apulia, citizen legions with loyal Italian troops (no numbers given).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizen and loyal Italian troops; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.52", "note": "Cosconius, besieging Canusium, was beaten by a Samnite relief army after heavy losses on both sides and fell back to Cannae. Possibly 88." }, { "id": 468, "key": "-89-aufidus", "name": "Aufidus", "year": -89, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "89 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Social War", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "On the river Aufidus (Ofanto) between Cannae and Canusium", "lat": 41.27, "lon": 16.1, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Italian allies" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Cosconius (praetor)", "commanders_b": "Trebatius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Appian's brief account; not a named battle in Wikipedia.", "main_enemy": "Italian allies", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "The praetor Cosconius's army in Apulia, citizen legions with loyal Italian troops (no numbers given).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman citizen and loyal Italian troops; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.52", "note": "Trebatius crossed the river to attack and was caught and routed, his survivors fleeing to Canusium; Cosconius then overran Larinum, Venusia and Apulian Asculum. Possibly 88." }, { "id": 469, "key": "-89-protopachium", "name": "Protopachium", "year": -89, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "89 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Bithynia/Paphlagonia", "place": "Near the fortress of Protopachium in eastern Bithynia, east of the Sangarius (site unknown)", "lat": 40.9, "lon": 31.1, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Pontus" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Bithynia", "Cappadocia", "Paphlagonia", "Galatians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Neoptolemus, Nemanes the Armenian (generals of Mithridates VI)", "commanders_b": "Manius Aquillius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Aquillius's army of 40,000 foot and 4,000 horse, raised mostly from Bithynia, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia and the Galatians, with very few Romans (Appian, Mithridatic Wars 17).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic", "other", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army was levied in the Hellenistic kingdoms and Greek cities of northern Anatolia, where Greek was widespread, alongside Celtic Galatians and native Anatolians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Mithridatic Wars 17-19; en.wikipedia Battle of Protopachium", "note": "Aquillius lost about 10,000 dead and 300 prisoners and fled to Pergamon; later handed over to Mithridates and executed. Dated 89 by Wikipedia; some modern accounts put the opening battles of the war in 88." }, { "id": 470, "key": "-88-apulia-death-of-poppaedius-silo", "name": "Apulia (death of Poppaedius Silo)", "year": -88, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "88 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Social War", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Apulia, site unknown", "lat": 41.0, "lon": 15.8, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Italian allies" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius", "commanders_b": "Quintus Poppaedius Silo (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No conventional name: the battle in Apulia in which the Marsic leader Silo fell, ending organised Italian resistance.", "main_enemy": "Italian allies", "opponent_group": "Italic peoples", "roman_force": "Metellus Pius' army in Apulia, Roman legions with Latin and loyal Italian contingents; no numbers are given. Silo's Marsi and Samnites numbered about 50,000 according to Diodorus.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Roman-Italian army; the loyal Greek cities of southern Italy (Naples, Rhegium) sided with Rome in the Social War, but no Greek contingent is recorded here.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.53; Diodorus 37.2.10-11; Livy, Per. 76; en.wikipedia Social War (91-87 BC)", "note": "Metellus had taken Venusia in the same campaign; the exact site is not recorded." }, { "id": 471, "key": "-88-esquiline-forum", "name": "Esquiline Forum", "year": -88, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "88 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sulla's first civil war (march on Rome, 88 BCE)", "theatre": "Rome", "place": "the Esquiline Gate and Esquiline Forum, Rome", "lat": 41.9, "lon": 12.5, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sulla", "faction_b": "Marius and Sulpicius", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Quintus Pompeius Rufus", "commanders_b": "Gaius Marius, Publius Sulpicius Rufus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Sulla's six legions from the siege of Nola (Appian, BC 1.57), against the citizens and slaves whom Marius and Sulpicius armed in the city, Marius offering freedom to slaves who joined him (Plutarch, Sulla 9; Appian, BC 1.58).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions raised in Campania and central Italy during the Social War; Greek speakers only among the citizens of the southern Italian cities and the freedmen and slaves of Rome.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Plutarch, Sulla 9; Appian, BC 1.57-58; en.wikipedia March on Rome (88 BC); historyofwar.org, Sulla's attack on Rome or battle of the Esquiline Forum", "note": "Street fighting as Sulla's army entered Rome; the first time a Roman army took the city by force." }, { "id": 472, "key": "-88-rhodes-siege", "name": "Rhodes (siege)", "year": -88, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 88 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "First Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Aegean", "place": "Rhodes, the city and its harbours", "lat": 36.45, "lon": 28.23, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pontus" ], "allies_a": [ "Rhodes" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cassius (proconsul of Asia); Damagoras (Rhodian admiral)", "commanders_b": "Mithridates VI", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The Romans present were refugees under Cassius; the defence was essentially Rhodian.", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "The Rhodian citizen army and fleet under the admiral Damagoras, with the proconsul Lucius Cassius and the Romans and Italians who had fled from Asia to the island (Appian, Mith. 24-27); no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The defence was borne by the Rhodian fleet and citizens; the Roman element was the band of refugees with Cassius.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Mith. 24-27; Diodorus 37.28; en.wikipedia Siege of Rhodes (88 BC)", "note": "Several sea fights and a failed assault with a sambuca mounted on ships; type set to sea for the main arm. Mithridates abandoned the siege." }, { "id": 473, "key": "-88-delos", "name": "Delos", "year": -88, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "88 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Aegean", "place": "Delos, Cyclades", "lat": 37.4, "lon": 25.27, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Orbius (Roman commander on Delos)", "commanders_b": "Apellicon of Teos, sent by the Athenian tyrant Athenion", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A small night action against the expedition of Mithridates' ally Athens.", "main_enemy": "Greek cities", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "A small force under Orbius, the Roman officer guarding Delos, probably raised from the island's Roman and Italian residents; he surprised Apellicon's Athenian expedition by night (Posidonius in Athenaeus 5.214-215).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "unknown", "greek_basis": "unknown", "greek_note": "The Italian community of Delos included many Greek-speaking southern Italians and freedmen, but the make-up of Orbius' force is not recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Posidonius in Athenaeus 5.214d-215b; en.wikipedia First Mithridatic War", "note": "Shortly afterwards Archelaus' Pontic fleet took Delos and massacred its Italians (Appian, Mith. 28)." }, { "id": 474, "key": "-88-sciathus-sea", "name": "Sciathus (sea)", "year": -88, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 88 or early 87 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "First Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Greece", "place": "the waters off Sciathus (Skiathos), northern Aegean", "lat": 39.16, "lon": 23.49, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pontus" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Braetius Sura (legate of the governor of Macedonia)", "commanders_b": "Metrophanes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A minor sea fight known from brief notices; the site off Sciathus is inferred from Sura's capture of the island.", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Braetius Sura's small squadron and troops from the province of Macedonia; he sank a large ship and a hemiolia of Metrophanes and took the Pontic depot on Sciathus (Appian, Mith. 29).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rome had no standing fleet in the Aegean in 88 BCE; Sura's ships would have been crewed by local Greek and Macedonian sailors.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Mith. 29; Plutarch, Sulla 11; en.wikipedia First Mithridatic War", "note": "" }, { "id": 475, "key": "-87-chaeronea", "name": "Chaeronea", "year": -87, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "winter 88/87 or spring 87 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Greece", "place": "near Chaeronea, Boeotia", "lat": 38.5, "lon": 22.85, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pontus" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Braetius Sura", "commanders_b": "Archelaus, Aristion", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A three-day indecisive fight known only from brief notices; not usually given its own name.", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Braetius Sura's small force from the garrison of the province of Macedonia; no numbers are given (Appian, Mith. 29; Plutarch, Sulla 11).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Macedonian garrison was a small Roman force with local Macedonian, Greek and Thracian auxiliaries; their proportion is unknown.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Mith. 29; Plutarch, Sulla 11; en.wikipedia First Mithridatic War", "note": "Archelaus and the Athenian Aristion against Sura; Spartan and Achaean contingents then joined the Pontic side and Sura fell back. Plutarch (Sulla 11.4) claims Sura won three battles and drove Archelaus back to the sea; Appian (Mith. 29) has an indecisive three-day fight, kept here as a draw." }, { "id": 476, "key": "-87-janiculum", "name": "Janiculum", "year": -87, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "87 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sulla's first civil war (Bellum Octavianum)", "theatre": "Rome", "place": "the Janiculum hill, Rome", "lat": 41.89, "lon": 12.46, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Senate (Octavius)", "faction_b": "Cinna and Marius", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Octavius, Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo", "commanders_b": "Gaius Marius, Lucius Cornelius Cinna", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "The consul Octavius' troops in the city with Pompeius Strabo's army from Picenum, against Marius' men, who had seized the Janiculum through the treachery of the tribune Appius Claudius (Appian, BC 1.68).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Etruscan" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian armies on both sides, Marius' partly raised in Etruria; no Greek contingents are recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.68; Orosius 5.19; en.wikipedia Bellum Octavianum", "note": "Octavius drove the Marians off the hill, but Strabo held back from a pursuit; the siege of Rome ended soon after in the city's surrender." }, { "id": 477, "key": "-87-rome-siege", "name": "Rome (siege)", "year": -87, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "87 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sulla's first civil war (Bellum Octavianum)", "theatre": "Rome", "place": "Rome and its approaches (the Janiculum, the Colline Gate, Ostia)", "lat": 41.9, "lon": 12.49, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Cinna and Marius", "faction_b": "Senate (Octavius)", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cornelius Cinna, Gaius Marius, Quintus Sertorius, Gnaeus Papirius Carbo", "commanders_b": "Gnaeus Octavius, Gnaeus Pompeius Strabo, Lucius Cornelius Merula", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Cinna's army, the legion left at Nola that he won over and levies of the new Italian citizens, with about 6,000 men Marius raised in Etruria (Appian, BC 1.65-67), against Octavius' troops in the city and Pompeius Strabo's army; Brunt estimated the two sides at about 120,000 and 60,000.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Etruscan" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian armies on both sides; Marius also enrolled slaves, but no Greek units are recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.64-71; Plutarch, Marius 41-43; Orosius 5.19; en.wikipedia Bellum Octavianum; historyofwar.org, Siege of Rome, 87 BC", "note": "A blockade with real fighting (the Janiculum, an indecisive battle of Strabo against Sertorius near the Colline Gate, Marius' capture of Ostia); the Senate surrendered the city and Octavius was killed." }, { "id": 478, "key": "-87-athens-and-piraeus-siege", "name": "Athens and Piraeus (siege)", "year": -87, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 87 BCE to spring 86 BCE (Athens stormed on 1 March 86 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "First Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Greece", "place": "Athens and its port Piraeus, Attica", "lat": 37.96, "lon": 23.7, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pontus", "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cornelius Sulla; Gaius Scribonius Curio (Acropolis)", "commanders_b": "Archelaus (Piraeus); Aristion (Athens)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Sulla's five legions with some cohorts and cavalry brought from Italy, reinforced with soldiers, money and supplies from Aetolia and Thessaly (Appian, Mith. 30); en.wikipedia gives 37,000-44,000 in all, about 20,000 of them auxiliaries.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Appian says Sulla raised troops in Aetolia and Thessaly, and the auxiliaries of his army were largely Greek and Macedonian.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Plutarch, Sulla 12-14; Appian, Mith. 30-41; Pausanias 1.20.4-7; en.wikipedia Siege of Athens and Piraeus (87-86 BC)", "note": "Athens under the tyrant Aristion fell first; Archelaus then abandoned Piraeus by sea and Sulla burned it. Some give 12 February rather than 1 March for the storm of Athens." }, { "id": 479, "key": "-86-chaeronea", "name": "Chaeronea", "year": -86, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "86 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Greece", "place": "the plain of Chaeronea, Boeotia", "lat": 38.5, "lon": 22.85, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pontus" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cornelius Sulla; Lucius Licinius Murena; Lucius Hortensius; Servius Sulpicius Galba; Aulus Gabinius", "commanders_b": "Archelaus, Taxiles", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Sulla's veteran legions, fewer than 15,000 foot and 1,500 horse by Plutarch's count (Sulla 16), with Macedonian and Greek allies, the troops Hortensius brought down from Thessaly, and men of Chaeronea who seized Mount Thurium for him; modern estimates about 30,000 in all.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Beyond a Roman core of under 17,000 the army was made up of Macedonian and Greek allies, and Chaeronean volunteers led the attack on Thurium (Plutarch, Sulla 17-18).", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Plutarch, Sulla 15-19; Appian, Mith. 41-45; Memnon of Heraclea; en.wikipedia Battle of Chaeronea (86 BC)", "note": "Pontic strength 60,000 (Memnon) to 120,000 (Appian); Sulla's claim of 12 or 14 Roman dead is doubted." }, { "id": 480, "key": "-86-orchomenus", "name": "Orchomenus", "year": -86, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 86 BCE (some give 85 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "First Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Greece", "place": "the plain and marshes by Orchomenus, Boeotia (Lake Copais)", "lat": 38.49, "lon": 22.98, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pontus" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cornelius Sulla", "commanders_b": "Archelaus, Dorylaus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Sulla's army of about 30,000 (Delbrück), the same legions and Greek and Macedonian allies as at Chaeronea, much weaker in cavalry than the 80,000 Pontic troops; Sulla dug ditches across the marshy plain against the Pontic horse (Plutarch, Sulla 20-21).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The same Roman-Greek army as at Chaeronea; no separate figures for the Greek allies are given for this battle.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Plutarch, Sulla 20-21; Appian, Mith. 49-50; Frontinus, Strat. 2.3.17; en.wikipedia Battle of Orchomenus", "note": "en.wikipedia dates it autumn 86 BCE; many works give 85 BCE." }, { "id": 481, "key": "-85-lectum", "name": "Lectum", "year": -85, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "85 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "First Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Aegean (Troad)", "place": "off Cape Lectum (Babakale), the south-western tip of the Troad", "lat": 39.48, "lon": 26.05, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pontus" ], "allies_a": [ "Rhodes" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Licinius Lucullus", "commanders_b": "the king's squadron (commander not named)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "The fleet Lucullus had gathered from Rome's eastern allies, ships and crews from Rhodes, Cyprus, Phoenicia and Pamphylia, joined by Cos and Cnidus (Plutarch, Lucullus 2-3; Appian, Mith. 56).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Rome had no fleet of its own in the East; the ships and crews were lent by Greek allies, with some Phoenician ships.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Lucullus 3.8; the ancient Greek battles set, Lectum 85 BC", "note": "Fought after Lucullus had let Mithridates escape from Pitane (85 BCE), shortly before the larger victory over Neoptolemus off Tenedos. 'other' in languages = Phoenician." }, { "id": 482, "key": "-85-tenedos-sea", "name": "Tenedos (sea)", "year": -85, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "85 BCE (en.wikipedia: 86 BCE)", "type": "sea", "war": "First Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Aegean", "place": "off Tenedos (Bozcaada), near the Troad", "lat": 39.82, "lon": 26.03, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pontus" ], "allies_a": [ "Rhodes" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Licinius Lucullus; Damagoras of Rhodes", "commanders_b": "Neoptolemus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "A fleet Lucullus assembled from Rome's eastern allies, ships and crews from Rhodes, Cyprus, Phoenicia and Pamphylia (Appian, Mith. 56), joined by Cos and Cnidus (Plutarch, Lucullus 3); Lucullus sailed in a Rhodian ship under Damagoras.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Rome had no fleet of its own; the ships and crews were lent by Greek allies (Rhodes, Cyprus, Pamphylia, Cos, Cnidus) with some Phoenician ships, and a Rhodian commanded the flagship.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Lucullus 2-3; Appian, Mith. 56; en.wikipedia Battle of Tenedos (86 BC)", "note": "Fought after Lucullus' smaller victory off Lectum (-85-lectum) and after Mithridates' escape from Pitane, so in 85 BCE; en.wikipedia dates it 86 BCE." }, { "id": 483, "key": "-85-rhyndacus", "name": "Rhyndacus", "year": -85, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "early summer 85 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Asia Minor", "place": "on the Rhyndacus river near Miletopolis, Mysia", "lat": 40.1, "lon": 28.4, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pontus" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Flavius Fimbria", "commanders_b": "Mithridates the Younger (son of Mithridates VI)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "The two legions Valerius Flaccus had brought from Italy (the later Fimbriani or Valeriani), led by Fimbria after Flaccus' murder; Fimbria killed 6,000 Pontic horse and then stormed the Pontic camp by night (Memnon 34).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Two Italian legions; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Memnon of Heraclea 34; Appian, Mith. 52; en.wikipedia First Mithridatic War", "note": "Also called the battle of Miletopolis. Fimbria served the Cinnan government, not Sulla, but the battle was against Pontus." }, { "id": 484, "key": "-85-ilium-siege", "name": "Ilium (siege)", "year": -85, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "85 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "First Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Asia Minor", "place": "Ilium (Troy), the Troad", "lat": 39.96, "lon": 26.24, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Flavius Fimbria", "commanders_b": "the citizens of Ilium", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Ilium had declared for Sulla against the Cinnan government Fimbria served, so this is partly an episode of the Roman civil strife.", "main_enemy": "Greek cities", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Fimbria's two Valerian legions; the Ilians shut their gates and appealed to Sulla, and Fimbria took the city after eleven days, then sacked and burned it (Appian, Mith. 53).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Two Italian legions; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Mith. 53; Strabo 13.1.27; Livy, Per. 83; en.wikipedia First Mithridatic War", "note": "" }, { "id": 485, "key": "-83-mount-tifata", "name": "Mount Tifata", "year": -83, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "83 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sulla's civil war", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "the foot of Mount Tifata near Capua, by the Volturnus", "lat": 41.1, "lon": 14.27, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sulla", "faction_b": "Marians (Carbo's government)", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cornelius Sulla, Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius", "commanders_b": "Gaius Norbanus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Sulla's army from the East, five legions of Italians and 6,000 cavalry with further troops from the Peloponnese and Macedonia, about 40,000 men (Appian, BC 1.79), against the consul Norbanus' newly levied legions.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Appian says Sulla added troops raised in the Peloponnese and Macedonia to his five Italian legions, a small share of the whole.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Velleius 2.25; Appian, BC 1.79, 1.84; Plutarch, Sulla 27; en.wikipedia Battle of Mount Tifata", "note": "Also called the battle of Casilinum; Appian places Sulla's first victory near Canusium. en.wikipedia gives November 83 BCE." }, { "id": 486, "key": "-82-colline-gate", "name": "Colline Gate", "year": -82, "month": 11, "day": 1, "date": "1 November 82 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sulla's civil war", "theatre": "Rome", "place": "before the Colline Gate (Porta Collina), Rome", "lat": 41.91, "lon": 12.5, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Samnites", "Lucanians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sulla", "faction_b": "Marians", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cornelius Sulla; Marcus Licinius Crassus (right wing)", "commanders_b": "Pontius Telesinus, Marcus Lamponius, Gaius Carrinas, Gaius Marcius Censorinus, Lucius Junius Brutus Damasippus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Sulla's veteran legions of the Mithridatic war, Crassus commanding the right wing, against about 70,000 Samnites, Lucanians and Marians under Telesinus and the Marian generals (Appian, BC 1.93; en.wikipedia).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Sulla's legions were Italian; the Samnite and Lucanian army opposing him spoke Oscan; no Greek contingents are recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.93; Plutarch, Sulla 29-30; Velleius 2.27; en.wikipedia Battle of the Colline Gate (82 BC)", "note": "Sulla's own left wing was routed; Crassus' victory on the right decided the battle. About 50,000 dead are reported; Carrinas and Censorinus were executed the next day." }, { "id": 487, "key": "-82-sacriportus", "name": "Sacriportus", "year": -82, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 82 BCE (en.wikipedia: April)", "type": "land", "war": "Sulla's civil war", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Sacriportus, near Signia (Segni), Latium", "lat": 41.72, "lon": 13.0, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sulla", "faction_b": "Marians", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cornelius Sulla", "commanders_b": "Gaius Marius the Younger", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Sulla's veterans (about 40,000 by en.wikipedia's figure) against Marius' army of 85 cohorts (Appian, BC 1.87), of which five cohorts of foot and two of horse deserted to Sulla on the field.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian armies on both sides; Greek speakers at most a handful among the eastern levies Sulla had brought.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.87; Plutarch, Sulla 28; Velleius 2.26; en.wikipedia Battle of Sacriportus", "note": "Marius lost some 28,000 men killed, captured or deserted, and fled to Praeneste." }, { "id": 488, "key": "-82-praeneste-siege", "name": "Praeneste (siege)", "year": -82, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "82 BCE (spring to early November)", "type": "land", "war": "Sulla's civil war", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Praeneste (Palestrina) and the passes leading to it", "lat": 41.84, "lon": 12.89, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Samnites", "Lucanians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sulla", "faction_b": "Marians", "commanders_a": "Quintus Lucretius Afella (Ofella); Lucius Cornelius Sulla; Pompey", "commanders_b": "Gaius Marius the Younger; relief armies of Gaius Marcius Censorinus, Lucius Junius Brutus Damasippus and Pontius Telesinus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Afella's blockading army and the forces Sulla posted on the passes, against Marius' garrison of the survivors of Sacriportus; relief armies (Censorinus' eight legions, ambushed by Pompey, Damasippus' two legions, and the Samnites and Lucanians of Telesinus and Lamponius) failed to break in (Appian, BC 1.88-92).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian armies on both sides; the Samnite and Lucanian relief forces spoke Oscan.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.87-94; Plutarch, Sulla 28-32; Velleius 2.26-27; en.wikipedia Sulla's civil war", "note": "The town surrendered after the Colline Gate; Marius the Younger killed himself and the defenders were massacred." }, { "id": 489, "key": "-82-aesis", "name": "Aesis", "year": -82, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "82 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sulla's civil war", "theatre": "Picenum", "place": "on the river Aesis (Esino), Picenum", "lat": 43.55, "lon": 13.3, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sulla", "faction_b": "Marians", "commanders_a": "Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius", "commanders_b": "Gaius Carrinas", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Metellus Pius' Sullan army in Picenum against Carrinas' Marian legions; numbers not given (Appian, BC 1.87).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian armies on both sides; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.87; en.wikipedia Sulla's civil war", "note": "" }, { "id": 490, "key": "-82-sena-gallica", "name": "Sena Gallica", "year": -82, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "82 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sulla's civil war", "theatre": "Umbria and Picenum", "place": "near Sena Gallica (Senigallia)", "lat": 43.71, "lon": 13.22, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sulla", "faction_b": "Marians", "commanders_a": "Pompey", "commanders_b": "Gaius Marcius Censorinus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Pompey's legions raised in Picenum from his father's clients and veterans, against Censorinus' Marian army; Pompey's men then sacked the town (Appian, BC 1.88).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian armies on both sides; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.88; en.wikipedia Sulla's civil war", "note": "" }, { "id": 491, "key": "-82-spoletium", "name": "Spoletium", "year": -82, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "82 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sulla's civil war", "theatre": "Umbria", "place": "the plain near Spoletium (Spoleto)", "lat": 42.73, "lon": 12.74, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sulla", "faction_b": "Marians", "commanders_a": "Pompey, Marcus Licinius Crassus; Lucius Cornelius Sulla", "commanders_b": "Gaius Carrinas; Gnaeus Papirius Carbo", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Pompey's and Crassus' legions, who killed about 3,000 of Carrinas' men and shut him up in Spoletium; Sulla ambushed the relief Carbo sent, killing about 2,000 (Appian, BC 1.90).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian armies on both sides; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.90; en.wikipedia Sulla's civil war", "note": "Carrinas escaped from Spoletium by night during a storm." }, { "id": 492, "key": "-82-saturnia", "name": "Saturnia", "year": -82, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "82 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sulla's civil war", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "near Saturnia, Etruria", "lat": 42.66, "lon": 11.5, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sulla", "faction_b": "Marians", "commanders_a": "a division of Sulla's army", "commanders_b": "Marian troops of Carbo's command", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from a single sentence in Appian.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "A Sullan division against Marian troops in Etruria; no numbers are given (Appian, BC 1.89).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Etruscan" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian armies on both sides; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.89; en.wikipedia Sulla's civil war", "note": "" }, { "id": 493, "key": "-82-first-clusium", "name": "First Clusium", "year": -82, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "82 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sulla's civil war", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "near Clusium (Chiusi), Etruria", "lat": 43.02, "lon": 11.95, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sulla", "faction_b": "Marians", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cornelius Sulla", "commanders_b": "Gnaeus Papirius Carbo", "outcome": "draw", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Sulla's main army against Carbo's consular army, fighting all day until darkness without result (Appian, BC 1.89).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Etruscan" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian armies on both sides; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.89; Velleius 2.28; en.wikipedia First Battle of Clusium", "note": "Indecisive; Sulla then withdrew." }, { "id": 494, "key": "-82-fidentia", "name": "Fidentia", "year": -82, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "82 BCE (the war article puts it at the end of 83 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Sulla's civil war", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "near Fidentia (Fidenza), between Placentia and Parma", "lat": 44.87, "lon": 10.06, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sulla", "faction_b": "Marians", "commanders_a": "Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus", "commanders_b": "a Marian commander not named by Plutarch", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Lucullus' detachment of 16 cohorts against 50 Marian cohorts (Plutarch, Sulla 27).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian and Cisalpine troops on both sides; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Sulla 27; Appian, BC 1.92; en.wikipedia Battle of Fidentia (82 BC); en.wikipedia Sulla's civil war", "note": "Lucullus' victory near Placentia in Appian (BC 1.92) may be the same action or a second one; the main war article dates Fidentia to the end of 83 BCE." }, { "id": 495, "key": "-82-faventia", "name": "Faventia", "year": -82, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "82 BCE (en.wikipedia: September)", "type": "land", "war": "Sulla's civil war", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "near Faventia (Faenza)", "lat": 44.29, "lon": 11.88, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sulla", "faction_b": "Marians", "commanders_a": "Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius", "commanders_b": "Gaius Norbanus, Gnaeus Papirius Carbo", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Metellus Pius' army (about 20,000 by en.wikipedia's figure), attacked late in the day by Carbo's and Norbanus' tired troops; the Marians lost about 10,000 dead and 6,000 deserters, and only 1,000 got back in order to Arretium (Appian, BC 1.91).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian and Cisalpine armies on both sides; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.91; Velleius 2.28; en.wikipedia Battle of Faventia (82 BC)", "note": "After the defeat a Lucanian legion under Albinovanus went over to Sulla." }, { "id": 496, "key": "-82-second-clusium", "name": "Second Clusium", "year": -82, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 82 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sulla's civil war", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "near Clusium (Chiusi), Etruria", "lat": 43.02, "lon": 11.95, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sulla", "faction_b": "Marians", "commanders_a": "Pompey", "commanders_b": "the commanders of Carbo's army after his flight to Africa", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Pompey's army against the army Carbo left at Clusium when he fled after Faventia; Appian puts the Marian dead at about 20,000 (BC 1.92).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Etruscan" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian armies on both sides; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.92; en.wikipedia Second Battle of Clusium", "note": "The survivors under Carrinas, Censorinus and Damasippus joined Telesinus for the march on Rome that ended at the Colline Gate." }, { "id": 497, "key": "-82-halys", "name": "Halys", "year": -82, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "82 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Second Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "a crossing of the Halys (Kızılırmak) river, Pontus", "lat": 40.6, "lon": 35.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Pontus" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mithridates VI, Gordius", "commanders_b": "Lucius Licinius Murena", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Murena's army in Asia, built on the two Fimbrian (Valerian) legions Sulla had left there (Appian, Mith. 64-65).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Two Italian legions; Murena may also have used Asian levies, but none are recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Mith. 64-66; Memnon of Heraclea 36; en.wikipedia Battle of Halys", "note": "Mithridates forced the river against Murena, who retreated into Phrygia; Sulla then ordered an end to the war." }, { "id": 498, "key": "-81-pityussa-sea", "name": "Pityussa (sea)", "year": -81, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "81 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Sertorian War", "theatre": "Hispania (Balearic Islands)", "place": "off Pityussa (Ibiza)", "lat": 38.9, "lon": 1.43, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Cilician pirates" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sullans", "faction_b": "Sertorians", "commanders_a": "Gaius Annius Luscus", "commanders_b": "Quintus Sertorius", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A brief notice in Plutarch; the storm rather than the fight decided it.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Annius' fleet carrying about 5,000 heavy infantry, against Sertorius' light craft and the Cilician pirate ships allied to him; a storm scattered Sertorius' ships (Plutarch, Sertorius 7).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The Cilician pirate crews with Sertorius were largely Greek-speaking; the Roman forces on both sides were Italian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Sertorius 7; en.wikipedia Sertorian War", "note": "Sertorius had first landed and overpowered Annius' garrison on the island." }, { "id": 499, "key": "-81-tingis", "name": "Tingis", "year": -81, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "81 BCE (some 80 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Sertorian War", "theatre": "Mauretania", "place": "near Tingis (Tangier), Mauretania", "lat": 35.78, "lon": -5.81, "loc": "approx", "country": "Morocco", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Berbers" ], "allies_b": [ "Mauretania" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sertorians", "faction_b": "Sullans", "commanders_a": "Quintus Sertorius", "commanders_b": "Paccianus; Ascalis", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known from Plutarch's brief account; no conventional battle name.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Sertorius' band of Roman exiles with the Maurusian rebels against Ascalis, against the force Sulla sent under Paccianus to support Ascalis; Sertorius won, took Paccianus' men into his service and then took Tingis (Plutarch, Sertorius 9).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman exiles and Moorish tribesmen; the Cilician pirates had left Sertorius to serve Ascalis.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Sertorius 9; en.wikipedia Sertorian War", "note": "" }, { "id": 500, "key": "-81-utica", "name": "Utica", "year": -81, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "81 BCE (some 82 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Sulla's civil war", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "near Utica, province of Africa", "lat": 37.06, "lon": 10.06, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Numidia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sulla", "faction_b": "Marians", "commanders_a": "Pompey", "commanders_b": "Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (killed), Hiarbas of Numidia", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Pompey's six legions, brought from Sicily in 120 warships and 800 transports (Plutarch, Pompey 11), against Domitius' Marians and the Numidians of King Hiarbas, about 20,000 in all.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions; the transports and crews gathered in Sicily may have been partly Greek-manned, but no Greek units are recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Pompey 11-12; Livy, Per. 89; Orosius 5.21; en.wikipedia Sulla's civil war", "note": "Pompey stormed Domitius' camp in a rainstorm; he then hunted down Hiarbas and restored Hiempsal to the Numidian throne." }, { "id": 501, "key": "-81-volaterrae-siege", "name": "Volaterrae (siege)", "year": -81, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "81-79 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sulla's civil war", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "Volaterrae (Volterra), Etruria", "lat": 43.4, "lon": 10.86, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sulla", "faction_b": "Marians", "commanders_a": "Lucius Cornelius Sulla (began the siege) and his legates", "commanders_b": "proscribed Marians and the Volaterrans", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A long blockade ending in surrender (79 BCE); actual fighting is not well attested.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Sullan legions blockading the hill town, held by proscribed Marians and the Etruscan townsmen, for about two years (Strabo 5.2.6).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Etruscan" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian forces on both sides; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Strabo 5.2.6; Cicero, Pro Caecina 18; Granius Licinianus 36; en.wikipedia Volterra", "note": "The start may be late 82 BCE." }, { "id": 502, "key": "-80-mellaria-sea", "name": "Mellaria (sea)", "year": -80, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "80 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Sertorian War", "theatre": "Hispania Ulterior", "place": "in the strait off Mellaria, near Tarifa", "lat": 36.03, "lon": -5.67, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sertorians", "faction_b": "Senate", "commanders_a": "Quintus Sertorius", "commanders_b": "Gaius Aurelius Cotta", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Sertorius' small fleet carrying his invasion force from Africa, which Plutarch counts as 2,600 men he called Romans and 700 Libyans (Sertorius 12), against Cotta's Sullan squadron.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman exiles and North Africans on Sertorius' side and a provincial squadron on Cotta's; no Greek contingents are recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Sertorius 12; en.wikipedia Sertorian War", "note": "" }, { "id": 503, "key": "-80-baetis-river", "name": "Baetis River", "year": -80, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "80 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sertorian War", "theatre": "Hispania Ulterior", "place": "on the Baetis (Guadalquivir), Hispania Ulterior", "lat": 37.4, "lon": -5.9, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Lusitanians" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sertorians", "faction_b": "Senate", "commanders_a": "Quintus Sertorius", "commanders_b": "Lucius Fufidius", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Sertorius' army of about 2,600 Roman exiles, 700 Libyans, 4,000 Lusitanian light infantry and 700 horse (Plutarch, Sertorius 12), against the governor Fufidius' provincial army, of whom Plutarch says 2,000 Romans fell.", "languages": [ "Latin", "other", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions against Roman exiles with Lusitanian and North African allies; no Greek contingents.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Sertorius 12; Sallust, Histories 1; en.wikipedia Battle of the Baetis River", "note": "The exact site on the river is unknown." }, { "id": 504, "key": "-80-anas", "name": "Anas", "year": -80, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "80 or 79 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sertorian War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "on the Anas (Guadiana) river", "lat": 38.9, "lon": -6.3, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Lusitanians" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sertorians", "faction_b": "Senate", "commanders_a": "Lucius Hirtuleius", "commanders_b": "Marcus Domitius Calvinus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Hirtuleius' Sertorian army, largely Lusitanian, against the army of Hispania Citerior under its governor Domitius Calvinus; numbers not given.", "languages": [ "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian provincial legions against Sertorian Roman and Lusitanian troops; no Greek contingents.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy, Per. 90; Plutarch, Sertorius 12; Orosius 5.23; en.wikipedia Sertorian War", "note": "Sertorius himself killed Metellus' legate Thorius Balbus in another, unnamed engagement about the same time." }, { "id": 505, "key": "-78-ilerda", "name": "Ilerda", "year": -78, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "78 BCE (others 79 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Sertorian War", "theatre": "Hispania Citerior", "place": "near Ilerda (Lleida)", "lat": 41.62, "lon": 0.62, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sertorians", "faction_b": "Senate", "commanders_a": "Lucius Hirtuleius", "commanders_b": "Lucius Manlius (governor of Transalpine Gaul)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Manlius' army from Transalpine Gaul, three legions and 1,500 horse (Orosius 5.23), against Hirtuleius' Sertorian army of Roman exiles and Iberian levies.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions with Gallic and Iberian auxiliaries; no Greek contingent is recorded (Massalia's allies are not mentioned).", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Orosius 5.23; Livy, Per. 90; Plutarch, Sertorius 12; Caesar, BG 3.20; en.wikipedia Sertorian War", "note": "Manlius was driven into Ilerda, escaped and lost his baggage to the Aquitani on the way back to Gaul." }, { "id": 506, "key": "-78-lacobriga-siege", "name": "Lacobriga (siege)", "year": -78, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "78 BCE (or 79 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Sertorian War", "theatre": "Lusitania", "place": "Lacobriga (Plutarch's Langobritae), western Hispania; identification uncertain (often Lagos, Algarve)", "lat": 37.1, "lon": -8.67, "loc": "approx", "country": "Portugal", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Lusitanians" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sertorians", "faction_b": "Senate", "commanders_a": "Quintus Sertorius", "commanders_b": "Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius; Aquinius (commander of the ambushed foragers)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Metellus' proconsular army besieging a Lusitanian town allied to Sertorius; Sertorius ran water into the town and ambushed a whole legion (6,000 men) sent to forage, forcing Metellus to raise the siege (Plutarch, Sertorius 13).", "languages": [ "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions against Sertorius' Roman and Lusitanian troops; no Greek contingents.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Sertorius 13; en.wikipedia Sertorian War", "note": "The site is disputed; Lagos in the Algarve is the usual identification." }, { "id": 507, "key": "-78-salona-siege", "name": "Salona (siege)", "year": -78, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "78-76 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Dalmatian war of Cosconius", "theatre": "Illyricum", "place": "Salona (Solin, near Split), Dalmatia", "lat": 43.54, "lon": 16.48, "loc": "known", "country": "Croatia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Illyrians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Cosconius (proconsul)", "commanders_b": "the Delmatae", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from brief notices ('Salonas cepit'); whether there was an assault is not recorded.", "main_enemy": "Illyrians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The proconsul Cosconius' army in Illyricum; Eutropius says only that he subdued much of Dalmatia and took Salona in a two-year war (Eutropius 6.4).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "An Italian provincial army; the Greek towns of the Dalmatian coast (Issa, Tragurium) were Roman allies but no contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Eutropius 6.4; Orosius 5.23; Cicero, Pro Cluentio 97", "note": "" }, { "id": 508, "key": "-77-milvian-bridge", "name": "Milvian Bridge", "year": -77, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "early 77 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Lepidus", "theatre": "Rome", "place": "near the Milvian Bridge and the Campus Martius, Rome", "lat": 41.94, "lon": 12.47, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Senate", "faction_b": "Lepidus", "commanders_a": "Quintus Lutatius Catulus", "commanders_b": "Marcus Aemilius Lepidus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Catulus' army raised at Rome under the senatus consultum ultimum, against Lepidus' army raised in Etruria and Cisalpine Gaul from dispossessed farmers and old Marians (Appian, BC 1.107; Florus 2.11).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Etruscan" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian armies on both sides; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.107; Florus 2.11; Plutarch, Pompey 16; en.wikipedia Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (consul 78 BC)", "note": "" }, { "id": 509, "key": "-77-mutina-siege", "name": "Mutina (siege)", "year": -77, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "77 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Lepidus", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "Mutina (Modena)", "lat": 44.65, "lon": 10.93, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Senate", "faction_b": "Lepidus", "commanders_a": "Pompey", "commanders_b": "Marcus Junius Brutus (the elder)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Brutus surrendered after a long siege and was later killed; fighting is not described.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "The army Pompey raised quickly from his veterans as legate pro praetore, against Brutus' Lepidan forces in Cisalpine Gaul (Plutarch, Pompey 16).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian and Cisalpine troops on both sides; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Pompey 16; Livy, Per. 90; en.wikipedia Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (consul 78 BC)", "note": "" }, { "id": 510, "key": "-77-cosa", "name": "Cosa", "year": -77, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "77 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Lepidus", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "near Cosa (Ansedonia), coastal Etruria", "lat": 42.41, "lon": 11.29, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Senate", "faction_b": "Lepidus", "commanders_a": "Quintus Lutatius Catulus, Pompey", "commanders_b": "Marcus Aemilius Lepidus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Catulus' and Pompey's armies against the remains of Lepidus' Etrurian army, part of which Lepidus took off to Sardinia (Plutarch, Pompey 16; Exuperantius 6).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Etruscan" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian armies on both sides; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Pompey 16; Exuperantius 6; en.wikipedia Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (consul 78 BC)", "note": "Lepidus died in Sardinia soon after; Perperna took his troops to join Sertorius in Spain." }, { "id": 511, "key": "-77-olympus-siege", "name": "Olympus (siege)", "year": -77, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 77 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Servilius' war against the pirates (78-74 BCE)", "theatre": "Lycia", "place": "Mount Olympus and the town of Olympus, eastern Lycia", "lat": 36.4, "lon": 30.47, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Cilician pirates" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Servilius Vatia (Isauricus)", "commanders_b": "Zenicetes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The sources record the capture of Olympus, Phaselis and Corycus without describing the fighting.", "main_enemy": "Cilician pirates", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "The proconsul Servilius' army and fleet in Cilicia and Lycia, its size not recorded; he took Olympus, where the pirate chief Zenicetes burned himself with his household (Strabo 14.5.7).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman commands against the pirates drew their ships and crews from the Greek maritime allies of the East; the legionary core was Italian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Strabo 14.5.7; Florus 1.41; Eutropius 6.3; Orosius 5.23", "note": "Servilius had first won a sea battle against the pirates off the coast (Florus 1.41)." }, { "id": 512, "key": "-77-contrebia-siege", "name": "Contrebia (siege)", "year": -77, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "77 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sertorian War", "theatre": "Celtiberia", "place": "Contrebia Leucade (near Aguilar del Rio Alhama, La Rioja)", "lat": 41.95, "lon": -1.99, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sertorians", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Sertorius", "commanders_b": "the townsmen of Contrebia", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Sertorius' rebel army against a Celtiberian town; counted as a Roman force although outside the civil fighting proper.", "main_enemy": "Celtiberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Sertorius' army of Roman exiles and Iberian allies; he took the town after a siege of 44 days by undermining a tower, and demanded the deserters sheltering there (Livy, fr. of book 91).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "other" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Sertorius' army was Roman and Iberian; no Greek speakers are recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy, Histories fr. book 91; en.wikipedia Contrebia Leucade", "note": "" }, { "id": 513, "key": "-76-lauron", "name": "Lauron", "year": -76, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "76 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sertorian War", "theatre": "Hispania Citerior", "place": "Lauron, near Valentia (perhaps Lliria)", "lat": 39.62, "lon": -0.6, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sertorians", "faction_b": "Senate", "commanders_a": "Quintus Sertorius; Octavius Graecinus; Tarquitius Priscus", "commanders_b": "Pompey; Decimus Laelius (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Pompey's army of about 30,000 foot and 1,000 horse, against Sertorius' besieging army, which ambushed his foragers with ten heavy and ten light cohorts and 2,000 horse (Frontinus, Strat. 2.5.31; Orosius 5.23).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions against Sertorius' Roman and Iberian army; no Greek contingents.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Sertorius 18; Plutarch, Pompey 18; Frontinus, Strat. 2.5.31; Appian, BC 1.109; en.wikipedia Battle of Lauron", "note": "Sertorius then took and burned Lauron before Pompey's eyes; Frontinus puts Pompey's loss at 10,000." }, { "id": 514, "key": "-75-valentia", "name": "Valentia", "year": -75, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "75 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sertorian War", "theatre": "Hispania Citerior", "place": "between the Turia and the walls of Valentia (Valencia)", "lat": 39.47, "lon": -0.38, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Senate", "faction_b": "Sertorians", "commanders_a": "Pompey", "commanders_b": "Marcus Perperna, Gaius Herennius (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Pompey's army against the Sertorian army of Perperna and Herennius, largely the Roman cohorts Perperna had brought from Italy; Herennius and about 10,000 of his men fell (Plutarch, Pompey 18; Sallust, Histories 2).", "languages": [ "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian armies with Iberian auxiliaries on both sides; no Greek contingents.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Pompey 18; Sallust, Histories 2; en.wikipedia Sertorian War", "note": "Valentia was taken and sacked." }, { "id": 515, "key": "-75-italica", "name": "Italica", "year": -75, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "75 BCE (some 76 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Sertorian War", "theatre": "Hispania Ulterior", "place": "near Italica (Santiponce, by Seville)", "lat": 37.44, "lon": -6.05, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Lusitanians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Senate", "faction_b": "Sertorians", "commanders_a": "Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius", "commanders_b": "Lucius Hirtuleius", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Metellus' four understrength legions with auxiliaries and allied troops, against Hirtuleius' army of similar size, which lost about 20,000 men (Frontinus, Strat. 2.1.2; Orosius 5.23).", "languages": [ "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions with Spanish auxiliaries against Sertorian Romans and Lusitanians; no Greek contingents.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Frontinus, Strat. 2.1.2; Orosius 5.23; Livy, Per. 91; en.wikipedia Battle of Italica", "note": "Metellus waited out the midday heat, held his centre and enveloped Hirtuleius from the wings." }, { "id": 516, "key": "-75-segovia", "name": "Segovia", "year": -75, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "75 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sertorian War", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "near Segovia (or a Segontia; identification uncertain)", "lat": 40.95, "lon": -4.12, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Lusitanians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Senate", "faction_b": "Sertorians", "commanders_a": "Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius", "commanders_b": "Lucius Hirtuleius and his brother (both killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Only late sources place Hirtuleius' last defeat 'at Segovia'; some scholars merge it with the battle of Seguntia/Saguntum.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Metellus' army against the remains of Hirtuleius' Sertorian army after Italica; no numbers are given (Orosius 5.23; Frontinus, Strat. 2.7.5).", "languages": [ "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions against Sertorian Romans and Iberians; no Greek contingents.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Orosius 5.23; Frontinus, Strat. 2.7.5; Florus 2.10", "note": "" }, { "id": 517, "key": "-75-sucro", "name": "Sucro", "year": -75, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "75 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sertorian War", "theatre": "Hispania Citerior", "place": "on the Sucro (Jucar) river near its mouth", "lat": 39.2, "lon": -0.35, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sertorians", "faction_b": "Senate", "commanders_a": "Quintus Sertorius, Marcus Perperna", "commanders_b": "Pompey, Lucius Afranius", "outcome": "draw", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Sertorius' army against Pompey's; Sertorius routed Pompey's wing and Pompey was wounded, while Afranius broke the other Sertorian wing and plundered the camp (Plutarch, Sertorius 19; Pompey 19).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions against Sertorius' Roman and Celtiberian army; no Greek contingents.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Sertorius 19; Plutarch, Pompey 19; Appian, BC 1.110; en.wikipedia Battle of Sucro", "note": "Sertorius withdrew when Metellus approached the next day." }, { "id": 518, "key": "-75-saguntum", "name": "Saguntum", "year": -75, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "75 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sertorian War", "theatre": "Hispania Citerior", "place": "near Saguntum (Plutarch's Seguntia); identification uncertain", "lat": 39.68, "lon": -0.28, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Celtiberians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Senate", "faction_b": "Sertorians", "commanders_a": "Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius, Pompey; Gaius Memmius (killed)", "commanders_b": "Quintus Sertorius, Marcus Perperna", "outcome": "draw", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "The combined armies of Metellus and Pompey against Sertorius, whose own men forced him to give battle; heavy losses on both sides (Plutarch, Sertorius 21; Appian, BC 1.110).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions against Sertorius' Roman and Celtiberian army; no Greek contingents.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Sertorius 21; Plutarch, Pompey 19; Appian, BC 1.110; en.wikipedia Sertorian War", "note": "Plutarch makes it a Sertorian defeat; Appian has Sertorius beating Pompey while Metellus beat Perperna; en.wikipedia calls it inconclusive, the last pitched battle of the war." }, { "id": 519, "key": "-75-clunia-siege", "name": "Clunia (siege)", "year": -75, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 75 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sertorian War", "theatre": "Celtiberia", "place": "Clunia (Penalba de Castro, Burgos)", "lat": 41.78, "lon": -3.37, "loc": "known", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sertorians", "faction_b": "Senate", "commanders_a": "Quintus Sertorius", "commanders_b": "Pompey, Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Pompey and Metellus besieging Sertorius in Clunia, who made frequent and costly sorties and then slipped away to rebuild his army (Livy, Per. 92; Plutarch, Sertorius 21).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions against Sertorian Romans and Celtiberians; no Greek contingents.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Livy, Per. 92; Plutarch, Sertorius 21; en.wikipedia Sertorian War", "note": "The place did not fall; Sertorius escaped and the besiegers withdrew to winter quarters." }, { "id": 520, "key": "-75-isaura-siege", "name": "Isaura (siege)", "year": -75, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 75 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Servilius' war against the pirates (78-74 BCE)", "theatre": "Isauria", "place": "Isaura Vetus (Zengibar Kalesi, near Bozkir)", "lat": 37.24, "lon": 32.24, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Isaurians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Servilius Vatia (Isauricus)", "commanders_b": "the Isaurians", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The town surrendered after its water was cut; fighting is not described.", "main_enemy": "Isaurians", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "Servilius' proconsular army; he diverted the river that supplied Isaura and forced it to surrender by thirst (Frontinus, Strat. 3.7.1), earning the name Isauricus.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "An Italian proconsular army, probably with auxiliaries from the Greek cities of Pamphylia and Lycia; none recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Frontinus, Strat. 3.7.1; Eutropius 6.3; Orosius 5.23; Strabo 12.6.2", "note": "" }, { "id": 521, "key": "-74-pallantia-siege", "name": "Pallantia (siege)", "year": -74, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "74 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sertorian War", "theatre": "Hispania Citerior", "place": "Pallantia (Palencia), among the Vaccaei", "lat": 42.01, "lon": -4.53, "loc": "known", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sertorians", "faction_b": "Senate", "commanders_a": "Quintus Sertorius (relief)", "commanders_b": "Pompey", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Siege works and a withdrawal before the relief army; real fighting is not described.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Pompey's proconsular army, which undermined the walls on timber props and set them alight as it withdrew before Sertorius' relief army (Appian, BC 1.112); Sertorius led Roman exiles and Spanish allies.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions against Sertorian Romans and Spaniards; no Greek contingents.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.112; en.wikipedia Sertorian War", "note": "'Celtiberians' in allies = the Pallantini (Vaccaei). Sertorius repaired the walls and then fell on the Romans before Calagurris (-74-calagurris-siege)." }, { "id": 522, "key": "-74-chalcedon", "name": "Chalcedon", "year": -74, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "74 BCE (some 73 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "before the walls and in the harbour of Chalcedon (Kadikoy)", "lat": 40.99, "lon": 29.03, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Pontus" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mithridates VI", "commanders_b": "Marcus Aurelius Cotta; Publius Rutilius Nudus (naval prefect)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Cotta's consular army of Roman and allied troops, among them Cyzicene auxiliaries, and the 64 ships of the Roman fleet in the harbour under the prefect Nudus (Appian, Mith. 71; Memnon 27).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The Cyzicenes lost heavily before the walls (about 3,000 allied dead), and the fleet destroyed in the harbour was drawn from the allied Greek cities of Asia and the Propontis.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Mith. 71; Plutarch, Lucullus 8; Memnon of Heraclea 27; en.wikipedia Battle of Chalcedon (74 BC)", "note": "Combined battle: the Pontic army routed Cotta's troops outside the walls, then broke the harbour chain and took or burned the 64 Roman ships; type set to land." }, { "id": 523, "key": "-74-calagurris-siege", "name": "Calagurris (siege)", "year": -74, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "74 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Sertorian War", "theatre": "Hispania Citerior", "place": "Calagurris (Calahorra), on the Ebro", "lat": 42.3, "lon": -1.96, "loc": "known", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Celtiberians" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sertorians", "faction_b": "Senate", "commanders_a": "Quintus Sertorius", "commanders_b": "Pompey, Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Pompey and Metellus besieging the town were surprised by Sertorius' relief army, which killed about 3,000 of them and raised the siege (Appian, BC 1.112).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions against Sertorian Romans and Celtiberians; no Greek contingents.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.112; Livy, Per. 93; en.wikipedia Sertorian War", "note": "Calagurris fell to Afranius in 72 BCE after a famine in which the defenders ate their dead (Valerius Maximus 7.6 ext. 3)." }, { "id": 524, "key": "-73-mount-vesuvius", "name": "Mount Vesuvius", "year": -73, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "73 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Servile War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "the slopes of Mount Vesuvius, Campania", "lat": 40.82, "lon": 14.43, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Slave rebels" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Spartacus, Crixus, Oenomaus", "commanders_b": "Gaius Claudius Glaber", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Slave rebels", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "About 3,000 militia hastily raised by the praetor Gaius Claudius Glaber, not regular legions (Plutarch, Crassus 9; Appian, BC 1.116).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Levies of Campania, where Greek was still spoken at Naples and in the coastal towns.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Plutarch, Crassus 9; Appian, BC 1.116; Florus 2.8; Frontinus, Strat. 1.5.21; en.wikipedia Battle of Mount Vesuvius", "note": "The rebels climbed down the cliffs on vine ropes and fell on Glaber's camp from behind." }, { "id": 525, "key": "-73-salinae", "name": "Salinae", "year": -73, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 73 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Servile War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Salinae, the salt works on the Campanian coast near Herculaneum and Pompeii, and nearby", "lat": 40.75, "lon": 14.48, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Slave rebels" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Spartacus", "commanders_b": "Publius Varinius; his legates Lucius Furius and Lucius Cossinius (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A series of defeats of Varinius' forces in 73 BCE; no conventional battle name.", "main_enemy": "Slave rebels", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "The praetor Varinius' levies: his legate Furius with about 2,000 men and his colleague Cossinius with another force were beaten in turn, Cossinius being surprised and killed at Salinae, and then Varinius himself was defeated (Plutarch, Crassus 9; Sallust, Histories 3).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Levies of Campania and central Italy; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Crassus 9; Sallust, Histories 3; Appian, BC 1.116; en.wikipedia Third Servile War", "note": "" }, { "id": 526, "key": "-73-cyzicus-siege", "name": "Cyzicus (siege)", "year": -73, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "73 BCE (into winter 73/72 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Mysia", "place": "Cyzicus (near Erdek), on the Propontis", "lat": 40.38, "lon": 27.88, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pontus" ], "allies_a": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Licinius Lucullus; the Cyzicenes", "commanders_b": "Mithridates VI", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Lucullus' five legions (one from Italy, the two Fimbrian legions and two more), 30,000 foot and 1,600 horse by Appian's count (Mith. 72; Plutarch says 2,500 horse), besieging the besiegers, while the Cyzicene citizens defended the city.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The city itself was held by its Greek citizens, who repulsed the Pontic assaults; Lucullus' field army was Italian.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Appian, Mith. 72-76; Plutarch, Lucullus 9-11; Memnon of Heraclea 28; en.wikipedia Battle of Cyzicus (73 BC)", "note": "Mithridates' army, said to be 300,000 with camp followers, was starved out and broke up." }, { "id": 527, "key": "-73-rhyndacus", "name": "Rhyndacus", "year": -73, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "winter 73/72 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Mysia", "place": "on the Rhyndacus river, Mysia", "lat": 40.18, "lon": 28.6, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pontus" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Licinius Lucullus", "commanders_b": "Pontic cavalry commanders", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Ten cohorts and the cavalry under Lucullus, marching through a snowstorm, against the Pontic cavalry and baggage sent away from Cyzicus; 15,000 men and 6,000 horses were captured (Plutarch, Lucullus 11; Appian, Mith. 75).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legionary cohorts and cavalry; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Lucullus 11; Appian, Mith. 75; en.wikipedia Battle of the Rhyndacus (73 BC)", "note": "Some chronologies put it in 72 BCE." }, { "id": 528, "key": "-73-granicus", "name": "Granicus", "year": -73, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "winter 73/72 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Mysia and the Troad", "place": "at the crossings of the Aesepus and Granicus rivers", "lat": 40.25, "lon": 27.35, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pontus" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Licinius Lucullus", "commanders_b": "Hermaeus, Marius (Pontic generals of the retreating army)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Lucullus' army caught the Pontic land forces retreating from Cyzicus toward Lampsacus as they crossed the flooded Aesepus and Granicus, killing about 20,000 (Plutarch, Lucullus 11; Appian, Mith. 76).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Lucullus' Italian legions; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Lucullus 11; Appian, Mith. 76; en.wikipedia Third Mithridatic War", "note": "Also called the battle of the Aesepus; often dated 72 BCE." }, { "id": 529, "key": "-73-lemnos-sea", "name": "Lemnos (sea)", "year": -73, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "73 BCE (or 72 BCE)", "type": "sea", "war": "Third Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Aegean", "place": "off the Achaean harbour (Troad) and at Lemnos or a nearby islet (Neae)", "lat": 39.9, "lon": 25.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pontus" ], "allies_a": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Licinius Lucullus", "commanders_b": "Marcus Marius (Varius), Alexander the Paphlagonian, Dionysius the eunuch; Isidorus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "A fleet Lucullus raised from the allied cities of the Troad and Hellespont, with legionaries landed on the island to take the beached Pontic ships from behind; 13 ships were taken first off the Achaean harbour and then 32 royal ships at Lemnos (Plutarch, Lucullus 12; Appian, Mith. 77).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The ships and crews came from the Greek cities of the Troad and Hellespont; the legionaries were the Roman element.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Lucullus 12; Appian, Mith. 77; Orosius 6.2; en.wikipedia Battle of Lemnos (73 BC)", "note": "The Roman renegade Marius, Sertorius' envoy to Mithridates, was captured and executed. This entry includes the capture of 13 Pontic ships off the Achaean harbour near Tenedos under Isidorus (Plutarch, Lucullus 12), which the ancient Greek battles set lists as 'Tenedos 73'; en.wikipedia redirects 'Battle of Tenedos (73 BCE)' here. Triarius' later victory near Tenedos is -72-tenedos-sea." }, { "id": 530, "key": "-72-tenedos", "name": "Tenedos", "year": -72, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "72 BCE (Memnon gives no year)", "type": "sea", "war": "Third Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Aegean", "place": "near Tenedos (Bozcaada), off the Troad", "lat": 39.82, "lon": 26.0, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pontus" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Valerius Triarius (legate of Lucullus)", "commanders_b": "the Pontic squadron returning from Crete and Spain (commanders not named)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Memnon; it may overlap with Lucullus' Aegean victories of 73/72 (the Achaean harbour and Neae near Lemnos, entered as -73-lemnos-sea).", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Triarius' fleet of about 70 triremes, which sailed from Nicomedia, against just under 80 Pontic ships (Memnon 33).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rome's fleets in the East were drawn from the allied Greek cities; Memnon does not say whose ships these were.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Memnon 33 (Photius, Bibliotheca codex 224); the ancient Greek battles set, Tenedos 72 BC", "note": "The Pontic ships had been sent to Crete and to Spain (to Sertorius); Memnon says the rout completed the destruction of the fleet Mithridates had brought to Asia." }, { "id": 531, "key": "-72-mount-garganus", "name": "Mount Garganus", "year": -72, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 72 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Servile War", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "near Mount Garganus (Gargano), Apulia", "lat": 41.75, "lon": 15.95, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Slave rebels" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Gellius Publicola; Quintus Arrius (propraetor)", "commanders_b": "Crixus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Slave rebels", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "The consul Gellius' consular army with the praetor Arrius, against Crixus' 30,000, two thirds of whom fell (Appian, BC 1.117; Livy, Per. 96 gives 20,000 killed).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Newly levied Italian legions; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.117; Livy, Per. 96; Plutarch, Crassus 9; en.wikipedia Third Servile War", "note": "" }, { "id": 532, "key": "-72-picenum", "name": "Picenum", "year": -72, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "72 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Servile War", "theatre": "Picenum", "place": "Picenum, site unknown", "lat": 43.1, "lon": 13.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Slave rebels" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Spartacus", "commanders_b": "Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus, Lucius Gellius Publicola", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Slave rebels", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "The two consular armies of Lentulus and Gellius, beaten first separately and then together (Appian, BC 1.117; Plutarch, Crassus 9).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Newly levied Italian legions; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.117; Plutarch, Crassus 9; Livy, Per. 96; en.wikipedia Battle of Picenum", "note": "Only Appian places the combined defeat in Picenum; Plutarch records Lentulus' defeat and then Gellius'." }, { "id": 533, "key": "-72-mutina", "name": "Mutina", "year": -72, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "72 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Servile War", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "near Mutina (Modena)", "lat": 44.65, "lon": 10.93, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Slave rebels" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Spartacus", "commanders_b": "Gaius Cassius Longinus (proconsul of Cisalpine Gaul); Gnaeus Manlius (praetor)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Slave rebels", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "The governor of Cisalpine Gaul Gaius Cassius Longinus with about 10,000 men (Plutarch, Crassus 9).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The provincial army of Cisalpine Gaul, Italians and Cisalpine provincials; no Greek contingent.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Crassus 9; Livy, Per. 96; Orosius 5.24; en.wikipedia Battle of Mutina (72 BC)", "note": "" }, { "id": 534, "key": "-72-mount-haemus", "name": "Mount Haemus", "year": -72, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "72 BCE (or 71 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Thracian campaign of Marcus Lucullus", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "the Haemus (Balkan) mountains", "lat": 42.7, "lon": 25.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Thracians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus (proconsul of Macedonia)", "commanders_b": "the Bessi", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from a sentence in the epitomators.", "main_enemy": "Thracians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The proconsul of Macedonia's army; Eutropius says only that Lucullus beat the Bessi 'in a great battle on Mount Haemus' (Eutropius 6.10).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Macedonia combined Italian legions with Macedonian and Thracian auxiliaries; no figures.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Eutropius 6.10; Festus, Breviarium 9; Appian, Illyrica 30", "note": "Lucullus then took the Greek cities of the western Black Sea coast (Apollonia, Callatis, Tomis, Histria) which had sided with Mithridates." }, { "id": 535, "key": "-72-heraclea-pontica-siege", "name": "Heraclea Pontica (siege)", "year": -72, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "72-71 BCE (others 73-70 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "Heraclea Pontica (Karadeniz Eregli)", "lat": 41.28, "lon": 31.42, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pontus", "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Aurelius Cotta; Gaius Valerius Triarius (fleet)", "commanders_b": "Connacorix (Pontic garrison commander); the Heracleots", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Cotta's army, Roman legions with allied levies, whose assaults and siege engines failed, and the fleet of Triarius blockading the harbour; the city fell when the Pontic garrison betrayed it (Memnon 27-35).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Cotta's army was Roman with Bithynian and Asian levies; Triarius' blockading ships were largely provided by Greek allies; no figures.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Memnon of Heraclea 27-35; en.wikipedia Third Mithridatic War", "note": "Cotta sacked the city; the start date is given as 73 or 72 BCE." }, { "id": 536, "key": "-72-themiscyra-siege", "name": "Themiscyra (siege)", "year": -72, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "72 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "Themiscyra, on the Thermodon (near Terme)", "lat": 41.2, "lon": 36.97, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pontus" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Licinius Lucullus", "commanders_b": "the Themiscyrans", "outcome": "unknown", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Lucullus' army with siege towers and mines; the defenders broke into the mines and loosed bears, wild beasts and swarms of bees on the sappers (Appian, Mith. 78).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Lucullus' Italian legions; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, Mith. 78; en.wikipedia Third Mithridatic War", "note": "Appian does not say whether the town fell; Lucullus moved on against Mithridates at Cabira." }, { "id": 537, "key": "-72-amisus-siege", "name": "Amisus (siege)", "year": -72, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "72-71 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "Amisus (Samsun)", "lat": 41.29, "lon": 36.33, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pontus" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Licinius Lucullus; Lucius Licinius Murena", "commanders_b": "Callimachus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Lucullus' army, left under Murena while Lucullus marched on Cabira; Lucullus stormed the walls when the guards relaxed, and Callimachus set the Greek city on fire as he fled (Plutarch, Lucullus 14-19; Appian, Mith. 78, 83).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Lucullus' Italian legions; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Lucullus 14-19; Appian, Mith. 78, 83; Memnon of Heraclea 30; en.wikipedia Third Mithridatic War", "note": "Amisus was an Athenian colony; Lucullus restored the surviving citizens." }, { "id": 538, "key": "-72-cabira", "name": "Cabira", "year": -72, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "72 BCE (or 71 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "Cabira (Niksar), on the Lycus", "lat": 40.58, "lon": 36.95, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pontus" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Licinius Lucullus; Sornatius; Marcus Fabius Hadrianus", "commanders_b": "Mithridates VI", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Lucullus' army, three legions with auxiliaries, about 20,000 foot and 1,600-2,500 horse (en.wikipedia), with 30,000 Galatians carrying grain behind it (Plutarch, Lucullus 14); the convoy escorts of ten cohorts under Sornatius and Hadrianus won the decisive actions.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions with Galatian porters and auxiliaries; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Plutarch, Lucullus 14-17; Appian, Mith. 78-82; Memnon of Heraclea 29; en.wikipedia Battle of Cabira", "note": "A panic in the Pontic camp turned the convoy fights into a rout; Mithridates fled to Armenia." }, { "id": 539, "key": "-72-osca", "name": "Osca", "year": -72, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "72 BCE (some 73 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Sertorian War", "theatre": "Hispania Citerior", "place": "near Osca (Huesca), Hispania Citerior", "lat": 42.14, "lon": -0.41, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Senate", "faction_b": "Sertorians (Perperna)", "commanders_a": "Pompey", "commanders_b": "Marcus Perperna Veiento (captured and executed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Pompey's army, which baited Perperna with ten cohorts and ambushed him, against the Sertorian army Perperna took over after murdering Sertorius (Appian, BC 1.115; Frontinus, Strat. 2.5.32).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions against Roman and Iberian Sertorians; no Greek contingents.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian, BC 1.115; Plutarch, Pompey 20; Plutarch, Sertorius 27; Frontinus, Strat. 2.5.32; en.wikipedia Sertorian War", "note": "en.wikipedia 'Battle near Osca'; Appian and Plutarch name no site. Date 72 BCE (some 73 BCE), soon after Perperna murdered Sertorius." }, { "id": 540, "key": "-72-rhegium-crassus-wall", "name": "Rhegium (Crassus' wall)", "year": -72, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "winter 72/71 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Servile War", "theatre": "Bruttium", "place": "Crassus' ditch and wall across the isthmus of the Rhegium peninsula, Bruttium", "lat": 38.9, "lon": 16.45, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Slave rebels" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Spartacus", "commanders_b": "Marcus Licinius Crassus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege line and repeated attacks on it rather than a named battle.", "main_enemy": "Slave rebels", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "Crassus' army, six new legions with the two former consular legions (Appian, BC 1.118), holding a ditch and wall some 300 stades long across the peninsula (Plutarch, Crassus 10).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions; the Greek cities of Bruttium (Rhegium) lay behind the line but no contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Crassus 10-11; Appian, BC 1.118-119; en.wikipedia Third Servile War", "note": "Spartacus broke through on a snowy night, filling the ditch, but with heavy losses; result taken as the rebels' escape." }, { "id": 541, "key": "-71-crete-sea", "name": "Crete (sea)", "year": -71, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "71 BCE (some 72 BCE)", "type": "sea", "war": "Roman conquest of Crete", "theatre": "Crete", "place": "off northern Crete (perhaps near Cydonia); site uncertain", "lat": 35.55, "lon": 24.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Greek cities" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the Cretan cities", "commanders_b": "Marcus Antonius (Creticus)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Antonius' defeat is recorded only summarily; site and date uncertain.", "main_enemy": "Greek cities", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Antonius' fleet of his extraordinary command against the pirates, with ships, crews and supplies requisitioned from the Greek cities; the Cretans took many ships and hanged prisoners from the rigging (Florus 1.42).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Antonius' command levied ships and money on the Greek cities of the East (the Gytheum decree), so his crews were largely Greek; no figures.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Florus 1.42; Livy, Per. 97; Diodorus 40.1; en.wikipedia Marcus Antonius Creticus; en.wikipedia 71 BC; attalus.org, events of 71 BC", "note": "Antonius died in Crete soon after; the mocking surname Creticus followed." }, { "id": 542, "key": "-71-cantenna", "name": "Cantenna", "year": -71, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "71 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Servile War", "theatre": "Lucania", "place": "near Mount Cantenna (Camalatrum) and the Lucanian lake, near Giungano", "lat": 40.4, "lon": 15.1, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Slave rebels" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Licinius Crassus; Quintus Marcius Rufus and Pomptinus (legates)", "commanders_b": "Gannicus, Castus (both killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Slave rebels", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "Crassus' army of eight legions with auxiliaries, about 45,000 men (en.wikipedia; Appian, BC 1.118), against the Celtic and German rebels who had broken away under Gannicus and Castus; 12,300 rebels fell (Plutarch, Crassus 11).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Crassus 11; Livy, Per. 97; Frontinus, Strat. 2.4.7, 2.5.34; en.wikipedia Battle of Cantenna", "note": "" }, { "id": 543, "key": "-71-silarius-river", "name": "Silarius River", "year": -71, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "71 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Servile War", "theatre": "Lucania", "place": "near the upper Silarus (Sele) river, on the borders of Lucania", "lat": 40.65, "lon": 15.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Slave rebels" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Licinius Crassus", "commanders_b": "Spartacus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Slave rebels", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "Crassus' eight legions; the Livian tradition puts the rebel dead at 60,000 and the captives at 6,000 (Orosius 5.24).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Plutarch, Crassus 11; Appian, BC 1.120; Livy, Per. 97; Orosius 5.24; en.wikipedia Battle of the Silarius River", "note": "The exact site is uncertain. Spartacus died fighting and his body was not found; 6,000 captives were crucified along the Via Appia." }, { "id": 544, "key": "-70-sinope-sea", "name": "Sinope (sea)", "year": -70, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "70 BCE (some 71 BCE)", "type": "sea", "war": "Third Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Black Sea (Pontus)", "place": "off Sinope (Sinop)", "lat": 42.03, "lon": 35.17, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Pontus" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Cilician pirates" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Cleochares; Seleucus (pirate chief)", "commanders_b": "Censorinus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A sea fight during the siege of Sinope, known only from Memnon.", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Censorinus' squadron of 15 triremes escorting grain ships from the Bosporus to Lucullus' army (Memnon 37).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman squadrons in the Black Sea were supplied by the allied Greek cities; Memnon does not say whose ships these were.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Memnon 37 (Photius, Bibliotheca codex 224); the ancient Greek battles set, Sinope 70 BC", "note": "The defenders' fleet under Cleochares beat Censorinus and seized the transports; Lucullus later took the city after Cleochares and Seleucus burned their ships and fled (-70-sinope-siege)." }, { "id": 545, "key": "-70-sinope-siege", "name": "Sinope (siege)", "year": -70, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "70 BCE (some 71 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "Sinope (Sinop), on the Black Sea", "lat": 42.03, "lon": 35.15, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pontus" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Cilician pirates" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Licinius Lucullus", "commanders_b": "Cleochares, Leonippus; Seleucus (pirate chief)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Lucullus' army and fleet besieging the Pontic capital, held by a Pontic and Cilician garrison; the garrison burned its heavy ships and escaped in light craft, and Lucullus freed the Greek city (Plutarch, Lucullus 23; Appian, Mith. 83; Memnon 37).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions; Lucullus' ships were probably provided by the allied Greek cities of the Black Sea and Propontis, but no figures are given.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Lucullus 23; Appian, Mith. 83; Memnon of Heraclea 37; en.wikipedia Third Mithridatic War", "note": "" }, { "id": 546, "key": "-69-tigranocerta", "name": "Tigranocerta", "year": -69, "month": 10, "day": 6, "date": "6 October 69 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "by the river before Tigranocerta (probably Arzan, near Batman; Silvan has also been proposed)", "lat": 37.98, "lon": 41.35, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Armenia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Licinius Lucullus", "commanders_b": "Tigranes II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Armenia", "opponent_group": "Caucasus", "roman_force": "Lucullus' striking force of 24 cohorts, not more than 10,000 legionaries, with all his cavalry and about 1,000 slingers and archers (Plutarch, Lucullus 27); his Thracian and Galatian horse attacked the flank of the Armenian cataphracts (Plutarch, Lucullus 28).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions with Thracian and Galatian cavalry; the light troops may have included Cretan or Asian archers, but none are named.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Plutarch, Lucullus 26-28; Appian, Mith. 84-85; Memnon of Heraclea 38; Frontinus, Strat. 2.1.14; en.wikipedia Battle of Tigranocerta", "note": "Plutarch dates it to the day before the Nones of October, the anniversary of Arausio. Tigranes' host is put at over 100,000 (Plutarch: 150,000 foot, 55,000 horse), certainly exaggerated." }, { "id": 547, "key": "-69-armenia-defeat-of-mithrobarzanes", "name": "Armenia (defeat of Mithrobarzanes)", "year": -69, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "69 BCE (spring or summer)", "type": "land", "war": "Third Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Armenia (Sophene)", "place": "at Lucullus' camp on his march from the Euphrates to Tigranocerta, site unknown", "lat": 38.3, "lon": 40.6, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Armenia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Sextilius (legate of Lucullus)", "commanders_b": "Mithrobarzanes (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No conventional name: an Armenian cavalry attack on the Roman camp, beaten off.", "main_enemy": "Armenia", "opponent_group": "Caucasus", "roman_force": "Sextilius' detachment of about 1,600 cavalry and not many more infantry, about 3,500 men in all, left to guard the camp being built (Plutarch, Lucullus 25; en.wikipedia).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Part of Lucullus' legions and cavalry; the cavalry may have included Galatian and Thracian horse; no Greek units are recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Lucullus 25; en.wikipedia Third Mithridatic War", "note": "Tigranes had sent Mithrobarzanes to stop Lucullus; he fell in the fight and most of his men were killed in flight." }, { "id": 548, "key": "-69-cydonia", "name": "Cydonia", "year": -69, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "69 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman conquest of Crete", "theatre": "Crete", "place": "near Cydonia (Chania), western Crete", "lat": 35.51, "lon": 24.02, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Caecilius Metellus (Creticus)", "commanders_b": "Lasthenes, Panares", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Greek cities", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Metellus' proconsular army, landed near Cydonia; its size is not reliably recorded (Phlegon of Tralles fr. 12; Livy, Per. 98).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "An Italian consular army; no Greek allied contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Phlegon of Tralles fr. 12; Livy, Per. 98-99; Florus 1.42; Velleius 2.34; en.wikipedia Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus", "note": "Lasthenes fled to Knossos; Panares surrendered Cydonia after a siege." }, { "id": 549, "key": "-69-tigranocerta-siege", "name": "Tigranocerta (siege)", "year": -69, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer to October 69 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "Tigranocerta, the new Armenian capital (probably Arzan, near Batman; Silvan has also been proposed)", "lat": 37.98, "lon": 41.35, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Armenia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Licinius Lucullus; Lucius Licinius Murena", "commanders_b": "Mancaeus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Usually treated together with the relief battle; counted separately under the siege rule.", "main_enemy": "Armenia", "opponent_group": "Caucasus", "roman_force": "Lucullus' army, left under Murena with 6,000 men before the walls during the relief battle; after the battle the Greek mercenaries in the city turned on the Armenian garrison and let the Romans in (Plutarch, Lucullus 26-29; Appian, Mith. 84-86).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions; inside the city the Greek mercenaries and settlers Tigranes had deported there sided with the Romans.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Lucullus 26-29; Appian, Mith. 84-86; Memnon of Heraclea 38; en.wikipedia Third Mithridatic War", "note": "Lucullus sent the deported Greeks home to their cities." }, { "id": 550, "key": "-68-pontus-fabius-defeat", "name": "Pontus (Fabius' defeat)", "year": -68, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "68 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "Pontus, near Cabira (Niksar), where Fabius was afterwards besieged; site not recorded", "lat": 40.58, "lon": 36.95, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Pontus" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mithridates VI", "commanders_b": "Marcus Fabius Hadrianus (legate of Lucullus)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No conventional name: Mithridates' victory over Lucullus' legate on his return to Pontus; site not recorded.", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "The force Lucullus had left to hold Pontus under his legate Fabius (numbers not given); Appian says Fabius freed and armed the slaves in his camp (Mith. 88).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Detachments of Lucullus' Italian legions; local auxiliaries from the Pontic cities may have served, but none are recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dio 36.9-10; Appian, Mith. 88; Plutarch, Lucullus 35; the ancient Greek battles set, Pontus (Fabius' defeat) 68 BC", "note": "Fabius was then shut up in Cabira and rescued by Triarius (Dio 36.10.1)." }, { "id": 551, "key": "-68-comana", "name": "Comana", "year": -68, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "68 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "near Comana Pontica (Gumenek, near Tokat), on the Iris", "lat": 40.36, "lon": 36.63, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pontus" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Valerius Triarius (legate of Lucullus)", "commanders_b": "Mithridates VI", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Triarius' relief force, the troops he brought up to rescue Fabius at Cabira, with Fabius' men (Dio 36.10); no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Detachments of Lucullus' Italian legions; Triarius had commanded in Asia and may have brought Greek allied troops, but none are recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dio 36.10.2; attalus.org, events of 68 BC ('Triarius defeats Mithridates at Comana'); the ancient Greek battles set, Comana 68 BC", "note": "Mithridates retired to Comana and was beaten there; in the next year he destroyed Triarius' army at Zela (Gaziura) (-67-zela)." }, { "id": 552, "key": "-68-knossos-siege", "name": "Knossos (siege)", "year": -68, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "68 BCE (en.wikipedia lists the siege as 72-69 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman conquest of Crete", "theatre": "Crete", "place": "Knossos, central Crete", "lat": 35.3, "lon": 25.16, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Caecilius Metellus (Creticus)", "commanders_b": "Lasthenes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Greek cities", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Metellus' proconsular army besieging the chief Cretan city; Lasthenes burned his house and escaped before it fell (Dio 36.17a-19; Livy, Per. 99).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "An Italian consular army; no Greek allied contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dio 36.17a-19; Livy, Per. 99; Florus 1.42; en.wikipedia Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus", "note": "Metellus went on to take Lyctus and Eleutherna, the latter by treachery." }, { "id": 553, "key": "-68-arsanias", "name": "Arsanias", "year": -68, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 68 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "on the Arsanias (Murat) river, on Lucullus' march toward Artaxata", "lat": 39.1, "lon": 42.3, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Armenia", "Pontus" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Licinius Lucullus", "commanders_b": "Tigranes II, Mithridates VI", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Armenia", "opponent_group": "Caucasus", "roman_force": "Lucullus' army, the legions and cavalry of the Tigranocerta campaign, increasingly mutinous; it routed the Armenian and Pontic cavalry and archers but then refused to go on to Artaxata (Plutarch, Lucullus 31-32; Appian, Mith. 87).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The same Italian legions with Galatian and Thracian horse; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Lucullus 31-32; Appian, Mith. 87; Dio 36.5; en.wikipedia Battle of Artaxata", "note": "Also called the battle of Artaxata (en.wikipedia's title), after Lucullus' objective; the fighting was on the upper Arsanias (Murat), north of Lake Van, and the army then refused to march on to Artaxata." }, { "id": 554, "key": "-68-nisibis-siege", "name": "Nisibis (siege)", "year": -68, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn-winter 68 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Nisibis (Nusaybin), Mygdonia", "lat": 37.07, "lon": 41.21, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Armenia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Licinius Lucullus", "commanders_b": "Gouras (brother of Tigranes), Callimachus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Armenia", "opponent_group": "Caucasus", "roman_force": "Lucullus' army, which stormed the walls on a stormy night when the defenders had relaxed their guard (Plutarch, Lucullus 32; Dio 36.6-7).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Lucullus 32; Dio 36.6-7; en.wikipedia Third Mithridatic War", "note": "" }, { "id": 555, "key": "-67-zela", "name": "Zela", "year": -67, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 67 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "near Zela (Zile), Pontus", "lat": 40.3, "lon": 35.89, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Pontus" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mithridates VI", "commanders_b": "Gaius Valerius Triarius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Triarius' army, the troops Lucullus had left in Pontus, at least two legions; 7,000 Romans fell, among them 24 tribunes and 150 centurions (Plutarch, Lucullus 35; Appian, Mith. 89).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Lucullus 35; Appian, Mith. 89; Dio 36.12-13; en.wikipedia Battle of Zela (67 BC)", "note": "Mithridates recovered most of Pontus; he was wounded in the battle." }, { "id": 556, "key": "-67-lappa-siege", "name": "Lappa (siege)", "year": -67, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "67 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman conquest of Crete", "theatre": "Crete", "place": "Lappa (Argyroupoli), western Crete", "lat": 35.29, "lon": 24.33, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Cilician pirates" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Caecilius Metellus (Creticus)", "commanders_b": "Cretan defenders; Lucius Octavius (Pompey's legate) was present", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known from Dio's brief account of the quarrel between Metellus and Pompey's legates.", "main_enemy": "Greek cities", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Metellus' army stormed Lappa although Pompey's legate Octavius had come there to receive the Cretans' surrender; Metellus dismissed Octavius and executed the Cilicians with him (Dio 36.18-19).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "An Italian consular army; no Greek allied contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dio 36.18-19; Florus 1.42; en.wikipedia Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus", "note": "Octavius later joined the Cretans at Hierapytna with troops taken from Sisenna's army, but withdrew without a battle." }, { "id": 557, "key": "-67-korakesion-sea", "name": "Korakesion (sea)", "year": -67, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 67 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Pompey's war against the pirates", "theatre": "Cilicia", "place": "off Korakesion (Coracesium, Alanya), Cilicia", "lat": 36.54, "lon": 32.0, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Cilician pirates" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Pompey", "commanders_b": "not named", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Cilician pirates", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "Pompey's eastern squadron of the Lex Gabinia command, which gave him up to 500 ships, 120,000 foot and 5,000 horse in all (Plutarch, Pompey 25-26); about 200 ships by the Roman figure at Korakesion.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Gabinian fleets were raised largely from the Greek maritime allies of the East (Rhodes and the cities of Asia), whose crews manned most ships; the infantry was Italian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Plutarch, Pompey 24-28; Appian, Mith. 94-96; Dio 36.37; en.wikipedia Battle of Korakesion", "note": "The pirates were beaten at sea, then besieged and surrendered; about 20,000 prisoners were resettled at Soli (Pompeiopolis), Dyme and elsewhere." }, { "id": 558, "key": "-66-cyrus-river", "name": "Cyrus River", "year": -66, "month": 12, "day": null, "date": "December 66 BCE (at the Saturnalia)", "type": "land", "war": "Caucasian campaign of Pompey", "theatre": "Caucasus", "place": "Pompey's winter camps on the Cyrnus (Kura) river", "lat": 41.1, "lon": 45.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Azerbaijan", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Caucasian Albania" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Pompey; Quintus Caecilius Metellus Celer; Lucius Valerius Flaccus", "commanders_b": "Oroeses (Oroezes)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Repulse of a surprise attack on the winter camps; no conventional battle name.", "main_enemy": "Caucasian Albania", "opponent_group": "Caucasus", "roman_force": "Pompey's army in three winter camps, attacked by the Albanians during the Saturnalia and beating them off (Dio 36.54; Plutarch, Pompey 34).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions with eastern auxiliaries; no Greek contingent is named.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dio 36.54; Plutarch, Pompey 34; en.wikipedia Caucasian campaign of Pompey", "note": "" }, { "id": 559, "key": "-66-lycus", "name": "Lycus", "year": -66, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 66 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Third Mithridatic War", "theatre": "Lesser Armenia", "place": "near the Lycus, where Pompey later founded Nicopolis (near Susehri)", "lat": 40.15, "lon": 38.08, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pontus" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Pompey", "commanders_b": "Mithridates VI", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Pompey's army of the Lex Manilia, the legions taken over from Lucullus and Glabrio with his own troops, in a night attack on Mithridates' 30,000 foot and 2,000-3,000 horse (Appian, Mith. 97-100; Plutarch, Pompey 32; Dio 36.48-49).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions with auxiliaries of the eastern provinces; no Greek contingent is named.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Appian, Mith. 97-100; Plutarch, Pompey 32; Dio 36.48-49; en.wikipedia Battle of the Lycus", "note": "Also called the battle of Nicopolis; Mithridates fled through Colchis to the Bosporus." }, { "id": 560, "key": "-65-pelorus", "name": "Pelorus", "year": -65, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 65 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caucasian campaign of Pompey", "theatre": "Caucasus", "place": "on the river Pelorus, Iberia (eastern Georgia); site unidentified", "lat": 41.9, "lon": 44.7, "loc": "region", "country": "Georgia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Caucasian Iberia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Pompey", "commanders_b": "Artoces", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Caucasian Iberia", "opponent_group": "Caucasus", "roman_force": "Pompey's legions, which charged at the run to close with the Iberian archers; about 9,000 Iberians fell and over 10,000 were captured (Plutarch, Pompey 34; Dio 37.2).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions with eastern auxiliaries; no Greek contingent is named.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Pompey 34; Dio 37.1-2; Appian, Mith. 103; en.wikipedia Caucasian campaign of Pompey", "note": "Artoces submitted and gave his children as hostages." }, { "id": 561, "key": "-65-abas", "name": "Abas", "year": -65, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 65 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caucasian campaign of Pompey", "theatre": "Caucasus", "place": "on the river Abas (perhaps the Alazani), Caucasian Albania", "lat": 41.2, "lon": 46.6, "loc": "region", "country": "Azerbaijan", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Caucasian Albania" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Pompey", "commanders_b": "Oroeses (Oroezes); Cosis (his brother, killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Caucasian Albania", "opponent_group": "Caucasus", "roman_force": "Pompey's army, with the cavalry placed in front and the legionaries kneeling hidden behind it, against 60,000 Albanian foot and 12,000 horse by Plutarch's count (Pompey 35; Strabo gives 22,000 horse; Dio 37.4).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions with eastern auxiliary cavalry; no Greek contingent is named.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch, Pompey 35; Dio 37.3-5; Strabo 11.4.5; en.wikipedia Battle of the Abas", "note": "The Albanian numbers are probably exaggerated." }, { "id": 562, "key": "-63-jerusalem-siege", "name": "Jerusalem (siege)", "year": -63, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "63 BCE (three-month siege of the Temple, ending on a fast day)", "type": "land", "war": "Pompey's eastern campaigns", "theatre": "Judea", "place": "the Temple Mount, Jerusalem", "lat": 31.78, "lon": 35.24, "loc": "known", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Judea" ], "allies_a": [ "Judea" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Pompey; Faustus Cornelius Sulla (first over the wall)", "commanders_b": "the partisans of Aristobulus II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Judea", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "Pompey's legions from Syria with siege engines brought from Tyre, supported by the partisans of Hyrcanus II who opened the city to him; the Temple, held by Aristobulus' men, was stormed after three months and about 12,000 Jews were killed (Josephus, BJ 1.141-151; AJ 14.54-73).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions with auxiliaries raised in the eastern provinces, including the Greek cities of Syria; no figures.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Josephus, BJ 1.141-154, AJ 14.54-79; Dio 37.15-16; Strabo 16.2.40; en.wikipedia Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC)", "note": "Side 'Judea' is the Hasmonean faction of Aristobulus II; Josephus' 'fast day' is variously read as the Day of Atonement or a Sabbath, so month unknown." }, { "id": 563, "key": "-62-pistoria", "name": "Pistoria", "year": -62, "month": 1, "day": null, "date": "January 62 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Catilinarian conspiracy", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "in the hills near Pistoria (Pistoia), Etruria", "lat": 43.98, "lon": 10.9, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Senate", "faction_b": "Catiline", "commanders_a": "Marcus Petreius (for the consul Gaius Antonius Hybrida)", "commanders_b": "Lucius Sergius Catilina (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "The consular army of Gaius Antonius Hybrida, led in battle by his legate Marcus Petreius with a cohort of veterans in front, against Catiline's two legions, no more than about a quarter of whom were properly armed (Sallust, Cat. 56-61).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Etruscan" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian armies on both sides; Catiline's men were Sullan veterans and the poor of Etruria; no Greek speakers recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Sallust, Catiline 56-61; Dio 37.39-40; Plutarch, Cicero 22; en.wikipedia Battle of Pistoria", "note": "Metellus Celer blocked Catiline's escape over the Apennines into Gaul; Catiline and about 3,000 of his men died fighting." }, { "id": 564, "key": "-61-ventia", "name": "Ventia", "year": -61, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "61 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Allobrogian revolt (62-61 BCE)", "theatre": "Gallia Narbonensis", "place": "near Ventia, a town of the Segovellauni in the Rhone valley; site unidentified", "lat": 44.9, "lon": 4.85, "loc": "region", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Manlius Lentinus (legate of Gaius Pomptinus)", "commanders_b": "Catugnatus (Allobroges)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "A part of the army of Transalpine Gaul under Pomptinus' legate Lentinus, which fought the Allobroges near Ventia and in the end took the town (Dio 37.47-48).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "An Italian provincial army with Gallic auxiliaries; Massalia was an ally but no Massiliot contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dio 37.47-48; Livy, Per. 103; en.wikipedia Allobroges", "note": "Lentinus was at first driven back by a sudden attack of Catugnatus." }, { "id": 565, "key": "-61-solonium-siege", "name": "Solonium (siege)", "year": -61, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "61 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Allobrogian revolt (62-61 BCE)", "theatre": "Gallia Narbonensis", "place": "Solonium (Solonion), chief town of the Allobroges; perhaps Salagnon or Montmiral", "lat": 45.4, "lon": 5.3, "loc": "region", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Pomptinus; his legates Lucius Marius and Servius Sulpicius Galba", "commanders_b": "Catugnatus (escaped)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "The army of Transalpine Gaul under the propraetor Pomptinus; his legates Marius and Galba crossed the Rhone and burned part of the town but were driven off by Catugnatus' relief, and Pomptinus then besieged and took it with his whole army (Dio 37.48).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "An Italian provincial army with Gallic auxiliaries; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dio 37.48; Livy, Per. 103; Cicero, De provinciis consularibus 32; en.wikipedia Allobroges", "note": "Some date the campaign to late 62 BCE." }, { "id": 566, "key": "-61-histria", "name": "Histria", "year": -61, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "61 BCE (or 62 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Campaigns of Gaius Antonius Hybrida in Macedonia", "theatre": "Lower Danube", "place": "near the Greek city of Histria, Scythia Minor (Dobruja)", "lat": 44.55, "lon": 28.77, "loc": "approx", "country": "Romania", "side_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "a king of the Bastarnae (not named)", "commanders_b": "Gaius Antonius Hybrida (proconsul of Macedonia)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The proconsul of Macedonia's army of infantry and cavalry; Antonius fled with his cavalry and the infantry was cut down (Dio 38.10).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Macedonia combined Italian legions with Macedonian and Thracian auxiliaries; no figures.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dio 38.10; Livy, Per. 103; en.wikipedia Battle of Histria", "note": "The victors were the Bastarnae, whom Dio calls Scythians (their ethnicity is disputed), who came to the help of the Greek cities of the coast; the Dardani had beaten Antonius earlier in an unnamed battle." }, { "id": 567, "key": "-61-mons-herminius", "name": "Mons Herminius", "year": -61, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "61 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's campaign in Lusitania", "theatre": "Lusitania", "place": "Mons Herminius (Serra da Estrela) and the coast beyond", "lat": 40.32, "lon": -7.61, "loc": "region", "country": "Portugal", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Lusitanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar (propraetor of Hispania Ulterior)", "commanders_b": "the hill tribes of Mons Herminius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A campaign of several actions (the mountain, an island off the coast, Brigantium) rather than one named battle.", "main_enemy": "Lusitanians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Caesar's provincial army of twenty cohorts, to which he added ten newly raised (Plutarch, Caesar 12), against the Lusitanian hill peoples, whom he pursued to the Ocean (Dio 37.52-53).", "languages": [ "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman legions of Further Spain, partly raised in the province, with Spanish auxiliaries; no Greek speakers recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Dio 37.52-53; Plutarch, Caesar 12; Suetonius, Julius 54; en.wikipedia Gaius Julius Caesar", "note": "Caesar then fetched ships from Gades and took Brigantium among the Callaeci without a fight." }, { "id": 568, "key": "-60-thurii", "name": "Thurii", "year": -60, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "60 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Remnants of the slave revolts", "theatre": "Lucania and Bruttium", "place": "the territory of Thurii, on the Gulf of Taranto", "lat": 39.71, "lon": 16.49, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Slave rebels" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Octavius (praetor 61, on his way to Macedonia)", "commanders_b": "runaway slaves, remnants of the bands of Spartacus and Catiline", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A mopping-up action against runaway slaves; no conventional battle name.", "main_enemy": "Slave rebels", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "The troops Octavius was taking to his province of Macedonia, with which the Senate charged him to clear the runaway slaves from the land of Thurii (Suetonius, Augustus 3.1); no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Troops raised in Italy; no Greek units are attested.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Suetonius, Augustus 3.1, 7.1; en.wikipedia Gaius Octavius (praetor 61 BC)", "note": "Suetonius says the infant future Augustus was surnamed Thurinus in memory of his father's success at Thurii." }, { "id": 569, "key": "-59-thrace-octavius-against-the-bessi", "name": "Thrace (Octavius against the Bessi)", "year": -59, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "59 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Thracian campaign of Gaius Octavius", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "the land of the Bessi (upper Hebrus), site unknown", "lat": 42.2, "lon": 24.3, "loc": "region", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Thracians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Octavius (proconsul of Macedonia)", "commanders_b": "the Bessi and other Thracians", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No conventional name and no recorded site: 'a great battle' against the Bessi and Thracians.", "main_enemy": "Thracians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The proconsul's army of Macedonia, legions with provincial auxiliaries; no numbers are given (Suetonius, Augustus 3.2: 'a great battle').", "languages": [ "Latin", "Oscan-Umbrian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Macedonia was Roman-Italian; Macedonian and Greek auxiliaries are likely but not recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Suetonius, Augustus 3.2; Velleius 2.59.2; en.wikipedia Gaius Octavius (praetor 61 BC)", "note": "Octavius was saluted imperator for it (Broughton, MRR 2.191)." }, { "id": 570, "key": "-58-arar", "name": "Arar", "year": -58, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 58 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "The crossing of the Arar (Saone), probably near Trevoux or Macon", "lat": 45.95, "lon": 4.77, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "the Tigurini canton of the Helvetii (no leader named)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Three of Caesar's six legions (VII-XII) caught the Tigurini, the last quarter of the Helvetii still on the near bank; the legions were raised in Cisalpine Gaul and Narbonensis.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Caesar's legions of 58 BCE were raised in Cisalpine Gaul and the Province; no Greek units are named in this action.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Caesar BG 1.12-13; Plutarch Caesar 18; en.wikipedia Battle of the Arar", "note": "Helvetii (Tigurini canton). The exact crossing point is unknown." }, { "id": 571, "key": "-58-bibracte", "name": "Bibracte", "year": -58, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "June or July 58 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "About 18 Roman miles from Bibracte (Mont Beuvray), Saone-et-Loire", "lat": 46.92, "lon": 4.03, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "Helvetian chiefs (Divico in some modern accounts)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Six legions (VII-XII), the two newest guarding the baggage, with auxiliary light infantry and about 4,000 Gallic (mostly Aeduan) allied cavalry.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Caesar's auxiliaries included a few hundred Cretan archers (named in 57 BCE, BG 2.7); the legions and cavalry were Latin- and Celtic-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Caesar BG 1.23-26; Plutarch Caesar 18; en.wikipedia Battle of Bibracte", "note": "Helvetii with the Boii and Tulingi. Battlefield sites proposed include Montmort and Armecy; Caesar's figure of 368,000 migrants is doubted." }, { "id": 572, "key": "-58-vosges", "name": "Vosges", "year": -58, "month": 9, "day": 14, "date": "14 September 58 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Upper Rhine plain of Alsace, probably near Cernay or Mulhouse (also called the battle of Vesontio)", "lat": 47.75, "lon": 7.33, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar, Publius Licinius Crassus (cavalry)", "commanders_b": "Ariovistus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Six legions (VII-XII), about 25,000-30,000 men, with auxiliary light infantry and allied Gallic cavalry.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Only the small Cretan archer contingent among the auxiliaries spoke Greek.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Caesar BG 1.48-53; Cassius Dio 38.47-50; en.wikipedia Battle of Vosges (58 BC)", "note": "Suebi with the Harudes, Marcomanni, Triboci, Vangiones, Nemetes and Sedusii. The day is a modern reckoning; the site is uncertain." }, { "id": 573, "key": "-57-sabis", "name": "Sabis", "year": -57, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "Summer 57 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "River Sabis, the Sambre (traditionally) or the Selle near Saulzoir", "lat": 50.24, "lon": 3.44, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar, Titus Labienus", "commanders_b": "Boduognatus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Eight legions (VII-XIV, 30,000-45,000 men) caught building their camp, with Numidian, Cretan and Balearic light troops, Gallic cavalry and Treveran horse (who fled).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The Cretan archers named at Bibrax were with the army; all else was Latin- and Celtic-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Caesar BG 2.16-28; Plutarch Caesar 20; en.wikipedia Battle of the Sabis", "note": "Nervii with the Atrebates and Viromandui; the Atuatuci came too late. The river is traditionally the Sambre; Turquin (1955) argued for the Selle." }, { "id": 574, "key": "-57-axona", "name": "Axona", "year": -57, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "57 BCE (early summer)", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Caesar's camp on the Aisne near Berry-au-Bac (Mauchamp), after the Belgic attack on Bibrax", "lat": 49.4, "lon": 3.9, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar, Quintus Titurius Sabinus", "commanders_b": "Galba of the Suessiones", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Eight legions (VII-XIV, about 40,000 men), six in line and two in camp, with Numidian light troops, Cretan archers and Balearic slingers sent to Bibrax, and Gallic cavalry.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Berber", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Caesar names Cretan archers among the troops sent to relieve Bibrax (BG 2.7), a few hundred men at most.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Caesar BG 2.5-11; Cassius Dio 39.1-2; en.wikipedia Battle of the Axona", "note": "Belgic coalition (Suessiones, Bellovaci, Nervii and others); allies the Remi, whose oppidum Bibrax the Belgae had assaulted. Wikipedia's infobox coordinates (49.43, 2.85) disagree with the usual site at Berry-au-Bac." }, { "id": 575, "key": "-57-alexandreion", "name": "Alexandreion", "year": -57, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "57 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gabinius' wars in Judaea", "theatre": "Judaea", "place": "Battle near Jerusalem, then the siege of the fortress of Alexandreion (Sartaba) above the Jordan valley", "lat": 32.1, "lon": 35.46, "loc": "approx", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "allies_a": [ "Judea" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aulus Gabinius, Mark Antony", "commanders_b": "Alexander, son of Aristobulus II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Josephus; not given a battle name in most modern works.", "main_enemy": "Jewish rebels", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "Gabinius' Syrian army (the legions left by Pompey), with Antony leading the advance and the cavalry, and Jewish troops of Hyrcanus II under Peitholaus and Malichus.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Syrian legions had served in the East since Pompey's war and may have taken local recruits; Gabinius' horse included Gauls and Germans (the later Gabiniani).", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Josephus BJ 1.160-168, AJ 14.82-91; en.wikipedia Alexander of Judaea", "note": "Josephus reports 3,000 of Alexander's men killed near Jerusalem; Alexandreion later surrendered." }, { "id": 576, "key": "-57-atuatuci-siege", "name": "Atuatuci (siege)", "year": -57, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Late summer 57 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "The chief oppidum of the Atuatuci, perhaps the citadel of Namur or Thuin", "lat": 50.46, "lon": 4.86, "loc": "region", "country": "Belgium", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Caesar's army of eight legions with a siege tower; the town surrendered, then made a night sortie in which 4,000 were killed, and 53,000 were sold.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "As in the rest of the 57 BCE campaign, only the Cretan archers spoke Greek.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BG 2.29-33; en.wikipedia Siege of the Atuatuci", "note": "Atuatuci (Belgae). The site is disputed (Namur, Thuin, Montaigle, Hastedon)." }, { "id": 577, "key": "-57-octodurus", "name": "Octodurus", "year": -57, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Winter 57/56 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Alps", "place": "Octodurus (Martigny), Valais, below the Great St Bernard pass", "lat": 46.1, "lon": 7.07, "loc": "known", "country": "Switzerland", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Servius Sulpicius Galba", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Legio XII, understrength (perhaps 5,000 men or fewer), with some cavalry, in its winter camp.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A single legion raised in Cisalpine Gaul or Narbonensis.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BG 3.1-6; en.wikipedia Battle of Octodurus", "note": "Seduni and Veragri. Galba broke out and won, but then withdrew from the Alps." }, { "id": 578, "key": "-56-machaerus", "name": "Machaerus", "year": -56, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "56 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gabinius' wars in Judaea", "theatre": "Judaea (Peraea)", "place": "A battle in the field, then the two-day siege of the fortress of Machaerus east of the Dead Sea", "lat": 31.56, "lon": 35.63, "loc": "approx", "country": "Jordan", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Sisenna (son of Gabinius), Mark Antony, Servianus", "commanders_b": "Aristobulus II, Antigonus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Josephus; not given a battle name in most modern works.", "main_enemy": "Jewish rebels", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "A detachment of Gabinius' Syrian army under his legates; Josephus says 5,000 of Aristobulus' men fell before the siege.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman army of Syria, Latin-speaking with possible local recruits.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Josephus BJ 1.171-174, AJ 14.92-97; en.wikipedia Aristobulus II", "note": "Aristobulus, escaped from Rome, was captured and sent back." }, { "id": 579, "key": "-56-sotiates", "name": "Sotiates", "year": -56, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Summer 56 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Aquitania", "place": "Territory of the Sotiates and their oppidum, probably Sos (Lot-et-Garonne)", "lat": 44.05, "lon": 0.1, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Licinius Crassus", "commanders_b": "Adiatuanus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Described by Caesar but rarely given a battle name in modern works.", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Twelve legionary cohorts and a large cavalry force, reinforced by auxiliaries and cavalry from Tolosa, Carcaso and Narbo.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legionaries of Caesar's army and Gallic levies of the Province.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BG 3.20-22; en.wikipedia Sotiates", "note": "Sotiates (Aquitani). A field battle after an ambush, then the siege of their town, which surrendered after a failed sortie by Adiatuanus' 600 devoted followers." }, { "id": 580, "key": "-56-morbihan-sea", "name": "Morbihan (sea)", "year": -56, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Summer 56 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul (Armorica)", "place": "Off the coast of the Veneti, probably Quiberon Bay or the mouth of the Gulf of Morbihan", "lat": 47.5, "lon": -2.87, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus (fleet), Gaius Julius Caesar (watching from the shore)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Galleys built on the Loire and ships levied from the Pictones, Santones and other pacified states, with rowers and seamen from the Province and legionaries on board.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rowers and seamen were raised in the Province (Narbonensis), where some may have been Greeks of the Massiliot coast; the allied ships were Gallic.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Caesar BG 3.7-16; Cassius Dio 39.40-43; en.wikipedia Battle of Morbihan", "note": "Veneti, about 220 ships, destroyed after the Romans cut their halyards with hooked poles; also called the battle of Quiberon Bay." }, { "id": 581, "key": "-56-sabinus-against-the-venelli", "name": "Sabinus against the Venelli", "year": -56, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Summer 56 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul (Armorica)", "place": "Sabinus' camp in the territory of the Venelli (Unelli), Cotentin, perhaps Le Petit-Celland", "lat": 48.7, "lon": -1.25, "loc": "region", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Titurius Sabinus", "commanders_b": "Viridovix", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Described by Caesar but rarely given a battle name in modern works.", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Three legions under Sabinus, who feigned fear and charged the Gauls as they climbed to his hill camp.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions of Caesar's Gallic army; no Greek units named.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BG 3.17-19; Cassius Dio 39.45", "note": "Venelli with the Lexovii and Aulerci Eburovices." }, { "id": 582, "key": "-56-vocates-and-tarusates", "name": "Vocates and Tarusates", "year": -56, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Late summer 56 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Aquitania", "place": "The Aquitanian camp in the lands of the Vocates and Tarusates (Landes or Gers)", "lat": 43.8, "lon": -0.5, "loc": "region", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Iberians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Licinius Crassus", "commanders_b": "veterans of Sertorius (unnamed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Described by Caesar but rarely given a battle name in modern works.", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Crassus' twelve cohorts with cavalry and auxiliaries from the Province; four cohorts broke into the rear of the enemy camp.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legionaries and Gallic levies of the Province.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BG 3.23-27", "note": "Aquitani (Vocates, Tarusates and others), with help from Hither Spain (Cantabri); Caesar claims 50,000 men, of whom a quarter escaped." }, { "id": 583, "key": "-55-landing-in-britain", "name": "Landing in Britain", "year": -55, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "Late August 55 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Britain", "place": "The open beach of east Kent, probably between Walmer and Deal", "lat": 51.2, "lon": 1.4, "loc": "approx", "country": "United Kingdom", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Britons" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No fixed name in standard works.", "main_enemy": "Britons", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Legions VII and X, landed from about 80 transports with warships firing slings, arrows and artillery; the cavalry transports failed to arrive.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Two legions of Caesar's Gallic army; no Greek units named.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Caesar BG 4.20-36; Cassius Dio 39.51-53; en.wikipedia Caesar's invasions of Britain", "note": "Britons of Kent (Cantiaci). Includes the later attack on the foraging Seventh legion and the defeat of the Britons before the camp." }, { "id": 584, "key": "-55-nile", "name": "Nile", "year": -55, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Spring 55 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gabinius' restoration of Ptolemy XII", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "On and beside a branch of the Nile in the Delta (site unknown)", "lat": 30.9, "lon": 31.3, "loc": "region", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ptolemies" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aulus Gabinius, Mark Antony", "commanders_b": "Archelaus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known from short notices: Dio describes a second victory, on the river and on land, after the battle beyond Pelusium.", "main_enemy": "Ptolemies", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Gabinius' army of Syria (the legions Pompey had left there, with Gallic and German horse), fighting on land and with boats on the river; Dio gives no numbers (Dio 39.58).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army was the Italian legions of Syria with western cavalry; any Greek speakers came from local recruits and the Jewish and Syrian helpers of the march.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 39.58; Strabo 12.3.34, 17.1.11; Plutarch Antony 3", "note": "Archelaus, husband of Berenice IV, fell (Strabo 17.1.11; Dio 39.58) and Ptolemy XII was restored. Set 12 has this battle as Nile 55 BCE." }, { "id": 585, "key": "-55-pelusium", "name": "Pelusium", "year": -55, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Spring 55 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gabinius' restoration of Ptolemy XII", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "Pelusium, the eastern gate of Egypt, and the battle beyond it in the eastern Delta", "lat": 31.04, "lon": 32.54, "loc": "approx", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ptolemies" ], "allies_a": [ "Judea" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aulus Gabinius, Mark Antony", "commanders_b": "Archelaus (husband of Berenice IV)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A capture and an unnamed field battle; grouped under the name of Pelusium.", "main_enemy": "Ptolemies", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Gabinius' Syrian army; Antony with the cavalry seized Pelusium, and Antipater brought Jewish troops and supplies.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Gabinius' force was the Roman army of Syria with Gallic and German horse (some of whom stayed in Egypt as the Gabiniani).", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch Antony 3; Cassius Dio 39.58; Josephus AJ 14.98-99; Strabo 12.3.34", "note": "The Ptolemaic army of Berenice IV. Dio says Gabinius reached Pelusium without opposition and defeated the Egyptians beyond it the same day; the later river battle in which Archelaus fell is entered as Nile (55 BCE)." }, { "id": 586, "key": "-55-usipetes-and-tencteri", "name": "Usipetes and Tencteri", "year": -55, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Spring or early summer 55 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul (Rhine)", "place": "Near the confluence of the Meuse and the Rhine, perhaps at Kessel", "lat": 51.79, "lon": 5.33, "loc": "approx", "country": "Netherlands", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Largely a massacre of a migrating people after a cavalry clash; included because it began with a battle.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Caesar's army of eight legions and about 5,000 Gallic allied cavalry; 800 German horsemen first routed the Gallic cavalry, then the legions stormed the German camp.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Only the Cretan archers among the auxiliaries would have spoken Greek.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BG 4.1-15; Plutarch Caesar 22; Appian Celtica 18", "note": "Usipetes (Usipi) and Tencteri. The site is disputed: Kessel (Netherlands) or near Koblenz (Moselle confluence)." }, { "id": 587, "key": "-55-mount-tabor", "name": "Mount Tabor", "year": -55, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "55 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gabinius' wars in Judaea", "theatre": "Galilee", "place": "Near Mount Tabor, Galilee", "lat": 32.69, "lon": 35.39, "loc": "approx", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "allies_a": [ "Judea" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aulus Gabinius", "commanders_b": "Alexander, son of Aristobulus II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Josephus.", "main_enemy": "Jewish rebels", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "Gabinius' Syrian army back from Egypt, with Antipater's Jewish supporters; Josephus says 10,000 of Alexander's 30,000 fell.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman army of Syria; no Greek units are named.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Josephus BJ 1.176-178, AJ 14.100-102; attalus.org (Tabor)", "note": "" }, { "id": 588, "key": "-54-bigbury", "name": "Bigbury", "year": -54, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "July 54 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Britain", "place": "A river crossing (the Stour) and a forest stronghold beyond it, probably Bigbury Wood near Canterbury", "lat": 51.27, "lon": 1.03, "loc": "approx", "country": "United Kingdom", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Britons" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The identification and the name Bigbury are modern.", "main_enemy": "Britons", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Five legions and 2,000 (mostly Gallic) cavalry; the Seventh legion stormed the stronghold under a testudo and earth ramp.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions of Caesar's Gallic army and Gallic cavalry.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BG 5.8-9; en.wikipedia Caesar's invasions of Britain", "note": "Britons of Kent (Cantiaci)." }, { "id": 589, "key": "-54-thames-crossing", "name": "Thames crossing", "year": -54, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "July 54 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Britain", "place": "The only ford of the Thames in Cassivellaunus' territory, location unknown (Brentford and Westminster are proposed)", "lat": 51.48, "lon": -0.31, "loc": "region", "country": "United Kingdom", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Britons" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "Cassivellaunus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A forced river crossing, not a pitched battle.", "main_enemy": "Britons", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Caesar's cavalry and legions (five legions in Britain) forced the staked ford, the infantry wading neck-deep.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions of Caesar's Gallic army and Gallic cavalry.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BG 5.18; Cassius Dio 40.3; Polyaenus 8.23.5", "note": "Catuvellauni under Cassivellaunus. Polyaenus' elephant story is probably a confusion with Claudius' campaign." }, { "id": 590, "key": "-54-cassivellaunus-stronghold", "name": "Cassivellaunus' stronghold", "year": -54, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "Summer 54 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Britain", "place": "Cassivellaunus' oppidum, possibly Wheathampstead (Devil's Dyke), Hertfordshire", "lat": 51.81, "lon": -0.28, "loc": "approx", "country": "United Kingdom", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Britons" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "Cassivellaunus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A short assault on a stronghold; the site is unknown.", "main_enemy": "Britons", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Caesar's legions assaulted the stronghold from two sides; guided by the Trinovantes and the other tribes that had submitted.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions of Caesar's Gallic army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BG 5.21-22; en.wikipedia Caesar's invasions of Britain", "note": "Catuvellauni. At the same time the four kings of Kent (Cingetorix, Carvilius, Taximagulus, Segovax) attacked Caesar's naval camp and were repulsed." }, { "id": 591, "key": "-54-atuatuca", "name": "Atuatuca", "year": -54, "month": 11, "day": null, "date": "Late autumn 54 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul (Belgica)", "place": "A defile two miles from the winter camp at Atuatuca, among the Eburones, probably near Tongeren", "lat": 50.78, "lon": 5.46, "loc": "approx", "country": "Belgium", "side_a": [ "Gauls" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ambiorix, Cativolcus", "commanders_b": "Quintus Titurius Sabinus, Lucius Aurunculeius Cotta", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "One legion recently raised north of the Po and five further cohorts (fifteen cohorts in all), destroyed on the march after leaving camp.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A new legion levied in Transpadane Gaul.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Caesar BG 5.26-37; Cassius Dio 40.5-6; Suetonius Caesar 25; en.wikipedia Ambiorix's revolt", "note": "Eburones (Belgae). The site of Atuatuca is disputed; Tongeren is the usual identification." }, { "id": 592, "key": "-54-cicero-s-camp-siege", "name": "Cicero's camp (siege)", "year": -54, "month": 11, "day": null, "date": "November 54 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul (Belgica)", "place": "Quintus Cicero's winter camp among the Nervii (site unknown, Hainaut) and Caesar's relief battle nearby", "lat": 50.45, "lon": 4.1, "loc": "region", "country": "Belgium", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Tullius Cicero, Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "Ambiorix", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Cicero's single legion held the camp; Caesar relieved it with two legions (about 7,000 men) and 400 cavalry and routed some 60,000 Gauls.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions of Caesar's Gallic army.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BG 5.38-52; Cassius Dio 40.7-10; en.wikipedia Ambiorix's revolt", "note": "Nervii with the Eburones, Atuatuci and smaller Belgic tribes." }, { "id": 593, "key": "-54-ichnae", "name": "Ichnae", "year": -54, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "54 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Crassus' Parthian War", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Near Ichnae, on the Balikh south of Carrhae", "lat": 36.3, "lon": 39.05, "loc": "region", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Parthia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Licinius Crassus", "commanders_b": "Silaces (satrap)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A skirmish with a satrap's cavalry; no Wikipedia battle article.", "main_enemy": "Parthia", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Part of Crassus' army of Syria (legions levied in Italy in 55 BCE and the Syrian garrison) on its first crossing of the Euphrates.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The legions were levied in Italy; any light troops raised in Syria would have included Greek-speakers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 40.12; Plutarch Crassus 17; en.wikipedia Silaces, Ichnae (Mesopotamia)", "note": "Silaces was wounded and fled to report to the king." }, { "id": 594, "key": "-54-zenodotium-siege", "name": "Zenodotium (siege)", "year": -54, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "54 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Crassus' Parthian War", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Zenodotium, a Macedonian-Greek town of Osroene near Nicephorium", "lat": 36.0, "lon": 39.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Licinius Crassus", "commanders_b": "Apollonius (tyrant)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A small storming of a town.", "main_enemy": "Greek cities", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Crassus' army, after the town's tyrant had killed about 100 Roman soldiers sent into it; the town was stormed and its people sold.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "As at Ichnae: Italian legions with possible Syrian light troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch Crassus 17; Cassius Dio 40.13", "note": "Greek city: Zenodotium. Crassus was hailed imperator for it." }, { "id": 595, "key": "-54-labienus-against-indutiomarus", "name": "Labienus against Indutiomarus", "year": -54, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Winter 54/53 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul (Belgica)", "place": "Labienus' winter camp among the Remi on the border of the Treveri (southern Ardennes)", "lat": 49.85, "lon": 5.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Belgium", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Titus Labienus", "commanders_b": "Indutiomarus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A camp sortie rather than a named battle.", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "One legion and cavalry summoned secretly from neighbouring states, which made a sudden sortie and killed Indutiomarus.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A legion of Caesar's Gallic army with Gallic allied cavalry.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BG 5.53-58; Cassius Dio 40.11", "note": "Treveri. Dated to the winter after Atuatuca; some chronologies put it in early 53 BCE." }, { "id": 596, "key": "-53-carrhae", "name": "Carrhae", "year": -53, "month": 6, "day": 9, "date": "9 June 53 BCE (Republican calendar)", "type": "land", "war": "Crassus' Parthian War", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "The plain south of Carrhae (Harran), near the Balikh", "lat": 36.85, "lon": 39.03, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Parthia" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Surena", "commanders_b": "Marcus Licinius Crassus, Publius Licinius Crassus, Gaius Cassius Longinus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Parthia", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Seven legions (about 35,000 heavy infantry), nearly 4,000 cavalry including 1,000 Gallic horsemen brought by Publius Crassus from Caesar, and about 4,000 light infantry (Plutarch Crassus 20).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The legions were levied in Italy; the light infantry and some cavalry were probably raised in Syria and the Greek towns of Mesopotamia.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Plutarch Crassus 20-31; Cassius Dio 40.16-27; Ovid Fasti 6.465-468; en.wikipedia Battle of Carrhae", "note": "The date is Ovid's (fifth day before the Ides of June); some modern works give May 53 BCE. The Osroenian chief Abgar (Ariamnes in Plutarch) misled the army and deserted before the battle." }, { "id": 597, "key": "-53-labienus-against-the-treveri", "name": "Labienus against the Treveri", "year": -53, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Spring 53 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul (Belgica)", "place": "A river crossing on the borders of the Treveri (perhaps the Alzette or the Ourthe)", "lat": 49.75, "lon": 6.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Luxembourg", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Titus Labienus", "commanders_b": "relatives of Indutiomarus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Described by Caesar but rarely given a battle name.", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Twenty-five cohorts and a large cavalry force; Labienus feigned retreat to draw the Treveri across the river.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions of Caesar's Gallic army and Gallic cavalry.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BG 6.7-8; Cassius Dio 40.31", "note": "Treveri, before their German allies arrived." }, { "id": 598, "key": "-53-atuatuca", "name": "Atuatuca", "year": -53, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Summer 53 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul (Belgica)", "place": "The baggage camp at Atuatuca among the Eburones, probably near Tongeren", "lat": 50.78, "lon": 5.46, "loc": "approx", "country": "Belgium", "side_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "", "commanders_b": "Quintus Tullius Cicero", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A raid on a camp by 2,000 German horsemen.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Legio XIV (a new legion) guarding the army's baggage, with some 200 cavalry and the sick; two cohorts of foragers were cut off and destroyed.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A recently levied legion from Cisalpine Gaul.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BG 6.35-42", "note": "Sugambri. They failed to take the camp and withdrew, but destroyed two cohorts; Caesar presents it as a setback." }, { "id": 599, "key": "-52-cenabum-siege", "name": "Cenabum (siege)", "year": -52, "month": 2, "day": null, "date": "February or March 52 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Cenabum (Orleans), town of the Carnutes on the Loire", "lat": 47.9, "lon": 1.91, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "More a sack after a short siege than a battle.", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Caesar's legions (at least eight) stormed the gates when the townsmen tried to escape over the Loire bridge by night; the town was sacked and burned.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions of Caesar's Gallic army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BG 7.11; en.wikipedia Battle of Alesia (background)", "note": "Carnutes, in revenge for their massacre of Roman traders at Cenabum that began the revolt." }, { "id": 600, "key": "-52-noviodunum", "name": "Noviodunum", "year": -52, "month": 3, "day": null, "date": "March 52 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Noviodunum of the Bituriges, perhaps Neuvy-sur-Barangeon", "lat": 47.32, "lon": 2.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "Vercingetorix", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A surrender interrupted by a cavalry engagement.", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Caesar's army; about 400 German horsemen decided the cavalry fight with Vercingetorix's vanguard, after which the town surrendered again.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions of Caesar's Gallic army with Gallic and German cavalry.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BG 7.12-13", "note": "Bituriges and Vercingetorix's cavalry. Site uncertain." }, { "id": 601, "key": "-52-avaricum-siege", "name": "Avaricum (siege)", "year": -52, "month": 4, "day": null, "date": "Spring 52 BCE (about 27 days)", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Avaricum (Bourges), town of the Bituriges", "lat": 47.08, "lon": 2.4, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "Vercingetorix", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Eight (probably understrength) legions, about 25,000-30,000 legionaries, with auxiliaries; the town was taken by assault from a siege terrace.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions of Caesar's Gallic army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Caesar BG 7.13-28; en.wikipedia Siege of Avaricum", "note": "Bituriges and the confederation under Vercingetorix. Caesar says of 40,000 inhabitants only 800 escaped." }, { "id": 602, "key": "-52-vingeanne", "name": "Vingeanne", "year": -52, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "Summer 52 BCE (July or August)", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Probably the Vingeanne valley near Montsaugeon, on Caesar's march through the land of the Lingones", "lat": 47.71, "lon": 5.3, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "Vercingetorix", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Caesar's army of ten or more legions on the march; German horsemen and light infantry hired from beyond the Rhine broke the Gallic cavalry.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions of Caesar's Gallic army with German cavalry.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BG 7.66-68; Plutarch Caesar 26; en.wikipedia Battle of the Vingeanne", "note": "The cavalry battle that drove Vercingetorix into Alesia. The site is a modern identification (Wikipedia's infobox coordinates are wrong)." }, { "id": 603, "key": "-52-alesia", "name": "Alesia", "year": -52, "month": 9, "day": null, "date": "September 52 BCE (siege of about six weeks)", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Alesia, Mont Auxois above Alise-Sainte-Reine, Cote-d'Or", "lat": 47.54, "lon": 4.5, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar, Titus Labienus, Mark Antony, Gaius Trebonius, Decimus Brutus, Gaius Fabius", "commanders_b": "Vercingetorix, Vercassivellaunus, Commius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Ten or eleven legions (I, V, VII-XV; 30,000-50,000 legionaries) with about 10,000 auxiliaries, among them German cavalry and light infantry, behind double lines of circumvallation.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Archers and slingers among the auxiliaries may have included Cretans; the army was overwhelmingly Latin-, Celtic- and Germanic-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Caesar BG 7.68-90; Plutarch Caesar 27; Cassius Dio 40.39-41; en.wikipedia Battle of Alesia", "note": "Gallic confederation under Vercingetorix and the relief army (Caesar claims 250,000). Vercingetorix surrendered." }, { "id": 604, "key": "-52-gergovia", "name": "Gergovia", "year": -52, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Late spring 52 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Gergovia, chief oppidum of the Arverni (plateau of Gergovie, near Clermont-Ferrand)", "lat": 45.71, "lon": 3.12, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Gauls" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Gauls" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Vercingetorix", "commanders_b": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Six legions (V, VI, VIII, X, XI, XIII among them), 15,000-30,000 legionaries, with Aeduan allied troops (10,000 Aeduan infantry joined during the siege).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions of Caesar's Gallic army with Aeduan allies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Caesar BG 7.34-53; Plutarch Caesar 26; en.wikipedia Battle of Gergovia", "note": "Arverni and allies. Caesar's failed assault cost 46 centurions and about 700 men; he raised the siege." }, { "id": 605, "key": "-52-lutetia", "name": "Lutetia", "year": -52, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Summer 52 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Left bank of the Seine near Lutetia (Paris), perhaps the plain of Grenelle", "lat": 48.84, "lon": 2.29, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Titus Labienus", "commanders_b": "Camulogenus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Four legions (Caesar names VII and XII) and the cavalry, after a night crossing of the Seine from Metlosedum.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions of Caesar's Gallic army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BG 7.57-62; en.wikipedia Battle of Lutetia", "note": "Parisii, Senones and Aulerci; Camulogenus was killed. The battlefield is disputed (Grenelle, Issy, or upstream near Melun)." }, { "id": 606, "key": "-52-tarichaea-siege", "name": "Tarichaea (siege)", "year": -52, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "52 BCE (or 53 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Crassus' Parthian War (aftermath)", "theatre": "Galilee", "place": "Tarichaea (Magdala), on the Sea of Galilee", "lat": 32.82, "lon": 35.52, "loc": "approx", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Cassius Longinus", "commanders_b": "Peitholaus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Josephus as a capture; the fighting is not described.", "main_enemy": "Jewish rebels", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "The remnant of Crassus' army that Cassius had brought back to Syria (about two legions' worth).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Survivors of the Italian legions of Carrhae with whatever was raised in Syria.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Josephus AJ 14.119-120, BJ 1.180", "note": "Josephus says 30,000 were enslaved; Peitholaus was put to death at Antipater's urging." }, { "id": 607, "key": "-51-antioch-siege", "name": "Antioch (siege)", "year": -51, "month": 10, "day": null, "date": "Autumn 51 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Parthian War of 51-50 BCE", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "Antioch on the Orontes, and the ambush of the retreating Parthians near Antigonea", "lat": 36.2, "lon": 36.16, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Parthia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Cassius Longinus", "commanders_b": "Pacorus, Osaces", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Parthia", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The two weak legions of Syria, formed from the survivors of Carrhae, with local levies; Cassius held Antioch and ambushed the Parthians on their retreat, mortally wounding Osaces.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legionaries with Syrian levies from a Greek-speaking province.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 40.28-29; Cicero Att. 5.20-21, Fam. 2.10; en.wikipedia Siege of Antioch (51 BC)", "note": "The ambush near Antigonea is sometimes counted as a separate battle." }, { "id": 608, "key": "-51-pindenissus-siege", "name": "Pindenissus (siege)", "year": -51, "month": 10, "day": null, "date": "October-17 December 51 BCE (57 days)", "type": "land", "war": "Cicero's Cilician campaign", "theatre": "Cilicia (Mount Amanus)", "place": "Pindenissus, hill town of the free Cilicians in the Amanus range", "lat": 37.1, "lon": 36.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Cilician tribes" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Tullius Cicero, Quintus Tullius Cicero, Gaius Pomptinus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A provincial siege known from Cicero's letters.", "main_enemy": "Cilician tribes", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "Cicero's provincial army of two understrength legions with auxiliary infantry and cavalry; the town fell to towers, a terrace and archers after 57 days.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Cilician legions had long served in the East and Cicero raised auxiliaries locally, from a Greek-speaking province.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cicero Att. 5.20, Fam. 15.4; Plutarch Cicero 36", "note": "The Eleutherocilices (free Cilicians). It surrendered on the morning of the Saturnalia; Cicero had earlier taken forts on Mount Amanus and been hailed imperator." }, { "id": 609, "key": "-51-bellovaci", "name": "Bellovaci", "year": -51, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Spring or summer 51 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul (Belgica)", "place": "Country of the Bellovaci, near the Bellovacian camp on a hill by the Aisne-Oise woods (forest of Compiegne)", "lat": 49.38, "lon": 2.9, "loc": "region", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "Correus, Commius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A campaign with an ambush-battle, not usually given a battle name.", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Four legions (VII, VIII, IX and XI), with Remi and Lingones cavalry and German horse; Correus' ambush of the foragers was turned and he was killed.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions of Caesar's Gallic army with Gallic and German cavalry.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BG 8.6-22 (Hirtius); Cassius Dio 40.43", "note": "Bellovaci with Atrebates, Ambiani, Aulerci, Caleti and Veliocasses." }, { "id": 610, "key": "-51-lemonum-siege", "name": "Lemonum (siege)", "year": -51, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "51 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Lemonum (Poitiers), town of the Pictones", "lat": 46.58, "lon": 0.34, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Caninius Rebilus, Gaius Fabius", "commanders_b": "Dumnacus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Two understrength legions under Caninius, whose camp Dumnacus attacked for several days, then 25 cohorts under Fabius; Dumnacus raised the siege.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions of Caesar's Gallic army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BG 8.26-27 (Hirtius); historyofwar.org Gallic War", "note": "Andes under Dumnacus besieged the pro-Roman Pictonian Duratius in Lemonum (also spelled Limonum)." }, { "id": 611, "key": "-51-loire", "name": "Loire", "year": -51, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "51 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Near a bridge over the Loire, in the country of the Andes (perhaps Les Ponts-de-Ce)", "lat": 47.42, "lon": -0.53, "loc": "region", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Fabius", "commanders_b": "Dumnacus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Not usually given a battle name.", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Fabius' cavalry caught Dumnacus' column and held it until the legions came up; Hirtius reports 12,000 Gauls killed.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions of Caesar's Gallic army with Gallic cavalry.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BG 8.27-29 (Hirtius)", "note": "Andes; the pursuit after Lemonum." }, { "id": 612, "key": "-51-uxellodunum-siege", "name": "Uxellodunum (siege)", "year": -51, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Late summer 51 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Wars", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Uxellodunum, probably the Puy d'Issolud, Lot", "lat": 44.95, "lon": 1.68, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Caninius Rebilus, Gaius Fabius, Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "Drappes, Lucterius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Two legions under Caninius and 25 cohorts under Fabius, then Caesar with his cavalry; the spring was cut by mining.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions of Caesar's Gallic army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Caesar BG 8.32-44 (Hirtius); en.wikipedia Siege of Uxellodunum", "note": "Cadurci and Senones. Caesar had the hands of the defenders cut off." }, { "id": 613, "key": "-49-corfinium-siege", "name": "Corfinium (siege)", "year": -49, "month": 2, "day": 15, "date": "15-21 February 49 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war", "theatre": "Italy", "place": "Corfinium (Corfinio), town of the Paeligni, Abruzzo", "lat": 42.12, "lon": 13.84, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "Pompeians", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar, Mark Antony, Gaius Scribonius Curio", "commanders_b": "Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, Publius Cornelius Lentulus Spinther", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Little fighting: a skirmish for the bridge three miles out, then encirclement and surrender.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Caesar: legions XIII and XII, then VIII, 22 new cohorts from Gaul and 300 Norican horse; Domitius: 33 cohorts (about 16,000) of fresh levies from the Marsi, Paeligni and Picenum.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were raised in Italy and Cisalpine Gaul.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Caesar BC 1.15-23; Appian BC 2.38; Plutarch Caesar 34; en.wikipedia Siege of Corfinium", "note": "Domitius' cohorts went over to Caesar." }, { "id": 614, "key": "-49-brundisium-siege", "name": "Brundisium (siege)", "year": -49, "month": 3, "day": 9, "date": "9-18 March 49 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war", "theatre": "Italy", "place": "Brundisium (Brindisi) and its harbour mouth", "lat": 40.64, "lon": 17.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "Pompeians", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar, Mark Antony, Gaius Caninius Rebilus", "commanders_b": "Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, Lucius Scribonius Libo", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Mostly missile exchanges at the harbour works; Pompey evacuated by sea.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Caesar: six legions (VIII, XII, XIII and three new); Pompey: about twenty cohorts in the town, with transports fitted with towers against Caesar's harbour moles.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were Italian levies and Caesar's Gallic veterans.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BC 1.24-28; Plutarch Pompey 62; en.wikipedia Siege of Brundisium", "note": "Caesar took the town and two ships, but Pompey's army escaped to Dyrrachium." }, { "id": 615, "key": "-49-massilia-siege", "name": "Massilia (siege)", "year": -49, "month": 4, "day": 19, "date": "19 April - September 49 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Massilia (Marseille)", "lat": 43.3, "lon": 5.37, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Greek cities", "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Gauls" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "Pompeians (with Massilia)", "commanders_a": "Gaius Trebonius, Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Caesar: three legions under Trebonius (about 15,000) with siege terraces and towers, and twelve warships built at Arelate; Pompeian: Domitius with his tenants and slaves from Igilium and Cosa, beside the Massiliot citizens and Albici highlanders.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman forces on both sides were Latin-speaking; the Greeks were the Massiliot defenders, counted as the enemy.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Caesar BC 1.34-36, 2.1-16, 2.22; Cassius Dio 41.19, 41.25; Lucan 3.298-762; en.wikipedia Siege of Massilia", "note": "Greek city: Massilia, a principal belligerent with Domitius' Pompeians; allies the Albici. Domitius escaped; the city lost most of its territory." }, { "id": 616, "key": "-49-ilerda", "name": "Ilerda", "year": -49, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June - 2 August 49 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Ilerda (Lleida) on the Sicoris (Segre), and the retreat towards the Ebro", "lat": 41.62, "lon": 0.62, "loc": "known", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "Pompeians", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar, Gaius Fabius", "commanders_b": "Lucius Afranius, Marcus Petreius", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Caesar: six legions (VI, VII, IX, X, XI, XIV) with 5,000 auxiliary infantry and 3,000 Gallic cavalry, later 6,000 more Gauls; Pompeians: five legions with about 80 cohorts of Spanish auxiliaries (scutati and caetrati) and 5,000 cavalry.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "other" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian and Spanish legions, Gallic cavalry and Iberian-speaking auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Caesar BC 1.37-87; Appian BC 2.42; Cassius Dio 41.20-23; en.wikipedia Battle of Ilerda", "note": "A campaign of manoeuvre; the Pompeian army, cut off from water, surrendered (2 August in the Fasti). 'other' = Iberian." }, { "id": 617, "key": "-49-massilia-sea", "name": "Massilia (sea)", "year": -49, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "Late June 49 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Caesar's civil war", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Off Massilia, near the islands in front of the harbour", "lat": 43.27, "lon": 5.3, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Greek cities", "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Gauls" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "Pompeians (with Massilia)", "commanders_a": "Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus", "commanders_b": "Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Brutus' twelve warships built at Arelate, manned with picked legionaries and centurions; against 17 Massiliot warships carrying Albici and Domitius' men.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "unknown", "greek_basis": "unknown", "greek_note": "The rowers of Brutus' new fleet are not described; the fighting men were legionaries.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BC 1.56-58; en.wikipedia Siege of Massilia", "note": "Greek city: Massilia. The Massiliots lost nine ships." }, { "id": 618, "key": "-49-tauroento-sea", "name": "Tauroento (sea)", "year": -49, "month": 7, "day": 31, "date": "31 July 49 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Caesar's civil war", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Off Tauroentum (Le Brusc), east of Massilia", "lat": 43.08, "lon": 5.79, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome", "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "Pompeians (with Massilia)", "commanders_a": "Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus", "commanders_b": "Lucius Nasidius", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Brutus' 18 ships (12 built at Arelate and 6 taken from Massilia), with legionaries aboard; against Nasidius' Pompeian squadron of 16-17 ships and 17 Massiliot ships.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "unknown", "greek_basis": "unknown", "greek_note": "The crews of Nasidius' squadron, raised in Italy and Sicily, are not described.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BC 2.3-7; en.wikipedia Battle of Tauroento", "note": "Greek city: Massilia. The Massiliots lost nine ships (five sunk, four taken); Nasidius withdrew to Spain. The Massilia article puts it in early September." }, { "id": 619, "key": "-49-bagradas", "name": "Bagradas", "year": -49, "month": 8, "day": 24, "date": "24 August 49 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "The plain of the Bagradas (Medjerda) near Utica", "lat": 37.0, "lon": 10.0, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Numidia" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "Caesar", "commanders_a": "Saburra, Juba I", "commanders_b": "Gaius Scribonius Curio", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Fought in Caesar's civil war against the Pompeians' ally Juba, but no Pompeian Roman force took part, so not counted as civil.", "main_enemy": "Numidia", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Most of Curio's two legions (five cohorts left in camp) and his few hundred cavalry; nearly all were killed with Curio.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legionaries and Gallic horse.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Caesar BC 2.37-44; Appian BC 2.45-46; Cassius Dio 41.42; en.wikipedia Battle of the Bagradas River (49 BC)", "note": "Juba's army included his guard of 2,000 Spanish and Gallic horsemen." }, { "id": 620, "key": "-49-utica", "name": "Utica", "year": -49, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August 49 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "Before the Pompeian camp at Utica", "lat": 37.06, "lon": 10.06, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Numidia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "Pompeians", "commanders_a": "Gaius Scribonius Curio, Gaius Caninius Rebilus", "commanders_b": "Publius Attius Varus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Curio: two legions (Domitius' former cohorts from Corfinium) and 500 cavalry; Varus: legions raised in Africa, with Numidian horse and light infantry sent by Juba.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian and African-Roman legions with Numidian allies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BC 2.23-36; en.wikipedia Battle of Utica (49 BC)", "note": "Varus' men fled into the town." }, { "id": 621, "key": "-49-curicta-siege", "name": "Curicta (siege)", "year": -49, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Summer 49 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war", "theatre": "Illyricum", "place": "The island of Curicta (Krk) and the strait off the Illyrian coast", "lat": 45.05, "lon": 14.57, "loc": "approx", "country": "Croatia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Pompeians", "faction_b": "Caesar", "commanders_a": "Marcus Octavius, Lucius Scribonius Libo", "commanders_b": "Gaius Antonius, Publius Cornelius Dolabella", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Caesarians: Gaius Antonius' fifteen cohorts on the island and Dolabella's fleet, defeated at sea; Pompeians: the squadrons of Octavius and Libo. One Opitergian cohort under Vulteius fought to the death on rafts.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Octavius and Libo commanded Pompey's Liburnian and Achaean squadrons (Caesar BC 3.5); the Achaean ships were Greek-manned.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 41.40; Florus 2.13.31-33; Lucan 4.402-581; Livy Periochae 110; Orosius 6.15.8; en.wikipedia Siege of Curicta", "note": "A naval defeat followed by the blockade of Antonius' army, which surrendered. Combined land and sea action." }, { "id": 622, "key": "-49-salona-siege", "name": "Salona (siege)", "year": -49, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Late 49 - early 48 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war", "theatre": "Illyricum", "place": "Salona (Solin), near Split", "lat": 43.54, "lon": 16.48, "loc": "known", "country": "Croatia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Illyrians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "Pompeians", "commanders_a": "the Roman citizens of Salona", "commanders_b": "Marcus Octavius", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Caesarians: the community of Roman citizens of Salona, who armed their freed slaves and stormed Octavius' five camps in turn; Pompeians: Octavius' squadron and troops with Dalmatian allies.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Octavius' squadron included Pompey's Achaean ships (Caesar BC 3.5).", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BC 3.9; en.wikipedia Siege of Salona; historyofwar.org Siege of Salonae", "note": "Octavius withdrew to Pompey at Dyrrachium. historyofwar dates it to 49 BCE; Caesar tells it at the opening of 48." }, { "id": 623, "key": "-48-dyrrhachium", "name": "Dyrrhachium", "year": -48, "month": 7, "day": 10, "date": "April - July 48 BCE (main battle about 10 July)", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war", "theatre": "Greece (Epirus)", "place": "The lines of Petra south of Dyrrachium (Durres)", "lat": 41.32, "lon": 19.45, "loc": "approx", "country": "Albania", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Pompeians", "faction_b": "Caesar", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, Titus Labienus", "commanders_b": "Gaius Julius Caesar, Mark Antony, Publius Cornelius Sulla", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Pompey: nine citizen legions (five from Italy, one of Cilician veterans, one from Crete and Macedonia, two raised in Asia), filled with recruits from Thessaly, Boeotia, Achaea and Epirus, about 7,000 cavalry and allied archers and slingers; Caesar: seven, then eleven understrength legions with Gallic and German cavalry.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Caesar says Pompey filled his legions with men of Thessaly, Boeotia, Achaea and Epirus and raised two legions in Asia; his archers came from Crete, Lacedaemon and Pontus (BC 3.4). Share given for both armies together.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Caesar BC 3.41-72; Appian BC 2.60-62; Plutarch Caesar 39; en.wikipedia Battle of Dyrrhachium (48 BC)", "note": "Pompey broke Caesar's lines of circumvallation; Caesar withdrew to Thessaly." }, { "id": 624, "key": "-48-gomphi-siege", "name": "Gomphi (siege)", "year": -48, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "Late July 48 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war", "theatre": "Greece (Thessaly)", "place": "Gomphi, Thessaly (near Mouzaki)", "lat": 39.43, "lon": 21.66, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "Androsthenes (praetor of the Thessalians)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Greek cities", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Caesar's army after Dyrrhachium (nine much-reduced legions with Gallic and German cavalry) stormed the walls between mid-afternoon and sunset.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A few Greek light troops from Aetolia and Acarnania served with Caesar in this campaign.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BC 3.80; Appian BC 2.64; Cassius Dio 41.51; en.wikipedia Siege of Gomphi", "note": "Greek city: Gomphi, which shut its gates to Caesar on Pompey's side; sacked." }, { "id": 625, "key": "-48-pharsalus", "name": "Pharsalus", "year": -48, "month": 8, "day": 9, "date": "9 August 48 BCE (Republican calendar)", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war", "theatre": "Greece (Thessaly)", "place": "The plain of the Enipeus near Palaepharsalus, Thessaly", "lat": 39.41, "lon": 22.28, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Galatians", "Cappadocia", "Thracians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "Pompeians", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar, Mark Antony, Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus, Publius Cornelius Sulla", "commanders_b": "Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, Metellus Scipio, Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, Titus Labienus, Lucius Afranius", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Caesar: eight understrength legions (VI-XIII, about 22,000), 1,000 Gallic and German cavalry and Greek light troops from Aetolia, Acarnania and Dolopia; Pompey: eleven legions (45,000 by Caesar's count) filled with Greek recruits, 7,000 cavalry (many from Galatia, Cappadocia, Thrace and Macedonia) and archers and slingers from Crete, Sparta, Pontus and Syria.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Pompey's legions included two raised in Asia and were made up with men from Thessaly, Boeotia, Achaea and Epirus (Caesar BC 3.4); Caesar had Greek light infantry. Share given for both armies together.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 3, "sources": "Caesar BC 3.82-99; Plutarch Pompey 68-72, Caesar 42-46; Appian BC 2.68-82; en.wikipedia Battle of Pharsalus", "note": "The Republican date corresponds to about June 48 BCE in the Julian reckoning. Allied kings: Deiotarus (Galatia), Ariobarzanes (Cappadocia), Sadala (Thrace) and others." }, { "id": 626, "key": "-48-messana-and-vibo-sea", "name": "Messana and Vibo (sea)", "year": -48, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August 48 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Caesar's civil war", "theatre": "Sicily and Bruttium", "place": "The harbours of Messana (Messina) and Vibo (Vibo Valentia)", "lat": 38.19, "lon": 15.56, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Pompeians", "faction_b": "Caesar", "commanders_a": "Gaius Cassius Longinus", "commanders_b": "Marcus Pomponius, Publius Sulpicius Rufus", "outcome": "draw", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Two fireship raids on fleets at anchor; not usually named as a battle.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Pompeian: Cassius' fleet of Syrian, Phoenician and Cilician ships with fireships; Caesarian: Pomponius' 35 ships at Messana and Sulpicius' ships at Vibo, defended by convalescent veterans who manned ships and counter-attacked.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Cassius' squadron was the Syrian, Phoenician and Cilician fleet (Caesar BC 3.5, 3.101). Share given for both sides together.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Caesar BC 3.101", "note": "Cassius burned 35 ships at Messana and 5 at Vibo, but at Vibo the veterans took two of his ships, his own among them; news of Pharsalus ended the raid." }, { "id": 627, "key": "-48-nicopolis", "name": "Nicopolis", "year": -48, "month": 12, "day": null, "date": "December 48 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war (war with Pharnaces II)", "theatre": "Asia Minor (Lesser Armenia)", "place": "Near Nicopolis (Koyulhisar), Lesser Armenia", "lat": 40.3, "lon": 37.83, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Pontus", "Bosporan Kingdom" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Galatians", "Cappadocia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "Caesar", "commanders_a": "Pharnaces II", "commanders_b": "Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Legio XXXVI (former Pompeians), a legion of raw recruits levied in Pontus, and two Galatian legions of King Deiotarus armed in the Roman fashion, with Galatian and Cappadocian cavalry.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The Pontic legion was levied in the Greek-speaking province of Pontus (Bellum Alexandrinum 34).", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Bellum Alexandrinum 34-40; Cassius Dio 42.46; en.wikipedia Battle of Nicopolis (48 BC)", "note": "Pharnaces II, king of the Bosporus, invading his father's kingdom of Pontus." }, { "id": 628, "key": "-48-alexandria-siege", "name": "Alexandria (siege)", "year": -48, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Late 48 BCE - March 47 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war (Alexandrian War)", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "The palace quarter, harbours and island of Pharos at Alexandria", "lat": 31.2, "lon": 29.92, "loc": "known", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ptolemies" ], "allies_a": [ "Rhodes" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "Achillas, Ganymedes, Arsinoe IV, Ptolemy XIII", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ptolemies", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Legio VI and Legio XXVII, 3,200 infantry and 800 Gallic and German cavalry, later Legio XXXVII (former Pompeians) and warships from Rhodes, Pontus, Lycia and Asia.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The fleet was Rhodian, Pontic, Lycian and Asian (Bellum Alexandrinum 13), manned by Greek-speakers.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Caesar BC 3.106-112; Bellum Alexandrinum 1-33; Plutarch Caesar 48-49; Cassius Dio 42.7-43; en.wikipedia Siege of Alexandria (47 BC)", "note": "Achillas' army included the Gabiniani, Roman soldiers left in Egypt in 55 BCE with Gallic and German horse; Romans in foreign service, so not counted as civil." }, { "id": 629, "key": "-48-synodium", "name": "Synodium", "year": -48, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Winter 48/47 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war (Illyricum)", "theatre": "Illyricum", "place": "A defile in inland Dalmatia, on Gabinius' march to Salona", "lat": 43.8, "lon": 16.3, "loc": "region", "country": "Croatia", "side_a": [ "Illyrians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "Caesar", "commanders_a": "", "commanders_b": "Aulus Gabinius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The place-name comes from Appian's account of Octavian's later campaign.", "main_enemy": "Illyrians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Fifteen cohorts of new recruits raised in Italy and 3,000 cavalry; Gabinius lost over 2,000 men, 38 centurions and 4 tribunes.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "New Italian levies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Bellum Alexandrinum 42-43; Appian Illyrica 12, 25", "note": "Dalmatae. Gabinius died at Salona soon after." }, { "id": 630, "key": "-47-tauris-sea", "name": "Tauris (sea)", "year": -47, "month": 3, "day": null, "date": "Early 47 BCE (March)", "type": "sea", "war": "Caesar's civil war (Illyricum)", "theatre": "Illyricum", "place": "Off the island of Tauris, probably Sipan, near Epidaurum (Cavtat)", "lat": 42.72, "lon": 17.87, "loc": "approx", "country": "Croatia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "Pompeians", "commanders_a": "Publius Vatinius", "commanders_b": "Marcus Octavius", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Vatinius' improvised fleet of light ships and one quinquereme from Brundisium, carrying veteran legionaries who boarded the enemy; Octavius' larger Pompeian squadron.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "unknown", "greek_basis": "unknown", "greek_note": "The crews of both squadrons are not described.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Bellum Alexandrinum 44-47; Cassius Dio 42.11; en.wikipedia Battle of Tauris", "note": "Octavius' flagship sank and he escaped to Africa." }, { "id": 631, "key": "-47-zela", "name": "Zela", "year": -47, "month": 8, "day": 2, "date": "2 August 47 BCE (Republican calendar)", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war (war with Pharnaces II)", "theatre": "Asia Minor (Pontus)", "place": "The hill near Zela (Zile), Pontus", "lat": 40.3, "lon": 35.89, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pontus" ], "allies_a": [ "Galatians" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "Pharnaces II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pontus", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Legio VI (under 1,000 veterans), Legio XXXVI, Deiotarus' Galatian legion (later XXII Deiotariana) and the Pontic legion from Domitius' army, with a small cavalry force: about 15,000.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The Pontic legion levied for Domitius fought in the line (Bellum Alexandrinum 69, 76).", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Bellum Alexandrinum 69-77; Plutarch Caesar 50; Suetonius Caesar 35, 37; Appian BC 2.91; en.wikipedia Battle of Zela", "note": "'Veni, vidi, vici'. The Fasti give 2 August, the anniversary of Ilerda." }, { "id": 632, "key": "-47-chersonesus", "name": "Chersonesus", "year": -47, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Winter 48/47 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Caesar's civil war (Alexandrian War)", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "Off Chersonesus, on the coast west of Alexandria", "lat": 31.11, "lon": 29.76, "loc": "approx", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ptolemies" ], "allies_a": [ "Rhodes" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A small sea fight, not separately named in standard works; the ancient Greek battles set names it Chersonesus.", "main_enemy": "Ptolemies", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Caesar's fleet of Rhodian, Pontic, Lycian and Asian warships, sailing without embarked soldiers to meet the transports of Legio XXXVII; a single Rhodian ship bore the brunt of the fight (Bellum Alexandrinum 9-11).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The ship that fought was Rhodian and the whole squadron came from Rhodes, Pontus, Lycia and Asia; Caesar had no legionaries aboard.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Bellum Alexandrinum 9-11 (classics.mit.edu translation)", "note": "The Alexandrians lost one ship taken, one sunk and a third disabled; Caesar lost none and towed the legion's transports to Alexandria." }, { "id": 633, "key": "-47-pharos", "name": "Pharos", "year": -47, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Winter 48/47 BCE (the day before the fight on the Heptastadion)", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war (Alexandrian War)", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "The island and town of Pharos, Alexandria", "lat": 31.21, "lon": 29.88, "loc": "known", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ptolemies" ], "allies_a": [ "Rhodes" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "Ganymedes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A distinct amphibious action inside the siege of Alexandria; not separately named in most modern works (the ancient Greek battles set names it Pharos).", "main_enemy": "Ptolemies", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Ten cohorts, picked light troops and Gallic cavalry landed from small boats while the fleet attacked the island from the sea; about 600 defenders were taken (Bellum Alexandrinum 17-19).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The landing force was legionary and Gallic, but the fleet that attacked from the sea was manned by Rhodians, Pontians, Lycians and Asian Greeks.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Bellum Alexandrinum 17-19; en.wikipedia Siege of Alexandria (47 BC)", "note": "Caesar kept Pharos after his defeat on the mole the next day (entered as Heptastadion)." }, { "id": 634, "key": "-47-canopus", "name": "Canopus", "year": -47, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Early 47 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Caesar's civil war (Alexandrian War)", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "Off Canopus (Abu Qir), east of Alexandria", "lat": 31.33, "lon": 30.07, "loc": "approx", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ptolemies" ], "allies_a": [ "Rhodes" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tiberius Claudius Nero, Euphranor of Rhodes (killed)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A small sea fight not separately named in standard works; the ancient Greek battles set names it Canopus.", "main_enemy": "Ptolemies", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Caesar's squadron under Tiberius Claudius Nero, with the Rhodian ships under Euphranor, sent to cover the supply convoys that the Alexandrian fleet at Canopus threatened (Bellum Alexandrinum 25).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The Rhodian ships led the fight, and Caesar's fleet was drawn from Rhodes, Pontus, Lycia and Asia.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Bellum Alexandrinum 25; Suetonius Tiberius 4", "note": "Euphranor pursued too far, was surrounded without support and died with his ship; the Bellum gives no overall result, so scored as indecisive (the ancient Greek battles set scores a Roman victory)." }, { "id": 635, "key": "-47-alexandria-harbour-sea", "name": "Alexandria harbour (sea)", "year": -47, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Early 47 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Caesar's civil war (Alexandrian War)", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "The shoals and channel between Pharos and the Eunostos harbour, Alexandria", "lat": 31.21, "lon": 29.87, "loc": "approx", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ptolemies" ], "allies_a": [ "Rhodes" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar, Euphranor of Rhodes", "commanders_b": "Ganymedes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A distinct naval battle within the siege, not separately named in standard works.", "main_enemy": "Ptolemies", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Caesar's fleet of 9 Rhodian, 8 Pontic, 5 Lycian and 12 Asian warships, Euphranor's Rhodians leading, with legionaries on board.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "All the warships came from Rhodes and the Greek-speaking provinces of Asia, Lycia and Pontus (Bellum Alexandrinum 13).", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Bellum Alexandrinum 12-16; en.wikipedia Siege of Alexandria (47 BC)", "note": "Two Egyptian ships captured and three sunk, with no loss to Caesar. Euphranor was killed later in a second sea fight off Canopus (entered as Canopus); an earlier small fight off Chersonesus is entered as Chersonesus." }, { "id": 636, "key": "-47-heptastadion", "name": "Heptastadion", "year": -47, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Early 47 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war (Alexandrian War)", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "The Heptastadion mole between Pharos and the city, Alexandria", "lat": 31.21, "lon": 29.89, "loc": "known", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Ptolemies" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Rhodes" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "Caesar", "commanders_a": "Ganymedes", "commanders_b": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A distinct battle within the siege, not separately named in standard works.", "main_enemy": "Ptolemies", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Three cohorts on the mole, with rowers and sailors from the fleet, broke when Alexandrians landed behind them; Caesar lost about 400 legionaries and as many seamen, and swam to safety (Bellum Alexandrinum 19-21).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The sailors and rowers of the Rhodian and Asian fleet fought and died beside the legionaries (Bellum Alexandrinum 20-21).", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Bellum Alexandrinum 19-21; Plutarch Caesar 49; Suetonius Caesar 64; Cassius Dio 42.40; en.wikipedia Siege of Alexandria (47 BC)", "note": "The fight for the mole on the day after the capture of Pharos (entered separately as Pharos); Caesar kept Pharos." }, { "id": 637, "key": "-47-nile", "name": "Nile", "year": -47, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Early 47 BCE (February or March)", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war (Alexandrian War)", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "The Ptolemaic camp by a branch of the Nile in the western Delta", "lat": 30.9, "lon": 31.12, "loc": "approx", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ptolemies" ], "allies_a": [ "Pergamon", "Judea" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar, Mithridates of Pergamon, Antipater", "commanders_b": "Ptolemy XIII", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ptolemies", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Caesar's legions (VI, XXVII, XXXVII) and his Gallic and German cavalry, joined with the relief army of Mithridates of Pergamon (raised in Syria and Cilicia) and Antipater's Jewish troops, about 20,000 in all.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Greek- and Aramaic-speaking troops were the allied army of Mithridates; Caesar's own force was Latin-speaking with Gallic and German cavalry.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Bellum Alexandrinum 26-32; Josephus AJ 14.127-136; Cassius Dio 42.43; en.wikipedia Battle of the Nile (47 BC)", "note": "Ptolemy XIII drowned in the flight. Wikipedia gives February 47 BCE; Alexandria was recovered on 27 March by the Fasti." }, { "id": 638, "key": "-46-ruspina", "name": "Ruspina", "year": -46, "month": 1, "day": 4, "date": "4 January 46 BCE (Republican calendar)", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war (African campaign)", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "The plain near Ruspina (Monastir)", "lat": 35.77, "lon": 10.82, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Pompeians", "faction_b": "Caesar", "commanders_a": "Titus Labienus, Marcus Petreius, Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso", "commanders_b": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Caesar: 30 cohorts of recently landed legionaries, 400 cavalry and 150 archers; Labienus: about 8,000 Numidian horse, 1,600 Gallic and German cavalry and many light infantry, joined by Petreius and Piso with 1,600 more cavalry.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Berber", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legionaries, Gallic and German cavalry and Numidian allies.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Bellum Africum 11-18; Cassius Dio 43.2; en.wikipedia Battle of Ruspina", "note": "Caesar, surrounded, broke out and regained his camp; Wikipedia counts a Pompeian victory, others call it indecisive. About October 47 BCE in the Julian reckoning." }, { "id": 639, "key": "-46-uzitta", "name": "Uzitta", "year": -46, "month": 2, "day": null, "date": "January - March 46 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war (African campaign)", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "The ridges and plain round Uzitta, west of Ruspina", "lat": 35.7, "lon": 10.62, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Numidia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "Pompeians", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "Metellus Scipio, Titus Labienus, Juba I", "outcome": "draw", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A series of skirmishes, cavalry fights and set-piece stand-offs rather than one battle.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Caesar: his army growing to about eight legions, with Gallic and German cavalry and Gaetulian deserters; Scipio: ten Roman legions raised largely in Africa, Labienus' cavalry, and Juba's Numidians and elephants.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Berber", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian and African-Roman legions with Numidian, Gaetulian, Gallic and German horse.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Bellum Africum 37-66", "note": "" }, { "id": 640, "key": "-46-thapsus", "name": "Thapsus", "year": -46, "month": 4, "day": 6, "date": "6 April 46 BCE (Republican calendar)", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war (African campaign)", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "The isthmus near Thapsus (Ras Dimas)", "lat": 35.62, "lon": 11.05, "loc": "known", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Numidia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "Pompeians", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "Metellus Scipio, Lucius Afranius, Marcus Petreius, Titus Labienus, Juba I", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Caesar: ten or more legions (veteran V, VII-X, XIII, XIV and new XXV-XXX) with Gallic, German and Gaetulian cavalry; Scipio: eight legions (many raised in Africa), large cavalry and light infantry forces, Juba's Numidians and 60 elephants.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Berber", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian and African-Roman legions with Numidian, Gallic and German allies.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Bellum Africum 79-86; Plutarch Caesar 53; Appian BC 2.97; Cassius Dio 43.7-9; en.wikipedia Battle of Thapsus", "note": "About 7 February 46 BCE in the Julian reckoning. Caesar's veterans massacred surrendering Pompeians." }, { "id": 641, "key": "-46-hippo-regius-sea", "name": "Hippo Regius (sea)", "year": -46, "month": 4, "day": null, "date": "April 46 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Caesar's civil war (African campaign)", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "Off Hippo Regius (Annaba)", "lat": 36.88, "lon": 7.75, "loc": "approx", "country": "Algeria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Mauretania" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "Pompeians", "commanders_a": "Publius Sittius", "commanders_b": "Metellus Scipio", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Publius Sittius' ships were manned by his private army of Italian and Spanish soldiers serving King Bocchus II; they fought for Caesar's side, so coded as a Caesarian Roman force (civil).", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Publius Sittius' larger ships, manned by his band of Italian and Spanish soldiers in the service of Bocchus II; Scipio's few small ships carrying the fleeing Pompeian leaders.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Sittius' mercenaries were Italians and Spaniards.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Bellum Africum 96; Livy Periochae 114; en.wikipedia Battle of Hippo Regius", "note": "Scipio killed himself." }, { "id": 642, "key": "-46-ulia-siege", "name": "Ulia (siege)", "year": -46, "month": 12, "day": null, "date": "December 46 - January 45 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war (Spanish campaign)", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Ulia (Montemayor), Baetica", "lat": 37.65, "lon": -4.7, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "Pompeians", "commanders_a": "Lucius Vibius Paciaecus", "commanders_b": "Gnaeus Pompeius (the younger)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege raised largely by manoeuvre after a night break-in.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "The Caesarian town and a relief of cohorts and cavalry under Paciaecus, which broke through the siege lines in a storm; the Pompeian besiegers (Roman and Spanish legions).", "languages": [ "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman and Hispano-Roman troops of Baetica.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Bellum Hispaniense 3-4; Cassius Dio 43.31-32; en.wikipedia Battle of Munda (background)", "note": "Gnaeus lifted the siege when Caesar marched on Corduba." }, { "id": 643, "key": "-46-carteia-sea", "name": "Carteia (sea)", "year": -46, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Late 46 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Caesar's civil war (Spanish campaign)", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Off Carteia, Bay of Algeciras", "lat": 36.18, "lon": -5.4, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "Pompeians", "commanders_a": "Gaius Didius", "commanders_b": "Publius Attius Varus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Didius' small fleet brought from Sardinia; Varus' Pompeian fleet escaped from Africa.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "unknown", "greek_basis": "unknown", "greek_note": "The crews are not described.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio, book 43; en.wikipedia Battle of Carteia (46 BC); historyofwar.org Battle of Carteia", "note": "Wikipedia dates it 46 BCE; some put it early in 45 BCE." }, { "id": 644, "key": "-45-corduba-january-45-bc", "name": "Corduba (January 45 BC)", "year": -45, "month": 1, "day": null, "date": "January 45 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war (Spanish campaign)", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "The bridges over the Baetis at Corduba (Cordoba)", "lat": 37.88, "lon": -4.78, "loc": "known", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Pompeians", "faction_b": "Caesar", "commanders_a": "Sextus Pompeius, Gnaeus Pompeius (the younger)", "commanders_b": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A failed attempt on the town with heavy bridge fighting.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Caesar's army of about eight legions with Spanish and Gallic cavalry, fighting for a temporary bridge; Sextus' garrison and Gnaeus' relieving army.", "languages": [ "Latin", "other", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions and Hispano-Roman and Iberian troops.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Bellum Hispaniense 4-6; Cassius Dio 43.32; en.wikipedia Battle of Munda (background)", "note": "Caesar broke off and turned to Ategua." }, { "id": 645, "key": "-45-ategua-siege", "name": "Ategua (siege)", "year": -45, "month": 1, "day": null, "date": "January - 19 February 45 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war (Spanish campaign)", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Ategua (Teba la Vieja, near Santa Cruz, Cordoba)", "lat": 37.79, "lon": -4.62, "loc": "known", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "Pompeians", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "Munatius Flaccus (garrison), Gnaeus Pompeius (the younger)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Caesar's army with siege works and towers against the Pompeian garrison, with Gnaeus' army failing to relieve it; sorties and assaults throughout.", "languages": [ "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions and Hispano-Roman troops.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Bellum Hispaniense 6-19; Cassius Dio 43.33-34", "note": "The town surrendered on 19 February 45 BCE after the garrison massacred Caesar's partisans." }, { "id": 646, "key": "-45-soricaria", "name": "Soricaria", "year": -45, "month": 3, "day": 7, "date": "March 45 BCE (about 7 March)", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war (Spanish campaign)", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Near Soricaria, between Ucubi and Aspavia (Baetica)", "lat": 37.65, "lon": -4.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "Pompeians", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "Gnaeus Pompeius (the younger)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A skirmish before Munda.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Caesar's legions and cavalry against part of Gnaeus' army (Roman and Spanish legions).", "languages": [ "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian and Hispano-Roman troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Bellum Hispaniense 24-27; en.wikipedia Battle of Munda (background)", "note": "" }, { "id": 647, "key": "-45-munda", "name": "Munda", "year": -45, "month": 3, "day": 17, "date": "17 March 45 BCE (Republican calendar)", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war (Spanish campaign)", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "The plain below Munda, probably near La Lantejuela or Osuna, Andalusia", "lat": 37.35, "lon": -5.22, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Mauretania" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "Pompeians", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar, Quintus Fabius Maximus, Quintus Pedius, Bogud of Mauretania", "commanders_b": "Gnaeus Pompeius (the younger), Titus Labienus, Publius Attius Varus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Caesar: eight legions (II, III, V, VI, X, XXI, XXVIII, XXX), about 8,000 cavalry and Bogud's Mauretanians; Gnaeus Pompeius: thirteen legions (survivors of Thapsus, deserters, legions of Spanish provincials and colonists), 6,000 cavalry and 6,000 light infantry.", "languages": [ "Latin", "other", "Celtic", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian and Hispano-Roman legions with Iberian, Gallic and Mauretanian troops.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Bellum Hispaniense 27-31; Plutarch Caesar 56; Appian BC 2.103-105; Cassius Dio 43.36-40; en.wikipedia Battle of Munda", "note": "The site is disputed (La Lantejuela/Osuna, Montilla, Ronda). Labienus and Varus fell; the town of Munda was then besieged and surrendered." }, { "id": 648, "key": "-45-corduba-march-45-bc", "name": "Corduba (March 45 BC)", "year": -45, "month": 3, "day": null, "date": "March 45 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war (Spanish campaign)", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Corduba (Cordoba)", "lat": 37.88, "lon": -4.78, "loc": "known", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "Pompeians", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "Scapula", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The storming of a town divided between the factions; the Bellum Hispaniense claims 22,000 killed.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Caesar's army after Munda, against Pompeian legionaries, slaves and freedmen who held part of the divided town.", "languages": [ "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian and Hispano-Roman troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Bellum Hispaniense 32-34; Cassius Dio 43.39", "note": "Sextus Pompeius had already fled; Scapula killed himself." }, { "id": 649, "key": "-45-hispalis", "name": "Hispalis", "year": -45, "month": 4, "day": null, "date": "Late March or April 45 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war (Spanish campaign)", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Hispalis (Seville)", "lat": 37.39, "lon": -5.99, "loc": "known", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Lusitanians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "Pompeians", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Caesar", "commanders_b": "Philo, Caecilius Niger", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A small siege and ambush.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Caesar's army, which let a Lusitanian force that had seized the town by night sally out and then destroyed it.", "languages": [ "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions; the enemy were Pompeian partisans and Lusitanians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Bellum Hispaniense 35-36; Cassius Dio 43.39", "note": "" }, { "id": 650, "key": "-45-lauro", "name": "Lauro", "year": -45, "month": 4, "day": null, "date": "Early April 45 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war (Spanish campaign)", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Near Lauro in Hispania Ulterior (possibly Lora de Estepa)", "lat": 37.27, "lon": -4.83, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Lusitanians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caesar", "faction_b": "Pompeians", "commanders_a": "Lucius Caesennius Lento, Gaius Didius", "commanders_b": "Gnaeus Pompeius (the younger)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Caesennius Lento's pursuit force of infantry and cavalry, with Didius' fleet blocking the coast; Gnaeus' remnant of Munda survivors and Lusitanians.", "languages": [ "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions and Hispano-Roman troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Bellum Hispaniense 37-39; Appian BC 2.105; Florus 2.13.86; en.wikipedia Battle of Lauro", "note": "Gnaeus Pompeius was wounded, caught and beheaded; his head was shown at Hispalis on 12 April. The site of Lauro is disputed." }, { "id": 651, "key": "-45-apamea-siege", "name": "Apamea (siege)", "year": -45, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "45-43 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Caesar's civil war (revolt of Caecilius Bassus)", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "Apamea on the Orontes (Qalaat al-Mudiq)", "lat": 35.42, "lon": 36.4, "loc": "known", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Parthia", "Arabs" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Caecilius Bassus", "faction_b": "Caesar", "commanders_a": "Quintus Caecilius Bassus, Pacorus", "commanders_b": "Gaius Antistius Vetus; later Lucius Staius Murcus and Quintus Marcius Crispus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A long blockade with little recorded fighting.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Bassus: the Syrian legion that had murdered Sextus Caesar, with new levies and Arab and Parthian help; besiegers: Antistius Vetus' forces, later six legions under Murcus and Crispus.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Bassus enrolled men in Syria, where the cities were Greek-speaking; the besiegers' legions came from Italy and the East.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 47.26-28; Appian BC 3.77, 4.58; Strabo 16.2.10; Cicero Att. 14.9; en.wikipedia Siege of Apamea", "note": "Pacorus' Parthians and Alchaudonius' Arabs forced Antistius Vetus to lift the first siege; the second ended in 43 BCE when both armies went over to Cassius." }, { "id": 652, "key": "-43-forum-gallorum", "name": "Forum Gallorum", "year": -43, "month": 4, "day": 14, "date": "14 April 43 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "War of Mutina", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "Forum Gallorum, on the Via Aemilia between Bononia and Mutina (near Castelfranco Emilia)", "lat": 44.59, "lon": 11.05, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Senate (Hirtius, Pansa, Octavian)", "faction_b": "Mark Antony", "commanders_a": "Gaius Vibius Pansa (mortally wounded), Aulus Hirtius, Octavian", "commanders_b": "Mark Antony, Marcus Junius Silanus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Senate: Pansa's four legions of recruits with the veteran Legio Martia, Hirtius with the veteran Legio IV and the praetorian cohorts of Hirtius and Octavian; Antony: the veteran legions II and XXXV, praetorian cohorts and a strong cavalry (Galba in Cicero, Ad Fam. 10.30; Appian BC 3.66-70).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were legions raised in Italy and Cisalpine Gaul; Antony's cavalry included Gauls.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Cicero, Ad Fam. 10.30; Appian BC 3.66-70; Cassius Dio 46.37-38; en.wikipedia Battle of Forum Gallorum", "note": "Antony first routed Pansa's column; Hirtius then fell on Antony's tired troops and drove them back to their siege lines, so the day ended as a Senatorial victory." }, { "id": 653, "key": "-43-mutina", "name": "Mutina", "year": -43, "month": 4, "day": 21, "date": "21 April 43 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "War of Mutina", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "Antony's siege camps outside Mutina (Modena)", "lat": 44.65, "lon": 10.93, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Senate (Hirtius, Octavian, Decimus Brutus)", "faction_b": "Mark Antony", "commanders_a": "Aulus Hirtius (killed), Octavian, Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus", "commanders_b": "Mark Antony", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Hirtius and Octavian with the veteran legions IV and Martia and new levies, Decimus Brutus' garrison sallying from the town; Antony held his camps with veteran legions including V Alaudae (Appian BC 3.71-72; Dio 46.38-39).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian and Cisalpine legions on both sides; Antony's Legio V Alaudae had been raised by Caesar in Transalpine Gaul.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Appian BC 3.71-72; Cassius Dio 46.38-39; Suetonius Aug. 10; en.wikipedia Battle of Mutina", "note": "Antony had besieged Decimus Brutus in Mutina since December 44 BCE. The battle itself was nearly even and Hirtius fell in Antony's camp, but Antony lifted the siege on 22 April and retreated west; Pansa died of his Forum Gallorum wounds." }, { "id": 654, "key": "-43-laodicea-siege", "name": "Laodicea (siege)", "year": -43, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring–summer 43 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Liberators' civil war", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "Laodicea ad Mare (Latakia)", "lat": 35.52, "lon": 35.78, "loc": "known", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Liberators (Cassius)", "faction_b": "Dolabella", "commanders_a": "Gaius Cassius Longinus", "commanders_b": "Publius Cornelius Dolabella (suicide)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No separate Wikipedia article; Appian and Dio describe a siege with two sea fights off the harbour.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Cassius had about twelve legions taken over in Syria, among them the four legions Allienus brought from Egypt, and fleets from the Phoenician cities and Cyprus; Dolabella had two legions, the support of the Laodiceans, and ships from Rhodes, Lycia, Pamphylia and Cilicia (Appian BC 4.60-62).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The legions of Syria had been in the East since the 50s BC and filled their ranks locally, and both fleets were crewed from the Greek and Phoenician coastal cities.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian BC 4.60-62; Cassius Dio 47.30; Cicero, Ad Fam. 12.13-15", "note": "Cassius beat Dolabella's fleet twice and the city was betrayed to him; Dolabella had himself killed. The Laodiceans (allies_b) had taken Dolabella's side." }, { "id": 655, "key": "-42-ionian-sea", "name": "Ionian Sea", "year": -42, "month": 10, "day": 3, "date": "3 October 42 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Liberators' civil war", "theatre": "Adriatic and Ionian Sea", "place": "at sea off Brundisium", "lat": 40.7, "lon": 18.1, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Liberators (Murcus, Ahenobarbus)", "faction_b": "Triumvirs (Domitius Calvinus)", "commanders_a": "Lucius Staius Murcus, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus", "commanders_b": "Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Described in the sources as a sea fight on the day of the first battle of Philippi, without its own name.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Liberators: about 130 warships; Triumvirs: transports carrying two legions, among them the Martia, a praetorian cohort and cavalry, with few escorts (Appian BC 4.115-116).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Liberators' fleet had been raised and crewed in the Greek East; the soldiers lost were Italian legionaries.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian BC 4.115-116; Plutarch Brutus 47; en.wikipedia Battle of Philippi", "note": "Most of the convoy and the two legions were destroyed." }, { "id": 656, "key": "-42-philippi-first-battle", "name": "Philippi (first battle)", "year": -42, "month": 10, "day": 3, "date": "3 October 42 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Liberators' civil war", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "plain west of Philippi, on the Via Egnatia", "lat": 41.01, "lon": 24.25, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Thracians" ], "allies_b": [ "Thracians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Triumvirs (Antony, Octavian)", "faction_b": "Liberators (Brutus, Cassius)", "commanders_a": "Mark Antony, Octavian", "commanders_b": "Gaius Cassius Longinus (suicide), Marcus Junius Brutus", "outcome": "draw", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Triumvirs: 19 legions and 13,000 cavalry; Liberators: 19 legions (17 on the field, about 80,000 infantry) and about 17,000-20,000 cavalry, among them Gauls, Lusitanians, Thracians, Illyrians and Parthian and Arab horse archers (Appian BC 4.88, 4.108).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Celtic", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The legions were mostly Italian, but Brutus and Cassius had filled theirs in Macedonia, Asia and Syria and brought eastern allied contingents.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Appian BC 4.105-114; Plutarch Brutus 38-44, Antony 22; Cassius Dio 47.42-46; en.wikipedia Battle of Philippi", "note": "Brutus took Octavian's camp while Antony stormed Cassius' camp; Cassius killed himself believing all lost. Thracian princes served on both sides (Rhascus with the triumvirs, Rhascuporis with the Liberators)." }, { "id": 657, "key": "-42-philippi-second-battle", "name": "Philippi (second battle)", "year": -42, "month": 10, "day": 23, "date": "23 October 42 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Liberators' civil war", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "plain west of Philippi", "lat": 41.01, "lon": 24.25, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Thracians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Triumvirs (Antony, Octavian)", "faction_b": "Liberators (Brutus)", "commanders_a": "Mark Antony, Octavian", "commanders_b": "Marcus Junius Brutus (suicide)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "The same armies: the triumvirs' 19 legions against Brutus' combined army; about 14,000 of the defeated were taken into the triumvirs' legions afterwards (Appian BC 4.128-135).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Celtic", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "As in the first battle: mostly Italian legionaries, with eastern recruits and allies on the Liberators' side.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Appian BC 4.128-135; Plutarch Brutus 49-52; Cassius Dio 47.47-49; en.wikipedia Battle of Philippi", "note": "" }, { "id": 658, "key": "-42-utica", "name": "Utica", "year": -42, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "42 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Liberators' civil war (war in Africa)", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "Before Cornificius' camp near Utica", "lat": 37.06, "lon": 10.06, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Numidia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Triumvirs (Titus Sextius)", "faction_b": "Liberators (Cornificius)", "commanders_a": "Titus Sextius, Arabio", "commanders_b": "Quintus Cornificius (killed), Laelius (suicide)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Not usually given a battle name; Appian describes a pitched battle before Cornificius' camp near Utica.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Sextius: the legions of Africa Nova with Arabio's Numidian horsemen and the Sittians (Publius Sittius' former soldiers settled at Cirta); Cornificius: the larger army of Africa Vetus with Laelius' force (Appian BC 4.53-56). No numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were raised in the African provinces and Numidia; no Greek contingent is recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian BC 4.53-56; Cassius Dio 48.21; en.wikipedia Quintus Cornificius", "note": "Arabio's men climbed a cliff into Cornificius' camp; Cornificius was killed by Arabio's horsemen and Laelius killed himself. Appian also tells of an earlier sortie in which Sextius killed Cornificius' legate Ventidius (no place given)." }, { "id": 659, "key": "-42-myndus", "name": "Myndus", "year": -42, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "early 42 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Liberators' civil war", "theatre": "Caria and Rhodes", "place": "off Myndus (Gümüşlük), Caria", "lat": 37.07, "lon": 27.24, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Cassius Longinus", "commanders_b": "Alexander (prytanis), Mnaseas (navarch) of Rhodes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Greek cities", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Cassius' fleet of about 80 heavy warships with legionaries embarked, against 33 Rhodian ships (Appian BC 4.71).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Cassius' ships came from the coastal cities of Asia, Cilicia and Phoenicia and were rowed largely by Greek- and Phoenician-speaking crews.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian BC 4.65-71; Cassius Dio 47.33; Plutarch Brutus 30", "note": "Opponent: the city of Rhodes, which refused to support the Liberators." }, { "id": 660, "key": "-42-rhodes-siege", "name": "Rhodes (siege)", "year": -42, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 42 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Liberators' civil war", "theatre": "Caria and Rhodes", "place": "Rhodes city", "lat": 36.44, "lon": 28.22, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Cassius Longinus", "commanders_b": "Alexander, Mnaseas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Greek cities", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Cassius' fleet and the legions he ferried from Loryma, who invested the city by land and sea (Appian BC 4.72-74).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The fleet was crewed from the eastern coastal cities; the legions were mostly Syrian legions filled with local recruits.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian BC 4.72-74; Cassius Dio 47.33; Plutarch Brutus 32", "note": "After a second sea fight before the harbour and a short siege, the city was opened to Cassius, who fined it heavily; land and sea operations combined (type set to sea)." }, { "id": 661, "key": "-42-xanthos-siege", "name": "Xanthos (siege)", "year": -42, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 42 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Liberators' civil war", "theatre": "Lycia", "place": "Xanthos, Lycia", "lat": 36.36, "lon": 29.32, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Junius Brutus", "commanders_b": "unknown (the Xanthians)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Greek cities", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Brutus' army of Macedonia, legions taken over from Gaius Antonius, Vatinius and others, with new levies raised in Macedonia (Appian BC 4.75-80).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Most of Brutus' legionaries were Italians from the Caesarian and Pompeian legions of the Balkans, with some Macedonian recruits.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian BC 4.76-80; Plutarch Brutus 30-31; Cassius Dio 47.34", "note": "Brutus first beat the Lycians in the field; the city was stormed and most Xanthians killed themselves and burned the town. Opponent: Xanthos, a city of the Hellenised Lycian League." }, { "id": 662, "key": "-42-scyllaeum", "name": "Scyllaeum", "year": -42, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 42 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "War of Sextus Pompey (Sicilian revolt)", "theatre": "Strait of Messina", "place": "off Scyllaeum (Scilla) at the entrance of the strait", "lat": 38.25, "lon": 15.71, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sextus Pompey", "faction_b": "Octavian (Salvidienus Rufus)", "commanders_a": "Sextus Pompey", "commanders_b": "Quintus Salvidienus Rufus", "outcome": "draw", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A sea fight known from Appian and Dio but not usually given a name.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Sextus' fleet of light, well-handled ships against Salvidienus' hastily built larger ships (Appian BC 4.85; Dio 48.18).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Sextus' admirals were Greek freedmen and his crews were drawn from slaves, refugees and eastern seamen.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian BC 4.85; Cassius Dio 48.18", "note": "Indecisive; both fleets withdrew, Salvidienus to the harbour of Balarus." }, { "id": 663, "key": "-41-perusia-siege", "name": "Perusia (siege)", "year": -41, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 41 – February/March 40 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Perusine War", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "Perusia (Perugia)", "lat": 43.11, "lon": 12.39, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Octavian", "faction_b": "Lucius Antonius and Fulvia", "commanders_a": "Octavian, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Quintus Salvidienus Rufus", "commanders_b": "Lucius Antonius", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Octavian's veteran legions and new levies encircled the town; Lucius Antonius held it with the legions he had raised in Italy, while Antony's generals in Gaul failed to relieve him (Appian BC 5.32-49).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "An Italian civil war fought with Italian legions on both sides.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Appian BC 5.32-49; Cassius Dio 48.14; Suetonius Aug. 14-15; en.wikipedia Perusine War", "note": "The besieged's great sortie on the last night of 41 BCE failed; the town surrendered from hunger and was burned." }, { "id": 664, "key": "-40-decidius-saxa-s-defeat", "name": "Decidius Saxa's defeat", "year": -40, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "40 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BCE", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "northern Syria, near Apamea", "lat": 35.42, "lon": 36.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Parthia" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Labienus, Pacorus", "commanders_b": "Lucius Decidius Saxa", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Dio describes Saxa's defeat in battle, but it has no conventional name.", "main_enemy": "Parthia", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Saxa's army of Syria, legions that included former soldiers of Brutus and Cassius, many of whom went over to Labienus (Cassius Dio 48.25).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Syrian legions had long been in the East and took local recruits.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 48.24-26; Plutarch Antony 30; Livy Per. 127; en.wikipedia Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC", "note": "Labienus, a Roman Pompeian in Parthian service, led the invasion with Pacorus; Saxa fled and was killed in Cilicia." }, { "id": 665, "key": "-40-brundisium-siege", "name": "Brundisium (siege)", "year": -40, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 40 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Triumviral civil wars", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Brundisium (Brindisi) and Hyria", "lat": 40.64, "lon": 17.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Mark Antony", "faction_b": "Octavian", "commanders_a": "Mark Antony, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus", "commanders_b": "Octavian, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa", "outcome": "draw", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A blockade with skirmishes that ended in the Treaty of Brundisium rather than a decision.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Antony's army from the East and Ahenobarbus' fleet blockaded Brundisium; Octavian's garrison held out, and Antony's cavalry beat a larger force of Octavian's horse at Hyria (Appian BC 5.56-58; Dio 48.27-28).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Antony's army had been recruited partly in the East; Octavian's was Italian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian BC 5.56-64; Cassius Dio 48.27-28", "note": "The soldiers of both sides forced the reconciliation (Treaty of Brundisium, autumn 40 BCE)." }, { "id": 666, "key": "-39-cilician-gates", "name": "Cilician Gates", "year": -39, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "39 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BCE", "theatre": "Cilicia", "place": "Cilician Gates (Gülek pass), Taurus mountains", "lat": 37.28, "lon": 34.8, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Parthia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Ventidius Bassus", "commanders_b": "Quintus Labienus, Phranipates (Pharnapates)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Parthia", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Ventidius' legions sent from Italy by Antony, with slingers; Wikipedia gives two legions with cavalry and slingers, Dio gives no numbers (Dio 48.39-40).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Ventidius' army was mostly Italian legions newly brought from the West.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 48.39-40; Frontinus Strat. 2.5.36; Plutarch Antony 33; en.wikipedia Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC", "note": "The Parthian cavalry charged Ventidius' hill camp and was routed; Labienus' army dispersed and he was caught and killed." }, { "id": 667, "key": "-39-amanus-pass", "name": "Amanus Pass", "year": -39, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "39 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BCE", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "Amanus pass (Belen pass), between Cilicia and Syria", "lat": 36.49, "lon": 36.2, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Parthia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Ventidius Bassus, Pompaedius Silo", "commanders_b": "Pharnapates (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Parthia", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Silo's advance guard of Ventidius' army, rescued by Ventidius with the main body of his legions (Dio 48.41).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The same Italian legions as at the Cilician Gates.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 48.41; Strabo 16.2.8; en.wikipedia Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC", "note": "" }, { "id": 668, "key": "-38-mount-gindarus", "name": "Mount Gindarus", "year": -38, "month": 6, "day": 9, "date": "9 June 38 BCE (by tradition)", "type": "land", "war": "Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BCE", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "Mount Gindarus, Cyrrhestica", "lat": 36.39, "lon": 36.69, "loc": "approx", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Parthia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Ventidius Bassus", "commanders_b": "Pacorus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Parthia", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Ventidius' legions (eleven, by Wikipedia's count) with many slingers and archers, fighting from a hill camp (Dio 49.19-20; Frontinus Strat. 1.1.6).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Ventidius had added the Syrian garrison legions, partly eastern recruits, to the Italian legions he brought.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Cassius Dio 49.19-21; Plutarch Antony 34; Frontinus Strat. 1.1.6; en.wikipedia Battle of Mount Gindarus", "note": "Dio says it was fought on the anniversary of Carrhae (traditionally 9 June)." }, { "id": 669, "key": "-38-cumae", "name": "Cumae", "year": -38, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 38 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "War of Sextus Pompey (Sicilian revolt)", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "off Cumae, Bay of Naples", "lat": 40.85, "lon": 14.03, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Octavian (Calvisius Sabinus, Menodorus)", "faction_b": "Sextus Pompey (Menecrates)", "commanders_a": "Gaius Calvisius Sabinus, Menodorus (Menas)", "commanders_b": "Menecrates (killed), Demochares", "outcome": "draw", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Octavian's Tyrrhenian squadron under Calvisius with Menodorus, who had deserted Sextus with his ships; Sextus' fleet under Menecrates (Appian BC 5.81-83).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Menecrates, Menodorus and Demochares were Greek freedmen, and both fleets drew rowers from slaves and eastern seamen.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian BC 5.81-83; Cassius Dio 48.46; en.wikipedia Battle of Mylae (36 BC)", "note": "Menecrates was killed and Demochares withdrew, but Calvisius' fleet was badly damaged." }, { "id": 670, "key": "-38-messana", "name": "Messana", "year": -38, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 38 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "War of Sextus Pompey (Sicilian revolt)", "theatre": "Strait of Messina", "place": "in the strait near Messana and Scyllaeum", "lat": 38.23, "lon": 15.65, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sextus Pompey", "faction_b": "Octavian", "commanders_a": "Demochares, Apollophanes (for Sextus Pompey)", "commanders_b": "Octavian", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Octavian's main fleet from Tarentum and Brundisium against Sextus' fleet under Demochares and Apollophanes (Appian BC 5.84-90).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Sextus' squadrons were led by Greek freedmen and largely rowed by eastern and servile crews.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian BC 5.84-92; Cassius Dio 48.47-48; en.wikipedia Sextus Pompey", "note": "Octavian was beaten off Scyllaeum and a storm next day wrecked much of his fleet; Wikipedia's article on Sextus Pompey dates it to 37 BCE." }, { "id": 671, "key": "-38-samosata-siege", "name": "Samosata (siege)", "year": -38, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 38 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Antony's eastern wars", "theatre": "Commagene", "place": "Samosata (Samsat), on the Euphrates", "lat": 37.53, "lon": 38.48, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Commagene" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Herodian kingdom" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Antiochus I of Commagene", "commanders_b": "Mark Antony, Publius Ventidius Bassus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Commagene", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Ventidius' army, then Antony's, with siege works; Herod brought troops to Antony (Josephus BJ 1.321-322); no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Antony's legions were largely Italian, with Syrian legions and eastern allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch Antony 34; Cassius Dio 49.20-22; Josephus BJ 1.321-322, AJ 14.439-447", "note": "The assaults failed and Antony withdrew on terms, taking 300 talents (Plutarch). Commagene was a Hellenistic kingdom with a Greek-speaking court under an Iranian (Orontid) dynasty." }, { "id": 672, "key": "-37-jerusalem-siege", "name": "Jerusalem (siege)", "year": -37, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring–summer 37 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Herod's war for Judaea", "theatre": "Judaea", "place": "Jerusalem", "lat": 31.78, "lon": 35.23, "loc": "known", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Judea" ], "allies_a": [ "Herodian kingdom" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Sosius, Herod", "commanders_b": "Antigonus II Mattathias", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Judea", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "Sosius with eleven legions and 6,000 cavalry besides Syrian auxiliaries (Josephus BJ 1.345-346), joined by Herod's army of about 30,000.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Syrian auxiliaries came from the Greek cities of Syria, and Herod's army included Greek-speaking mercenaries, but most of the force was Roman legionaries and Jewish and Idumaean troops.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Josephus BJ 1.343-357, AJ 14.465-491; Cassius Dio 49.22; en.wikipedia Siege of Jerusalem (37 BC)", "note": "Some modern scholars date it to 36 BCE. The walls fell after 40 and 15 days; Antigonus surrendered to Sosius and was executed at Antioch." }, { "id": 673, "key": "-36-mylae", "name": "Mylae", "year": -36, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August 36 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "War of Sextus Pompey (Sicilian revolt)", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "off Mylae (Milazzo), north coast of Sicily", "lat": 38.26, "lon": 15.22, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Octavian (Agrippa)", "faction_b": "Sextus Pompey", "commanders_a": "Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa", "commanders_b": "Papias (Demochares in Dio)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Half of Agrippa's new heavy fleet built at Portus Julius against Papias' larger squadron (Appian BC 5.105-108); Papias lost 30 ships, Agrippa 5.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Agrippa trained 20,000 freed slaves as rowers; Sextus' fleet was crewed largely by eastern seamen and slaves.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian BC 5.105-108; Cassius Dio 49.2-4; en.wikipedia Battle of Mylae (36 BC)", "note": "Wikipedia gives 11 August 36 BCE." }, { "id": 674, "key": "-36-tauromenium", "name": "Tauromenium", "year": -36, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August 36 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "War of Sextus Pompey (Sicilian revolt)", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "off Tauromenium (Taormina), east coast of Sicily", "lat": 37.85, "lon": 15.3, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Sextus Pompey", "faction_b": "Octavian", "commanders_a": "Sextus Pompey", "commanders_b": "Octavian, Lucius Cornificius", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Octavian landed three legions, 500 horse and light troops under Cornificius and was then caught at sea by Sextus' fleet; he lost over 60 ships and barely escaped (Appian BC 5.109-112).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The fleets were rowed largely by eastern and servile crews; the troops were Italian legions.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian BC 5.109-112; Cassius Dio 49.5; en.wikipedia War between Sextus Pompey and the Second Triumvirate", "note": "" }, { "id": 675, "key": "-36-naulochus", "name": "Naulochus", "year": -36, "month": 9, "day": 3, "date": "3 September 36 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "War of Sextus Pompey (Sicilian revolt)", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "off Naulochus, between Mylae and Cape Pelorus", "lat": 38.25, "lon": 15.4, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Octavian (Agrippa)", "faction_b": "Sextus Pompey", "commanders_a": "Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa", "commanders_b": "Sextus Pompey, Demochares, Apollophanes", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "About 300 ships on each side; Agrippa's heavier ships carried the harpax grapnel, while the land armies of Octavian and Sextus watched from the shore (Appian BC 5.118-121).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rowers on both sides were largely freedmen, slaves and eastern seamen; Antony's 120 ships lent to Octavian came from the East.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Appian BC 5.118-122; Cassius Dio 49.8-11; Suetonius Aug. 16; en.wikipedia Battle of Naulochus", "note": "Sextus lost 28 ships sunk and most of the rest burned or taken; Agrippa lost 3." }, { "id": 676, "key": "-36-statianus-convoy-ambush", "name": "Statianus' convoy (ambush)", "year": -36, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late summer 36 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Antony's Parthian war (Atropatene campaign)", "theatre": "Media Atropatene", "place": "on the road to Phraaspa, Media Atropatene", "lat": 37.8, "lon": 45.9, "loc": "region", "country": "Iran", "side_a": [ "Parthia" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Armenia", "Pontus" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Phraates IV (or Monaeses), Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene", "commanders_b": "Oppius Statianus (killed), Polemon I of Pontus (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A named ambush known by its commander, not by a place.", "main_enemy": "Parthia", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Two legions escorting the siege train, with Polemon's Pontic troops; Artavasdes II's Armenian cavalry rode off without fighting (Plutarch Antony 38; Dio 49.25).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legionaries with Pontic and Armenian allies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Plutarch Antony 38; Cassius Dio 49.25; en.wikipedia Antony's Atropatene campaign", "note": "About 10,000 Romans were killed and the siege engines destroyed." }, { "id": 677, "key": "-36-phraaspa-siege", "name": "Phraaspa (siege)", "year": -36, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "August–October 36 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Antony's Parthian war (Atropatene campaign)", "theatre": "Media Atropatene", "place": "Phraaspa (Praaspa), royal city of Media Atropatene", "lat": 37.39, "lon": 46.24, "loc": "approx", "country": "Iran", "side_a": [ "Parthia" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Phraates IV, Artavasdes I of Media Atropatene, Monaeses", "commanders_b": "Mark Antony", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Parthia", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Sixteen legions (about 60,000 Roman infantry), 10,000 Spanish and Gallic cavalry and about 30,000 allied troops from Armenia, Galatia, Cappadocia and Pontus (Plutarch Antony 37).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The legions were largely Italian; some allied contingents from Pontus, Cappadocia and Galatia spoke Greek.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Plutarch Antony 38-51; Cassius Dio 49.25-31; Velleius 2.82; en.wikipedia Antony's Atropatene campaign", "note": "Site identified with Maragheh or Takht-e Soleyman. Antony abandoned the siege and lost about 24,000-32,000 men in the retreat to Armenia." }, { "id": 678, "key": "-35-metulum-siege", "name": "Metulum (siege)", "year": -35, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "35 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Octavian's Illyrian campaign", "theatre": "Illyricum", "place": "Metulum, chief town of the Iapydes (near Ogulin)", "lat": 45.22, "lon": 15.27, "loc": "approx", "country": "Croatia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Illyrians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Octavian, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Illyrians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Octavian's army of Italian legions (perhaps XIII, XIV and XV) with siege works and assault bridges, against about 3,000 Iapydes (Appian Ill. 19-21).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions recruited in Italy and Cisalpine Gaul.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian Illyrica 19-21; Cassius Dio 49.35; en.wikipedia Octavian's military campaigns in Illyricum", "note": "Opponent: the Iapydes. Octavian was hurt when an assault bridge collapsed; the defenders burned their town and died." }, { "id": 679, "key": "-35-siscia-siege", "name": "Siscia (siege)", "year": -35, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 35 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Octavian's Illyrian campaign", "theatre": "Pannonia", "place": "Segesta/Siscia (Sisak), at the confluence of the Sava and Kupa", "lat": 45.48, "lon": 16.37, "loc": "known", "country": "Croatia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Illyrians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Octavian, Menodorus (killed)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Illyrians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Octavian's legions with a river fleet on the Sava under Menodorus; 25 cohorts were left as garrison under Fufius Geminus (Appian Ill. 22-24; Dio 49.37-38).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions; the river flotilla was led by the Greek freedman Menodorus.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian Illyrica 22-24; Cassius Dio 49.37-38; en.wikipedia Octavian's military campaigns in Illyricum", "note": "Opponent: the Pannonian Segestani. The town fell after about 30 days and a relief army was beaten off." }, { "id": 680, "key": "-34-promona-siege", "name": "Promona (siege)", "year": -34, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "34 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Octavian's Illyrian campaign", "theatre": "Dalmatia", "place": "Promona, mountain stronghold near Drniš", "lat": 43.89, "lon": 16.19, "loc": "approx", "country": "Croatia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Illyrians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Octavian", "commanders_b": "Verzo, Testimus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Illyrians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Octavian's legions, who seized the surrounding heights and built a wall of about 7.5 km round the town; a relief army under Testimus was defeated (Appian Ill. 25-26).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian Illyrica 25-26; Cassius Dio 49.38; en.wikipedia Octavian's military campaigns in Illyricum", "note": "Opponent: the Dalmatae. A cohort that broke was decimated." }, { "id": 681, "key": "-34-setovia-siege", "name": "Setovia (siege)", "year": -34, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "34 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Octavian's Illyrian campaign", "theatre": "Dalmatia", "place": "Setovia, Dalmatia (site uncertain, perhaps near Sinj)", "lat": 43.7, "lon": 16.64, "loc": "region", "country": "Croatia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Illyrians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Octavian, Titus Statilius Taurus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Illyrians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Octavian's legions, left under Statilius Taurus to complete the blockade (Appian Ill. 27; Dio 49.38).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Italian legions.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Appian Illyrica 27-28; Cassius Dio 49.38; Suetonius Aug. 20; en.wikipedia Setovia", "note": "Opponent: the Dalmatae. Octavian was struck on the knee by a stone; the Dalmatians submitted and gave 700 hostages." }, { "id": 682, "key": "-31-actium", "name": "Actium", "year": -31, "month": 9, "day": 2, "date": "2 September 31 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "War of Actium (Final war of the Roman Republic)", "theatre": "Ionian Sea", "place": "mouth of the Ambracian Gulf off Actium", "lat": 38.93, "lon": 20.73, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Ptolemies" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Octavian", "faction_b": "Mark Antony", "commanders_a": "Octavian, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Lucius Arruntius, Marcus Lurius", "commanders_b": "Mark Antony, Gaius Sosius, Lucius Gellius Poplicola, Cleopatra VII", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Octavian: about 400 lighter ships with eight legions and five praetorian cohorts embarked, his land army under Statilius Taurus ashore; Antony: about 230 large ships plus Cleopatra's 60, with 20,000 legionaries and 2,000 archers aboard, his 19 legions and 12,000 cavalry ashore (Plutarch Antony 61-65; Orosius 6.19).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Plutarch (Antony 62) says Antony's trierarchs pressed wayfarers, muleteers, harvesters and youths in Greece to fill the crews, and many of his legionaries had been raised in the East.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 3, "sources": "Plutarch Antony 61-68; Cassius Dio 50.11-35; Velleius 2.84-85; Orosius 6.19; en.wikipedia Battle of Actium", "note": "Officially a war against Cleopatra, but Roman legions and fleets fought on both sides, hence civil; greek_opponent is true for the Ptolemaic squadron, the only allied force engaged (allies_b). The client kings with Antony (Plutarch Antony 61: Bocchus, Tarcondemus, Archelaus of Cappadocia, Philadelphus, Mithridates of Commagene, Sadalas of Thrace) were with the land army, which did not fight; the ancient Greek battles set codes the battle as Rome against Ptolemaic Egypt with these kings and Antony's legions as allies. Antony's land army surrendered a week later." }, { "id": 683, "key": "-31-patrae", "name": "Patrae", "year": -31, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Spring or summer 31 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "War of Actium (Final war of the Roman Republic)", "theatre": "Greece (Gulf of Patras)", "place": "Off Patrae (Patras), Achaea", "lat": 38.25, "lon": 21.72, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Octavian (Agrippa)", "faction_b": "Mark Antony", "commanders_a": "Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa", "commanders_b": "Quintus Nasidius", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from one sentence of Dio; not separately named in modern works.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Agrippa's fleet of Octavian's heavy warships with marines against an Antonian squadron under Quintus Nasidius; Dio gives no numbers (Dio 50.13.5).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Antony's crews were largely pressed in Greece and the East (Plutarch Antony 62); share for both fleets together.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 50.13.5; en.wikipedia Quintus Nasidius", "note": "Agrippa took Patrae after the sea fight, having seized Leucas and its ships; he later took Corinth." }, { "id": 684, "key": "-31-sosius-sea-fight", "name": "Sosius' sea fight", "year": -31, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Summer 31 BCE, before Actium", "type": "sea", "war": "War of Actium (Final war of the Roman Republic)", "theatre": "Ionian Sea", "place": "Near the mouth of the Ambracian Gulf, off Actium", "lat": 38.95, "lon": 20.7, "loc": "region", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Octavian (Agrippa)", "faction_b": "Mark Antony", "commanders_a": "Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Lucius Tarius Rufus", "commanders_b": "Gaius Sosius, Tarcondimotus I (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A sea fight known by its commander, not by a place.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Tarius' small squadron, then Agrippa with Octavian's main fleet, against an Antonian squadron under Sosius that sailed out in a mist before dawn (Dio 50.14.1-2).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Antony's crews were largely pressed in Greece and the East (Plutarch Antony 62); share for both fleets together.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 50.14.1-2; en.wikipedia Final war of the Roman Republic", "note": "Sosius routed Tarius' squadron but met Agrippa and was beaten; Tarcondimotus, king in Cilicia, was killed. Wikipedia names Lucius Arruntius in place of Tarius. Sosius escaped and commanded Antony's left at Actium." }, { "id": 685, "key": "-31-methone", "name": "Methone", "year": -31, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 31 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "War of Actium", "theatre": "Peloponnese", "place": "Methone, Messenia", "lat": 36.82, "lon": 21.7, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Mauretania" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Octavian (Agrippa)", "faction_b": "Mark Antony", "commanders_a": "Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa", "commanders_b": "Bogud of Mauretania (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A storming of a base, known from short notices; no separate article.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Agrippa's fleet with marines stormed the Antonian base held by Bogud (Dio 50.11; Orosius 6.19.6).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Agrippa's crews included many freedmen and eastern rowers; the marines were Italian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 50.11; Orosius 6.19.6; Strabo 8.4.3; en.wikipedia Battle of Actium", "note": "" }, { "id": 686, "key": "-30-alexandria", "name": "Alexandria", "year": -30, "month": 8, "day": 1, "date": "31 July – 1 August 30 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "War of Actium (Final war of the Roman Republic)", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "Alexandria, by the hippodrome and the eastern approaches", "lat": 31.2, "lon": 29.92, "loc": "known", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Ptolemies" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Octavian", "faction_b": "Mark Antony", "commanders_a": "Octavian, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa", "commanders_b": "Mark Antony, Cleopatra VII", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Octavian's legions advancing from Pelusium and Gallus' army from the west; Antony's remaining legions, cavalry and fleet, with Ptolemaic troops (Plutarch Antony 74-76; Dio 51.10).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Mostly Roman legionaries on both sides; Antony also had Ptolemaic (Greek and Egyptian) troops.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Plutarch Antony 74-77; Cassius Dio 51.10; Suetonius Aug. 17; en.wikipedia Battle of Alexandria (30 BC)", "note": "Antony's cavalry won a skirmish near the hippodrome on 31 July; on 1 August his fleet and cavalry went over to Octavian and his infantry was beaten, and he killed himself. Wikipedia dates the fighting to July 30 BCE." }, { "id": 687, "key": "-30-paraetonium", "name": "Paraetonium", "year": -30, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring–summer 30 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "War of Actium (Final war of the Roman Republic)", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "Paraetonium (Marsa Matruh)", "lat": 31.35, "lon": 27.23, "loc": "known", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Ptolemies" ], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Octavian (Cornelius Gallus)", "faction_b": "Mark Antony", "commanders_a": "Gaius Cornelius Gallus", "commanders_b": "Mark Antony", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A minor action known from Dio; no separate article.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Gallus with the four legions of Cyrenaica that had gone over from Antony's general Pinarius Scarpus; Antony attacked by land and sea and his ships were trapped by chains in the harbour (Dio 51.9; Orosius 6.19.15).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Cyrenaican legions were Antony's, partly raised in the East.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 51.9; Orosius 6.19.15; Plutarch Antony 69", "note": "Land and sea fighting; type set to land." }, { "id": 688, "key": "-29-crassus-victory-over-the-bastarnae", "name": "Crassus' victory over the Bastarnae", "year": -29, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "29 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Crassus' Moesian campaigns", "theatre": "Moesia", "place": "Moesia, south of the lower Danube (site unknown)", "lat": 43.6, "lon": 24.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [ "Dacians" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Licinius Crassus (consul 30 BC)", "commanders_b": "Deldo (killed by Crassus)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A pitched battle known from Dio without a place name.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The proconsul of Macedonia's legions and auxiliaries, helped by the Getic king Rholes (Dio 51.23-24); no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Macedonia had long recruited locally in Macedonia and Thrace, but its legionaries were mostly Italian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 51.23-24; Livy Per. 134; en.wikipedia Marcus Licinius Crassus (consul 30 BC)", "note": "Opponent: the Bastarnae. Crassus killed their king Deldo with his own hand and claimed the spolia opima, which Octavian refused." }, { "id": 689, "key": "-28-genucla-siege", "name": "Genucla (siege)", "year": -28, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "28 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Crassus' Moesian campaigns", "theatre": "Lower Danube", "place": "Genucla, fortress of the Getic king Zyraxes near the Danube (site unknown, perhaps in the Dobruja)", "lat": 45.27, "lon": 28.46, "loc": "region", "country": "Romania", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Dacians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Republic", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Licinius Crassus", "commanders_b": "Zyraxes (absent)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege known only from Dio.", "main_enemy": "Dacians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Crassus' army of Macedonia, attacking by land and from the river (Dio 51.26.5-6).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "As for Crassus' army in 29 BCE.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 51.26.5-6", "note": "Opponent: the Getae. Crassus recovered the standards lost by Gaius Antonius Hybrida in 61 BCE." }, { "id": 690, "key": "-25-eudaemon-siege", "name": "Eudaemon (siege)", "year": -25, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "25 BCE (date and agent uncertain)", "type": "land", "war": "Arabian expedition of Aelius Gallus", "theatre": "Arabia Felix", "place": "Eudaemon Arabia (Aden)", "lat": 12.78, "lon": 45.03, "loc": "known", "country": "Yemen", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown ('Caesar' in the Periplus)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "Known only from one sentence of the Periplus ('Caesar' destroyed the town 'not long before our time'); whether there was fighting, and who led it, is unknown.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A Roman force from Egypt, by the Periplus' brief notice; nothing is known of its composition.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Coptic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Any fleet from Egypt's Red Sea ports was crewed from Egypt, where Greek was the language of command and trade.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Periplus Maris Erythraei 26; en.wikipedia List of Roman battles (Siege of Eudaemon)", "note": "en.wikipedia's List of Roman battles dates it to 25 BCE with Aelius Gallus; other scholars think of Gaius Caesar (1 BCE) or Claudius, or emend the text. Marked traditional as doubtful." }, { "id": 691, "key": "-25-vellica", "name": "Vellica", "year": -25, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "25 BCE (or 26 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Cantabrian Wars", "theatre": "Hispania Tarraconensis", "place": "Vellica, near Monte Cildá, Olleros de Pisuerga (Palencia)", "lat": 42.85, "lon": -4.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Iberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Augustus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Iberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Augustus' army mustered at Segisama, with Legio IV Macedonica and probably IX Hispana; the whole Cantabrian army had seven or eight legions with auxiliaries and a fleet from Aquitania (Florus 2.33.48; Orosius 6.21).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Western legions recruited in Italy, Gaul and Spain, with Gallic auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Florus 2.33.48; Orosius 6.21.3; Cassius Dio 53.25; en.wikipedia Battle of Vellica", "note": "Opponent: the Cantabri. Florus' first fight 'under the walls of Bergida' may be the same battle. Many modern authors date Augustus' campaign to 26 BCE." }, { "id": 692, "key": "-25-aracillum-siege", "name": "Aracillum (siege)", "year": -25, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "25 BCE (or 26 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Cantabrian Wars", "theatre": "Hispania Tarraconensis", "place": "Aracillum, Cantabria (traditionally Aradillos, Campoo de Enmedio)", "lat": 43.03, "lon": -4.17, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Iberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Antistius Vetus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Iberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Five legions with auxiliaries, who encircled the hill fort with more than 20 km of works (en.wikipedia; Florus 2.33.50; Orosius 6.21).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Western legions and Gallic and Spanish auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Florus 2.33.50; Orosius 6.21.5; en.wikipedia Siege of Aracillum", "note": "Opponent: the Cantabri. The site has not been securely identified." }, { "id": 693, "key": "-25-mons-vindius-siege", "name": "Mons Vindius (siege)", "year": -25, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "25 BCE (or 26 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Cantabrian Wars", "theatre": "Hispania Tarraconensis", "place": "Mons Vindius, Cantabrian mountains (perhaps the Picos de Europa)", "lat": 43.15, "lon": -4.85, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Iberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Augustus' legates", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A blockade in which, Florus says, the Cantabri were starved out; little fighting is recorded.", "main_enemy": "Iberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Part of the Cantabrian army of seven or eight legions with auxiliaries (Florus 2.33.49; Orosius 6.21.5).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Western legions and auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Florus 2.33.49; Orosius 6.21.5", "note": "Opponent: the Cantabri." }, { "id": 694, "key": "-25-astura", "name": "Astura", "year": -25, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 25 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Cantabrian Wars", "theatre": "Hispania Tarraconensis", "place": "by the river Astura (Esla), Asturia", "lat": 42.6, "lon": -5.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Iberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Carisius", "commanders_b": "unknown (perhaps Gausón)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Named after the river by modern writers.", "main_enemy": "Iberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Carisius' army of three legions in their winter camps, warned by the Brigaecini (Florus 2.33.54-57; Orosius 6.21.9).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Western legions and auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Florus 2.33.54-57; Orosius 6.21.9-10; en.wikipedia Cantabrian Wars", "note": "Opponent: the Astures, who came down in three columns to attack the Roman camps and were beaten in a bloody battle; the survivors fled to Lancia." }, { "id": 695, "key": "-25-lancia-siege", "name": "Lancia (siege)", "year": -25, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "25 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Cantabrian Wars", "theatre": "Hispania Tarraconensis", "place": "Lancia, near Villasabariego (León)", "lat": 42.53, "lon": -5.43, "loc": "known", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Iberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Carisius", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Iberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Carisius' legions, who stormed the strongest town of the Astures (Florus 2.33.57-58; Orosius 6.21.10).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Western legions and auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Florus 2.33.57-58; Orosius 6.21.10; Cassius Dio 53.25; en.wikipedia Cantabrian Wars", "note": "Opponent: the Astures. Carisius kept the soldiers from burning the town." }, { "id": 696, "key": "-25-mons-medullius-siege", "name": "Mons Medullius (siege)", "year": -25, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "25 BCE (some date it 22 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Cantabrian Wars", "theatre": "Gallaecia", "place": "Mons Medullius, above the river Minius (site uncertain; Las Médulas has been proposed)", "lat": 42.46, "lon": -6.77, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Iberians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Antistius Vetus, Gaius Firmius", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Iberians", "opponent_group": "Iberians", "roman_force": "Legions who ringed the mountain with a ditch of fifteen miles (Florus 2.33.50; Orosius 6.21.7-8).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Western legions and auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Florus 2.33.50; Orosius 6.21.7-8; en.wikipedia Cantabrian Wars", "note": "Opponents: Gallaeci, Astures and Cantabri; the besieged killed themselves rather than surrender." }, { "id": 697, "key": "-25-marib-siege", "name": "Marib (siege)", "year": -25, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "25 BCE (or 24 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Aelius Gallus' expedition to Arabia Felix", "theatre": "Arabia Felix", "place": "Mariaba (Strabo's Marsyaba), capital of Saba", "lat": 15.42, "lon": 45.33, "loc": "approx", "country": "Yemen", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Nabataea", "Herodian kingdom" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (Sabaean king)", "commanders_b": "Aelius Gallus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "About 10,000 Roman and allied infantry from the army of Egypt, with 500 Jews sent by Herod and 1,000 Nabataeans under Syllaeus (Strabo 16.4.23).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Arabic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Egypt included Greek-speaking soldiers from Egypt and Galatia, but the sources do not say how many.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Strabo 16.4.22-24; Cassius Dio 53.29; Res Gestae 26; en.wikipedia List of Roman battles", "note": "Opponent: the Sabaeans. Gallus besieged the city for six days and withdrew for lack of water." }, { "id": 698, "key": "-24-pselchis", "name": "Pselchis", "year": -24, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "24 BCE (or 23 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Kushite War", "theatre": "Lower Nubia", "place": "Pselchis (Dakka), Lower Nubia", "lat": 23.18, "lon": 32.75, "loc": "approx", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Kush" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Petronius", "commanders_b": "generals of Queen Amanirenas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Kush", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "Fewer than 10,000 infantry and 800 cavalry from the army of Egypt, against about 30,000 Kushites (Strabo 17.1.54).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The legions of Egypt (III Cyrenaica, XXII Deiotariana) and their auxiliaries were beginning to recruit in Egypt and Galatia.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Strabo 17.1.54; Cassius Dio 54.5; Pliny NH 6.181-182; en.wikipedia Gaius Petronius", "note": "The site is now under Lake Nasser. Dio puts the campaign under 22 BCE." }, { "id": 699, "key": "-24-primis-siege", "name": "Primis (siege)", "year": -24, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "24 BCE (or 23 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Kushite War", "theatre": "Lower Nubia", "place": "Primis/Premnis (Qasr Ibrim)", "lat": 22.65, "lon": 31.99, "loc": "known", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Kush" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Petronius", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Strabo says only that Petronius took the strong town by assault.", "main_enemy": "Kush", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "Petronius' army of Egypt, as at Pselchis (Strabo 17.1.54).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "As at Pselchis.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Strabo 17.1.54; Pliny NH 6.181", "note": "Petronius went on to sack Napata. In 22 BCE he returned to relieve the Roman garrison of Primis against Amanirenas, without a recorded battle." }, { "id": 700, "key": "-16-clades-lolliana", "name": "Clades Lolliana", "year": -16, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "16 BCE (or 17 BCE)", "type": "land", "war": "Augustus' Germanic wars", "theatre": "Lower Rhine and Gaul", "place": "west of the lower Rhine, in Gaul (site unknown)", "lat": 51.3, "lon": 6.3, "loc": "region", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (Sugambri leaders)", "commanders_b": "Marcus Lollius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Lollius' army of Gaul, including Legio V Alaudae, whose eagle was lost; the Germans first ambushed his cavalry (Cassius Dio 54.20; Velleius 2.97).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions and Gallic auxiliaries of the Rhine army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Cassius Dio 54.20; Velleius 2.97; Suetonius Aug. 23; en.wikipedia Clades Lolliana", "note": "Opponents: Sugambri, Usipetes and Tencteri. Suetonius ranks it with the Varian disaster as Augustus' two great defeats." }, { "id": 701, "key": "-15-lake-constance", "name": "Lake Constance", "year": -15, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 15 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Augustus' Alpine campaigns", "theatre": "Raetia and Vindelicia", "place": "Lacus Brigantinus (Lake Constance), from an island used as a base", "lat": 47.6, "lon": 9.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tiberius", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A lake fight known from one sentence of Strabo (Tiberius used the island as a base 'in his naval battle with the Vindelici').", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Tiberius' army advancing from Gaul, with boats on the lake; the legions and auxilia are not named (Strabo 7.1.5; Dio 54.22).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "An army of the western provinces, recruited in Italy, Gaul and Spain.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Strabo 7.1.5; Cassius Dio 54.22; Velleius 2.95", "note": "Opponent: the Vindelici (Celtic). The island is not securely identified. Drusus fought the Raeti in the Alps in the same campaign, without a named battle." }, { "id": 702, "key": "-12-amisia", "name": "Amisia", "year": -12, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "12 BCE", "type": "sea", "war": "Drusus' campaigns in Germania", "theatre": "North Sea coast of Germania", "place": "on the river Amisia (Ems)", "lat": 53.2, "lon": 7.3, "loc": "region", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Nero Claudius Drusus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A river fight recorded in one line by Strabo.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Drusus' Rhine fleet with legionaries embarked, sailing through his canal and along the coast with the Frisii as allies (Strabo 7.1.3; Dio 54.32).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rhine legions with Gallic and Germanic auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Strabo 7.1.3; Cassius Dio 54.32", "note": "Opponent: the Bructeri. A river battle (type set to sea)." }, { "id": 703, "key": "-11-arbalo", "name": "Arbalo", "year": -11, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "11 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Drusus' campaigns in Germania", "theatre": "Germania", "place": "Arbalo, on Drusus' return from the Weser (perhaps near Hildesheim or Hamelin)", "lat": 52.12, "lon": 9.6, "loc": "region", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Nero Claudius Drusus", "commanders_b": "unknown (perhaps Segimer)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Drusus' legions and auxiliaries of the Rhine army returning from the Weser; Wikipedia estimates 19,000-42,000 men (Pliny NH 11.55; Dio 54.33).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rhine legions with Gallic and Germanic auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Pliny NH 11.55; Julius Obsequens 72; Cassius Dio 54.33; en.wikipedia Battle of Arbalo", "note": "Opponents: Cherusci and allies. The Germans trapped the army in a narrow valley and were beaten off." }, { "id": 704, "key": "-11-lupia-river", "name": "Lupia River", "year": -11, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "11 BCE", "type": "land", "war": "Drusus' campaigns in Germania", "theatre": "Germania", "place": "lower Lippe (Lupia) valley", "lat": 51.65, "lon": 6.9, "loc": "region", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Nero Claudius Drusus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Listed by Wikipedia; the ancient sources describe Drusus' campaign against the Sugambri on the Lippe without a named battle.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Part of Drusus' Rhine army (Wikipedia gives about 2,000 men; Dio 54.33 gives no figures).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rhine legions and auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 54.33; en.wikipedia Battle of the Lupia River", "note": "Opponent: the Sugambri." }, { "id": 705, "key": "-4-jerusalem-siege", "name": "Jerusalem (siege)", "year": -4, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "early summer 4 BCE (Pentecost)", "type": "land", "war": "War of Varus", "theatre": "Judaea", "place": "Jerusalem, the Temple courts and Herod's palace", "lat": 31.78, "lon": 35.23, "loc": "known", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "allies_a": [ "Herodian kingdom", "Nabataea" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Sabinus (procurator), Publius Quinctilius Varus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege of the Roman garrison, usually told as part of the War of Varus, not a named battle.", "main_enemy": "Jewish rebels", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "The legion Varus had left in Jerusalem with Sabinus and about 3,000 Sebastenian royal troops under Rufus and Gratus; relieved by Varus with two legions, four alae and auxiliaries of the kings and cities, including Aretas' Nabataeans (Josephus BJ 2.39-79).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Arabic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Josephus names the Sebastenians, from the Greek-speaking city of Sebaste, and the auxiliaries of the Syrian cities.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Josephus BJ 2.39-79, AJ 17.250-298; en.wikipedia War of Varus", "note": "The besieged legion fought in the Temple courts and burned the porticoes; Varus relieved it and crucified 2,000 rebels." }, { "id": 706, "key": "3-artagira-siege", "name": "Artagira (siege)", "year": 3, "month": 9, "day": 9, "date": "3 CE (Gaius wounded on 9 September)", "type": "land", "war": "Gaius Caesar's Armenian war", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "Artagira, Armenia (site uncertain)", "lat": 40.15, "lon": 43.13, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Armenia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Caesar", "commanders_b": "Addon (Dio; 'Abbadon' in Wikipedia)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Armenia", "opponent_group": "Caucasus", "roman_force": "Gaius Caesar's eastern army, the legions and auxiliaries of Syria with allied contingents; no numbers are given (Velleius 2.102; Dio 55.10a).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Syrian legions and auxiliaries were recruited largely in the Greek-speaking and Aramaic-speaking East.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Velleius 2.102; Cassius Dio 55.10a.6-8; Florus 2.32; Strabo 11.14.6", "note": "Gaius was treacherously wounded by Addon at a parley and died of the wound in 4 CE; the town was taken after a long siege. Wikipedia dates the wounding to 9 September 2 CE; the usual date is 3 CE." }, { "id": 707, "key": "6-salona", "name": "Salona", "year": 6, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "6 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Great Illyrian Revolt (Bellum Batonianum)", "theatre": "Dalmatia", "place": "Salona (Solin), on the Dalmatian coast", "lat": 43.54, "lon": 16.48, "loc": "known", "country": "Croatia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Illyrians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "Bato the Daesitiate (wounded)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Illyrians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The defenders of Salona, the capital of Dalmatia; Dio gives no details (Dio 55.29.4).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Salona had Italian settlers and some Greek traders; the garrison is unknown.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 55.29.4; en.wikipedia Bellum Batonianum", "note": "Opponent: the Daesitiates. Bato was hit by a stone and his attack failed; his men then raided the coast as far as Apollonia." }, { "id": 708, "key": "6-sirmium", "name": "Sirmium", "year": 6, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "6 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Great Illyrian Revolt (Bellum Batonianum)", "theatre": "Pannonia", "place": "near Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica), towards the Drava", "lat": 44.97, "lon": 19.61, "loc": "region", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Illyrians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aulus Caecina Severus", "commanders_b": "Bato the Breucian", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Illyrians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Caecina Severus' army of Moesia, legions and auxiliaries (Dio 55.29.3).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Moesian army drew some recruits from Macedonia and Thrace.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 55.29.3; Velleius 2.110; en.wikipedia Bellum Batonianum", "note": "Opponent: the Breuci (Pannonians). Dio places the fight near the Drava; it saved Sirmium, at heavy cost." }, { "id": 709, "key": "6-mons-alma", "name": "Mons Alma", "year": 6, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "6 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Great Illyrian Revolt (Bellum Batonianum)", "theatre": "Pannonia", "place": "Mons Alma (Fruška Gora), north of Sirmium", "lat": 45.15, "lon": 19.7, "loc": "approx", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Illyrians" ], "allies_a": [ "Thracians" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Rhoemetalces I of Thrace, Aulus Caecina Severus", "commanders_b": "Bato the Daesitiate, Bato the Breucian", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Illyrians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Rhoemetalces' Thracian cavalry sent ahead by Caecina, followed by Caecina's Moesian legions (Dio 55.30.3-4).", "languages": [ "Illyrian/Thracian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Thracian royal army was Thracian-speaking, with Greek at court.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 55.30.3-4; en.wikipedia Bellum Batonianum", "note": "Opponents: Daesitiates and Breuci." }, { "id": 710, "key": "7-volcaean-marshes", "name": "Volcaean Marshes", "year": 7, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "7 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Great Illyrian Revolt (Bellum Batonianum)", "theatre": "Pannonia", "place": "Volcaean marshes, near Cibalae (Vinkovci)", "lat": 45.25, "lon": 18.85, "loc": "approx", "country": "Croatia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Illyrians" ], "allies_a": [ "Thracians" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aulus Caecina Severus, Marcus Plautius Silvanus", "commanders_b": "Bato the Daesitiate, Bato the Breucian", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Illyrians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Five legions (by Wikipedia's reconstruction VII, VIII and XI from Moesia with IV Scythica and V Macedonica), some 70 cohorts in all with auxiliaries, and Rhoemetalces' Thracian cavalry, which was routed early (Velleius 2.112; Dio 55.32.3-4).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Some of the legions came from the East, but their legionaries were still largely Italian and western; the Thracian allies spoke Thracian.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Velleius 2.112; Cassius Dio 55.32.3-4; en.wikipedia Battle of the Volcaean Marshes", "note": "The Roman columns were surprised while making camp; the legions rallied and won after heavy losses." }, { "id": 711, "key": "9-teutoburg-forest", "name": "Teutoburg Forest", "year": 9, "month": 9, "day": null, "date": "September 9 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Augustus' Germanic wars", "theatre": "Germania", "place": "Teutoburg Forest; the main battlefield is generally placed at Kalkriese, near Osnabrück", "lat": 52.41, "lon": 8.13, "loc": "approx", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Arminius", "commanders_b": "Publius Quinctilius Varus (suicide)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Three legions (XVII, XVIII and XIX), three alae and six auxiliary cohorts (Velleius 2.117), perhaps 15,000-20,000 soldiers with camp followers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Rhine legions were recruited in Italy, Narbonensis and Gaul; the auxiliaries were Gallic and Germanic.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Velleius 2.117-120; Cassius Dio 56.18-24; Tacitus Ann. 1.60-62; Florus 2.30; en.wikipedia Battle of the Teutoburg Forest", "note": "Opponents: Cherusci, Marsi, Chatti, Bructeri and others. The fighting lasted several days on the march." }, { "id": 712, "key": "9-splonum-siege", "name": "Splonum (siege)", "year": 9, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "9 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Great Illyrian Revolt (Bellum Batonianum)", "theatre": "Dalmatia", "place": "Splonum, Dalmatia (site uncertain; perhaps near Pljevlja)", "lat": 43.36, "lon": 19.36, "loc": "region", "country": "Montenegro", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Illyrians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Germanicus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Illyrians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Germanicus' division of the army of Illyricum, legions and auxiliaries including German cavalry (Dio 56.11.2-3).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Illyricum was reinforced from the East as well as from Italy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 56.11.2-3; en.wikipedia Bellum Batonianum", "note": "Opponents: Dalmatians. The assaults failed until a section of wall collapsed, after which the garrison surrendered." }, { "id": 713, "key": "9-raetinum-siege", "name": "Raetinum (siege)", "year": 9, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "9 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Great Illyrian Revolt (Bellum Batonianum)", "theatre": "Dalmatia", "place": "Raetinum, Dalmatia (site uncertain; perhaps Golubić near Bihać)", "lat": 44.85, "lon": 15.9, "loc": "region", "country": "Bosnia and Herzegovina", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Illyrians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Germanicus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Illyrians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Germanicus' division of the army of Illyricum (Dio 56.11.4-7).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "As at Splonum.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 56.11.4-7; en.wikipedia Bellum Batonianum", "note": "Opponents: Dalmatians. The defenders fired their own town and many Romans were trapped in the flames; the survivors held out in the citadel, and Dio does not say clearly how it ended." }, { "id": 714, "key": "9-seretium-siege", "name": "Seretium (siege)", "year": 9, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "9 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Great Illyrian Revolt (Bellum Batonianum)", "theatre": "Dalmatia", "place": "Seretium, Dalmatia (site unknown)", "lat": 44.3, "lon": 17.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Bosnia and Herzegovina", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Illyrians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Germanicus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Illyrians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Germanicus' division of the army of Illyricum (Dio 56.12.1).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "As at Splonum.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 56.12.1; en.wikipedia Bellum Batonianum", "note": "Opponents: Dalmatians. Germanicus took the town, against which Tiberius had failed earlier." }, { "id": 715, "key": "9-andetrium-siege", "name": "Andetrium (siege)", "year": 9, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 9 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Great Illyrian Revolt (Bellum Batonianum)", "theatre": "Dalmatia", "place": "Andetrium (Gornji Muć), near Salona", "lat": 43.7, "lon": 16.37, "loc": "approx", "country": "Croatia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Illyrians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tiberius, Germanicus", "commanders_b": "Bato the Daesitiate", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Illyrians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Tiberius' division of the army of Illyricum, while Plautius Silvanus and Lepidus led the other columns (Dio 56.12-14).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "As at Splonum.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 56.12-14; en.wikipedia Bellum Batonianum", "note": "Opponents: Daesitiates. The rock fortress was stormed after Bato slipped away; Bato surrendered soon after." }, { "id": 716, "key": "9-arduba-siege", "name": "Arduba (siege)", "year": 9, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 9 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Great Illyrian Revolt (Bellum Batonianum)", "theatre": "Dalmatia", "place": "Arduba, a town above a river (site uncertain; perhaps Vranduk)", "lat": 44.29, "lon": 17.9, "loc": "region", "country": "Bosnia and Herzegovina", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Illyrians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Germanicus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Illyrians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Germanicus' division of the army of Illyricum (Dio 56.15).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "As at Splonum.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 56.15; en.wikipedia Bellum Batonianum", "note": "Opponents: Dalmatian deserters and townspeople. The deserters were beaten and the women threw themselves and their children into the fire or the river." }, { "id": 717, "key": "9-aliso-siege", "name": "Aliso (siege)", "year": 9, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 9 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Augustus' Germanic wars", "theatre": "Germania", "place": "the fort of Aliso on the Lippe (perhaps Haltern)", "lat": 51.74, "lon": 7.18, "loc": "approx", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (Arminius' coalition)", "commanders_b": "Lucius Caedicius (camp prefect)", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The identification of the fort is uncertain.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The fort's garrison with archers and survivors of Varus' army (Velleius 2.120; Dio 56.22; Frontinus Strat. 4.7.8).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rhine army troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Velleius 2.120; Cassius Dio 56.22; Frontinus Strat. 3.15.4, 4.7.8", "note": "The Germans' assaults were beaten off, but the garrison finally abandoned the fort and broke out to the Rhine." }, { "id": 718, "key": "15-pontes-longi", "name": "Pontes Longi", "year": 15, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 15 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Germanicus' campaigns", "theatre": "Germania", "place": "the 'long bridges' causeway through the marshes (Wikipedia: near Bramsche)", "lat": 52.4, "lon": 7.98, "loc": "region", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aulus Caecina Severus", "commanders_b": "Arminius, Inguiomerus", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Caecina's four legions (I Germanica, V Alaudae, XX Valeria Victrix and XXI Rapax) with auxiliaries, 28,000-30,000 men (Tacitus Ann. 1.60-68).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rhine legions and western auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus Ann. 1.63-68; en.wikipedia Battle at Pontes Longi", "note": "Opponent: the Cherusci and allies. Caecina's army was nearly overwhelmed in the marsh but beat off the assault on its camp and escaped; Tacitus presents it as a Roman victory, modern historians (and Wikipedia) as inconclusive." }, { "id": 719, "key": "16-idistaviso", "name": "Idistaviso", "year": 16, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 16 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Germanicus' campaigns", "theatre": "Germania", "place": "Idistaviso plain on the right bank of the Weser, between Minden and Hamelin", "lat": 52.2, "lon": 9.1, "loc": "approx", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Germanicus", "commanders_b": "Arminius, Inguiomerus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Eight legions, Gallic and German auxiliary cohorts including the Batavians of Chariovalda and the Chauci, Raetian and Vindelician cohorts, two praetorian cohorts, archers and cavalry, at least 60,000 men (Tacitus Ann. 2.11-18; Wikipedia).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rhine legions and western auxiliaries; the archers may have included a few eastern units.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Tacitus Ann. 2.14-18; en.wikipedia Battle of the Weser River", "note": "Opponent: the Cherusci and allies. Wikipedia titles it the Battle of the Weser River." }, { "id": 720, "key": "16-angrivarian-wall", "name": "Angrivarian Wall", "year": 16, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 16 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Germanicus' campaigns", "theatre": "Germania", "place": "the earthwork between the Cherusci and the Angrivarii, east of the Weser (near Leese)", "lat": 52.48, "lon": 9.1, "loc": "approx", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Germanicus, Lucius Seius Tubero", "commanders_b": "Arminius, Inguiomerus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The same army as at Idistaviso: eight legions with praetorian cohorts, slingers, artillery and auxiliaries (Tacitus Ann. 2.19-22).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rhine legions and western auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Tacitus Ann. 2.19-22; en.wikipedia Battle of the Angrivarian Wall", "note": "Some modern writers think Tacitus overstates the victory." }, { "id": 721, "key": "17-furius-camillus-victory", "name": "Furius Camillus' victory", "year": 17, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "17 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Tacfarinas' revolt", "theatre": "Africa Proconsularis", "place": "Africa Proconsularis (site not recorded)", "lat": 35.5, "lon": 9.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Berbers" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Furius Camillus", "commanders_b": "Tacfarinas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A pitched battle without a recorded site or name.", "main_enemy": "Berbers", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "One legion (III Augusta) with the allied auxiliaries, a small force against Tacfarinas' larger Numidian and Musulamian host (Tacitus Ann. 2.52).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The African legion and local auxilia, Latin- and Berber-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus Ann. 2.52; en.wikipedia Tacfarinas", "note": "Opponents: Musulamii and Moors under Tacfarinas. Camillus received triumphal ornaments." }, { "id": 722, "key": "20-pagyda", "name": "Pagyda", "year": 20, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "20 CE (some say 18)", "type": "land", "war": "Tacfarinas' revolt", "theatre": "Africa Proconsularis and Numidia", "place": "a fort on the river Pagyda (site unknown)", "lat": 35.3, "lon": 6.6, "loc": "region", "country": "Algeria", "side_a": [ "Berbers" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tacfarinas", "commanders_b": "Decrius (centurion, killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Berbers", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A cohort of Legio III Augusta under the centurion Decrius (Tacitus Ann. 3.20).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The African legion was recruited in Italy and the Latin-speaking western provinces.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus Ann. 3.20; en.wikipedia Tacfarinas", "note": "Opponent: the Musulamii under Tacfarinas. The cohort sallied and fled; the proconsul Lucius Apronius decimated it." }, { "id": 723, "key": "20-thala", "name": "Thala", "year": 20, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "20 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Tacfarinas' revolt", "theatre": "Africa Proconsularis", "place": "the fort of Thala", "lat": 35.57, "lon": 8.67, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Berbers" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (Rufus Helvius distinguished himself)", "commanders_b": "Tacfarinas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Berbers", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "About 500 veterans holding the fort (Tacitus Ann. 3.21).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Veterans of Legio III Augusta.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus Ann. 3.21; en.wikipedia Tacfarinas", "note": "Opponent: the Musulamii. The common soldier Rufus Helvius won the civic crown here." }, { "id": 724, "key": "21-augustodunum", "name": "Augustodunum", "year": 21, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "21 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Florus and Sacrovir", "theatre": "Gallia Lugdunensis", "place": "open plain twelve miles from Augustodunum (Autun)", "lat": 46.95, "lon": 4.3, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Silius", "commanders_b": "Julius Sacrovir", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A pitched battle near the town, not usually given its own name.", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Two legions of the Upper German army with auxiliaries and cavalry (Tacitus Ann. 3.43-46).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rhine legions and western auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus Ann. 3.40-46; Velleius 2.129", "note": "Opponents: Aedui and Sequani; Sacrovir's 40,000 included armoured gladiators (crupellarii). Sacrovir killed himself." }, { "id": 725, "key": "24-thubursicum", "name": "Thubursicum", "year": 24, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "24 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Tacfarinas' revolt", "theatre": "Numidia", "place": "Thubursicum (Khamissa or Teboursouk)", "lat": 36.13, "lon": 7.66, "loc": "approx", "country": "Algeria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Berbers" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Cornelius Dolabella", "commanders_b": "Tacfarinas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Berbers", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Dolabella's Legio III Augusta and auxiliaries (Tacitus Ann. 4.24).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The African legion and Numidian auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus Ann. 4.24; en.wikipedia Tacfarinas", "note": "Dolabella's arrival broke the siege; the Numidians fled at the first charge." }, { "id": 726, "key": "24-auzea", "name": "Auzea", "year": 24, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "24 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Tacfarinas' revolt", "theatre": "Mauretania", "place": "Tacfarinas' camp by the fort of Auzea (near Sour El-Ghozlane)", "lat": 36.15, "lon": 3.69, "loc": "approx", "country": "Algeria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Berbers" ], "allies_a": [ "Mauretania" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Cornelius Dolabella", "commanders_b": "Tacfarinas (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Berbers", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Light infantry and cavalry of Legio III Augusta's army in four columns, with Mauretanian horse sent by King Ptolemy (Tacitus Ann. 4.24-25).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The African legion with Numidian and Moorish cavalry.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus Ann. 4.24-25; en.wikipedia Tacfarinas", "note": "A dawn surprise attack on the camp; Tacfarinas died fighting and the revolt ended." }, { "id": 727, "key": "28-baduhenna-wood", "name": "Baduhenna Wood", "year": 28, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "28 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Frisian revolt", "theatre": "Germania Inferior", "place": "the grove of Baduhenna in Frisia (perhaps near Heiloo)", "lat": 52.6, "lon": 4.7, "loc": "region", "country": "Netherlands", "side_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "Lucius Apronius, Cethegus Labeo", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Vexillations of the Upper German legions, picked auxiliary infantry and cavalry, Legio V Alaudae, and the cavalry of the Canninefates with German infantry in Roman service (Tacitus Ann. 4.72-73).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rhine legions with Germanic and Gallic auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus Ann. 4.72-74; en.wikipedia Battle of Baduhenna Wood", "note": "Opponent: the Frisii. Apronius relieved the besieged fort (Flevum) but his units were beaten piecemeal; 900 fell in the grove and 400 more killed themselves at Cruptorix's villa. Wikipedia's infobox calls it a Pyrrhic Roman victory." }, { "id": 728, "key": "43-medway", "name": "Medway", "year": 43, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 43 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman conquest of Britain", "theatre": "Britain", "place": "crossing of the river Medway, probably near Rochester", "lat": 51.36, "lon": 0.48, "loc": "approx", "country": "United Kingdom", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Britons" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aulus Plautius, Vespasian, Titus Flavius Sabinus, Gnaeus Hosidius Geta", "commanders_b": "Togodumnus, Caratacus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Britons", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Four legions (II Augusta, IX Hispana, XIV Gemina, XX) with auxiliaries, about 40,000 men (Wikipedia's infobox gives 60,000); Dio's 'Celtic' auxiliaries, probably Batavians, swam the river in armour (Dio 60.20).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rhine and Danube legions with Gallic and Batavian auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Cassius Dio 60.19-21; Suetonius Vesp. 4; en.wikipedia Battle of the Medway", "note": "Opponents: the Catuvellauni and allies. A two-day battle; Dio does not name the river, which is inferred." }, { "id": 729, "key": "43-thames", "name": "Thames", "year": 43, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 43 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman conquest of Britain", "theatre": "Britain", "place": "the Thames near its estuary marshes", "lat": 51.5, "lon": 0.3, "loc": "region", "country": "United Kingdom", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Britons" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aulus Plautius", "commanders_b": "Togodumnus (died soon after), Caratacus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Dio describes a second battle at the Thames, but it is seldom treated as a named battle.", "main_enemy": "Britons", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Plautius' army, with Batavian auxiliaries swimming the river and other troops crossing by a bridge upstream (Dio 60.20.5-6).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "As at the Medway.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 60.20.5-6; en.wikipedia Roman conquest of Britain", "note": "The Romans lost men pursuing the Britons into the marshes." }, { "id": 730, "key": "47-ostorius-victory-over-the-iceni", "name": "Ostorius' victory over the Iceni", "year": 47, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "47 CE (or 48)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman conquest of Britain", "theatre": "Britannia", "place": "a rustic earthwork in the lands of the Iceni (site unknown; Stonea Camp has been suggested)", "lat": 52.52, "lon": 0.14, "loc": "region", "country": "United Kingdom", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Britons" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Ostorius Scapula, Marcus Ostorius Scapula", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Unnamed; the site is not recorded.", "main_enemy": "Britons", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Auxiliary infantry and dismounted cavalry, without the legions, who stormed the earthwork (Tacitus Ann. 12.31).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Auxilia of the British garrison, recruited in Gaul, the Rhineland and Thrace.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus Ann. 12.31; en.wikipedia Iceni", "note": "The first revolt of the Iceni and their neighbours, against Ostorius' disarmament; his son won the civic crown." }, { "id": 731, "key": "49-uspe-siege", "name": "Uspe (siege)", "year": 49, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "49 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Bosporan War", "theatre": "Kuban", "place": "Uspe, town of the Siraces beyond the river Panda (site unknown, Kuban region)", "lat": 45.0, "lon": 39.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Russia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sarmatians" ], "allies_a": [ "Bosporan Kingdom", "Sarmatians" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Aquila, Cotys I, Eunones", "commanders_b": "Zorsines", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sarmatians", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "A few Roman cohorts under Julius Aquila with Cotys' Bosporan troops armed in the Roman manner and the cavalry of the Aorsi under Eunones (Tacitus Ann. 12.15-17).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Iranian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Tacitus names Cotys' Bosporan forces, from a largely Greek-speaking kingdom, beside the Sarmatian Aorsi and a few Roman cohorts.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus Ann. 12.15-17; en.wikipedia Roman–Bosporan War", "note": "Opponent: the Siraces, allies of the deposed Mithridates of the Bosporus; allies_a Sarmatians = the Aorsi. The town was stormed after its offer of 10,000 slaves was refused, and Zorsines submitted." }, { "id": 732, "key": "50-caer-caradoc", "name": "Caer Caradoc", "year": 50, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "50 CE (or 51)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman conquest of Britain", "theatre": "Britain (Welsh Marches)", "place": "a fortified hill by a river in the territory of the Ordovices (site unknown; Caer Caradog near Chapel Lawn, Shropshire, is the most favoured candidate)", "lat": 52.39, "lon": -3.04, "loc": "region", "country": "United Kingdom", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Britons" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Ostorius Scapula", "commanders_b": "Caratacus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Britons", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Ostorius' legions and auxiliaries, who stormed the stone ramparts in testudo (Tacitus Ann. 12.33-35).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions of Britain with Gallic and Germanic auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Tacitus Ann. 12.33-36; en.wikipedia Battle of Caer Caradoc", "note": "Opponents: Ordovices and Silures. Caratacus fled to Cartimandua of the Brigantes, who handed him over." }, { "id": 733, "key": "58-artaxata", "name": "Artaxata", "year": 58, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "58 CE (some put it in 59)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Parthian War of 58–63", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "Artaxata, on the Araxes", "lat": 39.88, "lon": 44.58, "loc": "known", "country": "Armenia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Armenia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo", "commanders_b": "Tiridates I", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Tiridates harassed the column and offered battle but withdrew; the city then surrendered without a siege and was burned. The fighting was skirmishing on the march.", "main_enemy": "Armenia", "opponent_group": "Caucasus", "roman_force": "III Gallica on the right, VI Ferrata on the left and picked men of X Fretensis in the centre, with auxiliary horse and archers on the flanks (Tacitus Ann. 13.40).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Corbulo filled his Syrian legions with levies from Galatia and Cappadocia (Tacitus Ann. 13.35).", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus Ann. 13.39-41; en.wikipedia List of Roman battles (Sack of Artaxata)", "note": "The en.wikipedia list calls it the Sack of Artaxata. Its 'Capture of Tigranocerta' (59) was a surrender without fighting and is not entered; the resistance of Legerda is entered separately." }, { "id": 734, "key": "58-volandum-siege", "name": "Volandum (siege)", "year": 58, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "58 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Parthian War of 58–63", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "Volandum, Armenia (perhaps near Iğdır)", "lat": 39.92, "lon": 44.04, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Armenia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo", "commanders_b": "unknown (partisans of Tiridates)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Armenia", "opponent_group": "Caucasus", "roman_force": "Corbulo's army of III Gallica and VI Ferrata with a vexillation of X Fretensis and auxiliaries, while allied kings attacked elsewhere (Tacitus Ann. 13.35, 13.39).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Tacitus (Ann. 13.35) says Corbulo filled his Syrian legions with levies from Galatia and Cappadocia.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus Ann. 13.39; en.wikipedia Roman–Parthian War of 58–63", "note": "Stormed within a day, with three smaller forts; Artaxata surrendered soon after." }, { "id": 735, "key": "60-legerda-siege", "name": "Legerda (siege)", "year": 60, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "60 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Parthian War of 58–63", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "Legerda, near Tigranocerta (site unknown)", "lat": 38.3, "lon": 41.2, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Armenia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege known from one sentence of Tacitus.", "main_enemy": "Armenia", "opponent_group": "Caucasus", "roman_force": "Corbulo's Syrian legions and auxiliaries (Tacitus Ann. 14.25).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "As at Volandum: Syrian legions filled with Galatian and Cappadocian levies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus Ann. 14.25", "note": "A band of defenders held the fort until it was stormed." }, { "id": 736, "key": "60-mona", "name": "Mona", "year": 60, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "60 CE (or 61)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman conquest of Britain", "theatre": "Britain (Wales)", "place": "Menai Strait and the island of Mona (Anglesey)", "lat": 53.2, "lon": -4.22, "loc": "approx", "country": "United Kingdom", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Britons" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Suetonius Paulinus", "commanders_b": "unknown (druids)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Britons", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Legio XIV Gemina and detachments of XX ferried in flat-bottomed boats, with auxiliary cavalry swimming beside their horses (Tacitus Ann. 14.29-30).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions of Britain with Batavian and Gallic auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Tacitus Ann. 14.29-30, Agricola 14; en.wikipedia Roman conquest of Anglesey", "note": "Tacitus puts the revolt of Boudica, which broke out during this campaign, under 61 CE; many modern historians prefer 60 CE." }, { "id": 737, "key": "60-camulodunum-siege", "name": "Camulodunum (siege)", "year": 60, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "60 CE (or 61)", "type": "land", "war": "Boudican revolt", "theatre": "Britain", "place": "the colonia of Camulodunum (Colchester) and its temple of Claudius", "lat": 51.89, "lon": 0.9, "loc": "known", "country": "United Kingdom", "side_a": [ "Britons" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Boudica", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A sack, but the defenders fought in the temple for two days.", "main_enemy": "Britons", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "The veteran colonists and about 200 poorly armed men sent by the procurator Catus Decianus, holding the temple for two days (Tacitus Ann. 14.31-32).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legionary veterans settled in the colony.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus Ann. 14.31-32; Cassius Dio 62.1-2; en.wikipedia Boudican revolt", "note": "Opponents: Iceni and Trinovantes." }, { "id": 738, "key": "60-ninth-legion-s-defeat", "name": "Ninth Legion's defeat", "year": 60, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "60 CE (or 61)", "type": "land", "war": "Boudican revolt", "theatre": "Britain", "place": "on the road to Camulodunum (site unknown)", "lat": 52.2, "lon": 0.5, "loc": "region", "country": "United Kingdom", "side_a": [ "Britons" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Boudica", "commanders_b": "Quintus Petillius Cerialis", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An ambush or rout without a place name.", "main_enemy": "Britons", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "A vexillation of Legio IX Hispana with cavalry; the infantry was destroyed and Cerialis escaped with the horse (Tacitus Ann. 14.32).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A western legion.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus Ann. 14.32; en.wikipedia Boudican revolt", "note": "Opponents: Iceni and Trinovantes." }, { "id": 739, "key": "60-watling-street", "name": "Watling Street", "year": 60, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "60 CE (or 61)", "type": "land", "war": "Boudican revolt", "theatre": "Britain", "place": "a defile with a wood behind, probably on Watling Street in the Midlands (Mancetter is one candidate)", "lat": 52.57, "lon": -1.53, "loc": "region", "country": "United Kingdom", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Britons" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Suetonius Paulinus", "commanders_b": "Boudica", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Britons", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Legio XIV Gemina, vexillations of XX Valeria Victrix and the nearest auxiliaries, about 10,000 men (Tacitus Ann. 14.34); II Augusta failed to come.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Legions of Britain with Gallic and Germanic auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Tacitus Ann. 14.34-37, Agricola 16; Cassius Dio 62.8-12; en.wikipedia Battle of Watling Street", "note": "Opponents: Iceni, Trinovantes and other Britons. Tacitus' 80,000 British dead and Dio's 230,000 Britons are not credited by modern historians." }, { "id": 740, "key": "61-tigranocerta-siege", "name": "Tigranocerta (siege)", "year": 61, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "61 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Parthian War of 58–63", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "Tigranocerta (perhaps Arzan or Silvan)", "lat": 38.14, "lon": 41.0, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Parthia" ], "allies_a": [ "Armenia" ], "allies_b": [ "Adiabene" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tigranes VI of Armenia, Verulanus Severus", "commanders_b": "Monaeses, Monobazus II of Adiabene", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Parthia", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Tigranes VI's Armenians with a Roman garrison; Corbulo had sent two legions under Verulanus Severus and Vettius Bolanus to support Tigranes (Tacitus Ann. 15.3-6).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Armenian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Romans were Syrian legionaries partly levied in Galatia and Cappadocia, but most of the defenders were Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus Ann. 15.4-6; Cassius Dio 62.20; en.wikipedia Roman–Parthian War of 58–63", "note": "The Adiabenians did most of the siege work; a sally drove them back and Vologases withdrew Monaeses." }, { "id": 741, "key": "62-rhandeia", "name": "Rhandeia", "year": 62, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 62 CE (Wikipedia: spring 62)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman–Parthian War of 58–63", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "Paetus' winter camp at Rhandeia, on the Arsanias near Arsamosata", "lat": 38.75, "lon": 39.65, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Parthia" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Armenia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Vologases I, Tiridates", "commanders_b": "Lucius Caesennius Paetus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Parthia", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Paetus with Legio IV Scythica and XII Fulminata, auxiliaries and allied horse, V Macedonica being in Pontus; Corbulo came too late with half the Syrian army (Tacitus Ann. 15.6-17).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern legions recruited heavily in Galatia, Cappadocia and Syria.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Tacitus Ann. 15.6-17; Cassius Dio 62.21-22; en.wikipedia Battle of Rhandeia", "note": "Paetus' outlying detachments were beaten in detail and he capitulated after a short siege of his camp; the Romans left Armenia. The site is not securely located; Wikipedia's coordinates (39.40, 43.80) lie much further east." }, { "id": 742, "key": "66-jerusalem-garrison-siege", "name": "Jerusalem garrison (siege)", "year": 66, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August–September 66 CE", "type": "land", "war": "First Jewish–Roman War", "theatre": "Judaea", "place": "Jerusalem: the upper city, the Antonia and Herod's palace", "lat": 31.78, "lon": 35.23, "loc": "known", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Herodian kingdom" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Eleazar ben Hananiah, Menahem ben Judah", "commanders_b": "Metilius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege of the garrison, usually told as the start of the revolt rather than as a named battle.", "main_enemy": "Jewish rebels", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "A Roman auxiliary cohort under Metilius, with 2,000-3,000 cavalry sent by Agrippa II from Auranitis, Batanaea and Trachonitis (Josephus BJ 2.421-456).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Josephus says the auxiliaries of Judaea were recruited at Caesarea and Sebaste (AJ 19.365), Greek-speaking cities.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Josephus BJ 2.405-456; en.wikipedia First Jewish–Roman War", "note": "Agrippa's troops left under truce; the Romans surrendered in the towers and were massacred, except Metilius." }, { "id": 743, "key": "66-ascalon", "name": "Ascalon", "year": 66, "month": 12, "day": null, "date": "winter 66 CE/67", "type": "land", "war": "First Jewish–Roman War", "theatre": "Judaea", "place": "before Ascalon (Ashkelon)", "lat": 31.66, "lon": 34.55, "loc": "known", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Antonius", "commanders_b": "Niger the Perean, Silas the Babylonian (killed), John the Essene (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Jewish rebels", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "The garrison of Ascalon, one cohort of infantry and one ala of cavalry (Josephus BJ 3.12).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The auxiliary units of Judaea and the coast were raised largely in the Greek cities of the region.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Josephus BJ 3.9-28; en.wikipedia First Jewish–Roman War", "note": "Two attacks were beaten off by the cavalry, with heavy Jewish losses (Josephus' 10,000 and 8,000)." }, { "id": 744, "key": "66-beth-horon", "name": "Beth Horon", "year": 66, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "October/November 66 CE (8 Dius, by Josephus)", "type": "land", "war": "First Jewish–Roman War", "theatre": "Judaea", "place": "the Beth Horon ascent on the road from Jerusalem to the coast", "lat": 31.88, "lon": 35.12, "loc": "known", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Commagene", "Herodian kingdom", "Emesa" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Eleazar ben Simon, Simon bar Giora, Niger the Perean", "commanders_b": "Gaius Cestius Gallus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Jewish rebels", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "Legio XII Fulminata with 2,000 men from each of the other Syrian legions, six cohorts and four alae, troops of Antiochus IV of Commagene, Agrippa II and Sohaemus of Emesa, and levies from the Syrian cities (Josephus BJ 2.499-502), perhaps 30,000 men.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Arabic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Josephus lists large levies from the Greek cities of Syria and the troops of the client kings beside the legions.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Josephus BJ 2.499-555; Suetonius Vesp. 4; Tacitus Hist. 5.10; en.wikipedia Battle of Beth Horon (66)", "note": "Cestius had attacked Jerusalem and withdrawn; he lost 5,300 infantry, 480 cavalry and the eagle of XII Fulminata in the pass. Wikipedia puts the army at 20,000 (infobox) to 29,000-36,000 (text)." }, { "id": 745, "key": "67-jotapata-siege", "name": "Jotapata (siege)", "year": 67, "month": 5, "day": 24, "date": "24 May – 20 July 67 CE (47 days)", "type": "land", "war": "First Jewish–Roman War", "theatre": "Galilee", "place": "Jotapata (Yodfat), Galilee", "lat": 32.83, "lon": 35.28, "loc": "known", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "allies_a": [ "Commagene", "Herodian kingdom", "Emesa", "Nabataea" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Vespasian, Titus", "commanders_b": "Josephus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Jewish rebels", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "Legions V Macedonica, X Fretensis and XV Apollinaris, 23 auxiliary cohorts and six alae, with archers and horse from Antiochus IV, Agrippa II, Sohaemus and the Nabataean Malchus II, about 60,000 men (Josephus BJ 3.64-69).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Arabic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Josephus names the Caesarean and Sebastenian auxiliaries and the eastern royal contingents; X Fretensis and the Syrian auxiliaries were recruited in the Greek East.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Josephus BJ 3.141-339; en.wikipedia Siege of Yodfat", "note": "The town fell after 47 days and Josephus surrendered to Vespasian." }, { "id": 746, "key": "67-tarichaea", "name": "Tarichaea", "year": 67, "month": 9, "day": null, "date": "September 67 CE", "type": "land", "war": "First Jewish–Roman War", "theatre": "Galilee", "place": "Tarichaea (Magdala), on the Sea of Galilee", "lat": 32.83, "lon": 35.52, "loc": "known", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Titus, Vespasian", "commanders_b": "Jesus son of Sapphias", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Jewish rebels", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "Titus with 600 picked horse, reinforced by Trajan with 400 horse and 2,000 archers, who rode into the town from the lake shore (Josephus BJ 3.462-502).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The cavalry and archers were largely Syrian and eastern auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Josephus BJ 3.462-542; en.wikipedia Siege of Tarichaea", "note": "" }, { "id": 747, "key": "67-sea-of-galilee", "name": "Sea of Galilee", "year": 67, "month": 9, "day": null, "date": "September 67 CE", "type": "sea", "war": "First Jewish–Roman War", "theatre": "Galilee", "place": "Sea of Galilee off Tarichaea (Migdal)", "lat": 32.82, "lon": 35.55, "loc": "approx", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Vespasian", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Jewish rebels", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "Legionaries and auxiliaries embarked on rafts built for the purpose (Josephus BJ 3.522-531).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Vespasian's army was recruited largely in Syria and the Greek East.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Josephus BJ 3.522-531; en.wikipedia First Jewish–Roman War", "note": "The fugitives from Tarichaea in fishing boats were destroyed; Josephus gives 6,700 dead in town and lake." }, { "id": 748, "key": "67-gamla-siege", "name": "Gamla (siege)", "year": 67, "month": 10, "day": null, "date": "October – November 67 CE", "type": "land", "war": "First Jewish–Roman War", "theatre": "Gaulanitis", "place": "Gamla, on a ridge in the Golan", "lat": 32.9, "lon": 35.74, "loc": "known", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Vespasian, Titus", "commanders_b": "Joseph son of a midwife, Chares", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Jewish rebels", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "Legions V Macedonica, X Fretensis and XV Apollinaris with auxiliaries and artillery (Josephus BJ 4.1-83).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "X Fretensis and the Syrian auxiliaries were recruited in the Greek East.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Josephus BJ 4.1-83; en.wikipedia Siege of Gamla", "note": "Golan Heights, internationally recognised as Syria and administered by Israel. The first assault was repulsed with heavy loss; the town was taken about a month later." }, { "id": 749, "key": "67-mount-gerizim", "name": "Mount Gerizim", "year": 67, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "27 Daesius (June or July) 67 CE", "type": "land", "war": "First Jewish–Roman War", "theatre": "Samaria", "place": "Mount Gerizim, above Neapolis (Shechem)", "lat": 32.2, "lon": 35.27, "loc": "known", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Samaritans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Sextus Vettulenus Cerialis", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The Samaritans, surrounded on the mountain and short of water, were attacked when they refused to surrender (11,600 dead, by Josephus); more a massacre than a battle.", "main_enemy": "Samaritans", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "600 cavalry and 3,000 infantry, chiefly of legio V Macedonica, under its legate Cerialis, sent by Vespasian (Josephus BJ 3.307-315).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "V Macedonica, long stationed in Macedonia and Moesia, drew many recruits from the Balkan and eastern provinces.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Josephus BJ 3.307-315; en.wikipedia First Jewish–Roman War", "note": "Samaritans, not Jewish rebels: a new side name." }, { "id": 750, "key": "67-japha-siege", "name": "Japha (siege)", "year": 67, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 67 CE", "type": "land", "war": "First Jewish–Roman War", "theatre": "Galilee", "place": "Japha (Yafa an-Naseriyye), near Nazareth", "lat": 32.69, "lon": 35.27, "loc": "known", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Ulpius Traianus, Titus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Jewish rebels", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "Trajan (legate of X Fretensis) with 1,000 horse and 2,000 foot, reinforced by Titus with 500 horse and 1,000 foot (Josephus BJ 3.289-306).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Detachments of Vespasian's army, recruited largely in Syria and the Greek East.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Josephus BJ 3.289-306; en.wikipedia First Jewish–Roman War", "note": "The town was stormed; Josephus says 15,000 were killed." }, { "id": 751, "key": "67-mount-tabor", "name": "Mount Tabor", "year": 67, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 67 CE", "type": "land", "war": "First Jewish–Roman War", "theatre": "Galilee", "place": "the plain below Mount Tabor", "lat": 32.69, "lon": 35.39, "loc": "known", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Placidus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Jewish rebels", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "Placidus with 600 horse, who feigned flight to draw the defenders into the plain (Josephus BJ 4.54-61).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Auxiliary cavalry recruited largely in Syria and the Greek East.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Josephus BJ 4.54-61; en.wikipedia First Jewish–Roman War", "note": "The garrison of the summit surrendered for lack of water." }, { "id": 752, "key": "68-bethennabris", "name": "Bethennabris", "year": 68, "month": 3, "day": null, "date": "March 68 CE", "type": "land", "war": "First Jewish–Roman War", "theatre": "Peraea", "place": "Bethennabris (Beth Nimrah, Tell Nimrin) and the Jordan crossing", "lat": 31.9, "lon": 35.62, "loc": "approx", "country": "Jordan", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Placidus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A field battle known only from Josephus and not usually given a name.", "main_enemy": "Jewish rebels", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "Placidus with 500 horse and 3,000 foot (Josephus BJ 4.419-437).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A detachment of Vespasian's eastern army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Josephus BJ 4.413-439", "note": "The fugitives from Gadara were routed and driven into the flooded Jordan; Josephus gives 15,000 dead." }, { "id": 753, "key": "68-vesontio", "name": "Vesontio", "year": 68, "month": 5, "day": null, "date": "May 68 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Vindex", "theatre": "Gallia Belgica", "place": "before Vesontio (Besançon)", "lat": 47.24, "lon": 6.02, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Gauls" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Verginius Rufus (Rhine legions, for Nero)", "faction_b": "Vindex", "commanders_a": "Lucius Verginius Rufus", "commanders_b": "Gaius Julius Vindex (suicide)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Vindex was a Roman governor but his army was Gallic levies; counted as civil.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "The legions of Upper Germany (IV Macedonica, XXII Primigenia and others) with Belgic and Germanic auxiliaries; Vindex led some 20,000 Gallic levies of the Aedui, Sequani and Arverni (Dio 63.24; Plutarch Galba 6).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rhine legions and Gallic provincials.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 63.24-25; Plutarch Galba 6; Tacitus Hist. 1.51; en.wikipedia Battle of Vesontio (68)", "note": "Fought against the wishes of the two commanders, who had been negotiating; Vindex killed himself." }, { "id": 754, "key": "69-alpes-maritimae", "name": "Alpes Maritimae", "year": 69, "month": 3, "day": null, "date": "March 69", "type": "land", "war": "Year of the Four Emperors", "theatre": "Alpes Maritimae and Narbonensis", "place": "Coast of the Maritime Alps between Albintimilium and Antipolis", "lat": 43.78, "lon": 7.5, "loc": "region", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Otho", "faction_b": "Vitellius", "commanders_a": "Suedius Clemens, Antonius Novellus, Aemilius Pacensis", "commanders_b": "Julius Classicus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Tacitus describes the fighting but names no site.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Othonian: marines of the Misenum fleet with urban and praetorian cohorts landed on the Ligurian coast; Vitellian: two Tungrian cohorts, four troops of horse and the ala Treverorum under Julius Classicus sent by Fabius Valens, with Ligurian auxiliaries and local levies (Tacitus, Hist. 2.12-15).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Misenum fleet's marines were provincials from Egypt, Thrace, Asia Minor and Syria as well as the West; the Vitellian side was Gallic and Germanic.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus, Histories 2.12-15; en.wikipedia Battle of Locus Castorum (Otho's early success in the Alps)", "note": "The Othonians held the field; afterwards the Vitellians fell back on Antipolis and the Othonians on Albingaunum." }, { "id": 755, "key": "69-first-bedriacum", "name": "First Bedriacum", "year": 69, "month": 4, "day": 14, "date": "14 April 69", "type": "land", "war": "Year of the Four Emperors", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "On the Via Postumia between Bedriacum and Cremona", "lat": 45.11, "lon": 10.12, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Vitellius", "faction_b": "Otho", "commanders_a": "Aulus Caecina Alienus, Fabius Valens", "commanders_b": "Salvius Titianus, Licinius Proculus, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, Marius Celsus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Vitellian: the Rhine armies of Caecina and Valens, legions XXI Rapax, V Alaudae and I Italica with vexillations of the other Rhine legions and Batavian, Gallic and German auxilia; Othonian: I Adiutrix, XIII Gemina and a vexillation of XIV Gemina, praetorian cohorts and 2,000 gladiators, about 50,000 against 70,000 (Tacitus, Hist. 2.11, 2.41-45).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Only I Adiutrix, raised from the Misenum fleet, had many eastern recruits; the Vitellian army was Rhenish and Gallic.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Tacitus, Histories 2.39-45; Plutarch, Otho 8-14; Suetonius, Otho 9; en.wikipedia First Battle of Bedriacum", "note": "Vitellius was still in Gaul; Otho, at Brixellum, killed himself two days later." }, { "id": 756, "key": "69-locus-castorum", "name": "Locus Castorum", "year": 69, "month": 4, "day": null, "date": "Early April 69", "type": "land", "war": "Year of the Four Emperors", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "Locus Castorum (Ad Castores), about 12 Roman miles east of Cremona on the Via Postumia", "lat": 45.13, "lon": 10.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Otho", "faction_b": "Vitellius", "commanders_a": "Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, Marius Celsus", "commanders_b": "Aulus Caecina Alienus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Othonian: legionaries of I Adiutrix and a vexillation of XIII Gemina, praetorian cohorts, auxiliary cohorts and cavalry under Paulinus and Celsus; Vitellian: Caecina's auxiliary infantry and cavalry, whose ambush was turned and routed (Tacitus, Hist. 2.24-26).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "I Adiutrix had been raised in 68 from marines of the Misenum fleet, many of them easterners; the rest were Italians, Danubian legionaries and Rhine auxilia.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus, Histories 2.24-26; Suetonius, Otho 9; en.wikipedia Battle of Locus Castorum", "note": "Paulinus was blamed for not pursuing." }, { "id": 757, "key": "69-aquilius-defeat", "name": "Aquilius' defeat", "year": 69, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August 69", "type": "land", "war": "Batavian revolt", "theatre": "Germania Inferior", "place": "On the Rhine at the eastern end of the island of the Batavians, probably south of modern Arnhem", "lat": 51.95, "lon": 5.9, "loc": "approx", "country": "Netherlands", "side_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Civilis, Brinno", "commanders_b": "Aquilius (primus pilus)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No conventional name (en.wikipedia calls it an unnamed battle near Arnhem).", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The auxiliary garrisons of the Rhine delta rallied under the senior centurion Aquilius, with ships of the Rhine fleet; a Tungrian cohort went over to Civilis and the Batavian rowers ran the ships aground (Tacitus, Hist. 4.15-16).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Rhine-delta auxilia and fleet crews were raised in Gaul and Germany.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus, Histories 4.15-16; livius.org, Batavian Revolt (4); en.wikipedia Revolt of the Batavi", "note": "Batavi, Cananefates and Frisii." }, { "id": 758, "key": "69-lupercus-defeat", "name": "Lupercus' defeat", "year": 69, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "Late August 69", "type": "land", "war": "Batavian revolt", "theatre": "Germania Inferior", "place": "Near the Rhine, probably near Noviomagus (Nijmegen)", "lat": 51.83, "lon": 5.95, "loc": "region", "country": "Netherlands", "side_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Civilis", "commanders_b": "Munius Lupercus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No conventional name (en.wikipedia calls it an unnamed battle near Nijmegen).", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Detachments of V Alaudae and XV Primigenia from Vetera with Ubian and Treviran auxiliaries and a Batavian ala under Claudius Labeo, which deserted in the battle; the auxiliaries fled and the legions fell back to Vetera (Tacitus, Hist. 4.18).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rhine legions and Ubian, Treviran and Batavian auxilia.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus, Histories 4.18; livius.org, Batavian Revolt (4); en.wikipedia Revolt of the Batavi", "note": "Batavi with Cananefates and Frisii." }, { "id": 759, "key": "69-bonna", "name": "Bonna", "year": 69, "month": 9, "day": null, "date": "September 69", "type": "land", "war": "Batavian revolt", "theatre": "Germania Inferior", "place": "Before the legionary fortress of Bonna (Bonn)", "lat": 50.74, "lon": 7.1, "loc": "known", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "", "commanders_b": "Herennius Gallus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Legio I Germanica under Herennius Gallus, about 3,000 legionaries with hastily raised Belgic cohorts and camp followers, tried to stop the eight veteran Batavian cohorts marching north to join Civilis and was routed (Tacitus, Hist. 4.19-20).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Rhine legion with Belgic levies.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus, Histories 4.19-20", "note": "The Batavian cohorts had been recalled from Mogontiacum by Civilis." }, { "id": 760, "key": "69-vetera-first-siege", "name": "Vetera (first siege)", "year": 69, "month": 9, "day": null, "date": "September - December 69", "type": "land", "war": "Batavian revolt", "theatre": "Germania Inferior", "place": "Castra Vetera, on the Fürstenberg near Xanten", "lat": 51.64, "lon": 6.48, "loc": "known", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Munius Lupercus; relieved by Dillius Vocula", "commanders_b": "Gaius Julius Civilis", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The remnants of V Alaudae and XV Primigenia, no more than 5,000 legionaries with camp followers, under Munius Lupercus, who threw back repeated assaults; relieved in December by Vocula's army (Tacitus, Hist. 4.21-23, 4.28-30, 4.34-35).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rhine legions recruited in Gaul, northern Italy and the Rhineland.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus, Histories 4.21-23, 4.28-30, 4.34-35; livius.org, Batavian Revolt chronology; en.wikipedia Revolt of the Batavi", "note": "Batavi with Bructeri, Tencteri and other Germans from across the Rhine." }, { "id": 761, "key": "69-second-bedriacum", "name": "Second Bedriacum", "year": 69, "month": 10, "day": 24, "date": "24-25 October 69", "type": "land", "war": "Year of the Four Emperors", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "On the Via Postumia between Bedriacum and Cremona, near Cremona", "lat": 45.13, "lon": 10.1, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Vespasian", "faction_b": "Vitellius", "commanders_a": "Marcus Antonius Primus", "commanders_b": "Fabius Fabullus and the other legionary legates (Caecina had been arrested by his men)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Flavian: the Danubian legions III Gallica, VII Claudia and VIII Augusta from Moesia and VII Galbiana and XIII Gemina from Pannonia, with the praetorians cashiered by Vitellius, Pannonian and Moesian auxilia and Suebian allies under Sido and Italicus; Vitellian: IV Macedonica, V Alaudae, XV Primigenia, XVI Gallica, XXII Primigenia and I Germanica, with XXI Rapax and I Italica mixed through the line and vexillations of the British legions II, IX and XX (Tacitus, Hist. 3.21-22).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Germanic", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "III Gallica, a Syrian legion until 68, turned to salute the rising sun 'as is the custom in Syria' (Hist. 3.24); the rest of both armies was Danubian, Rhenish and British.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Tacitus, Histories 3.15-25; Cassius Dio 65.10-15; en.wikipedia Second Battle of Bedriacum", "note": "A night battle; also called the second battle of Cremona. Suebi under Sido and Italicus fought for the Flavians." }, { "id": 762, "key": "69-cremona-siege", "name": "Cremona (siege)", "year": 69, "month": 10, "day": 25, "date": "25 October 69", "type": "land", "war": "Year of the Four Emperors", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "The Vitellian camp and the walls of Cremona", "lat": 45.14, "lon": 10.03, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Vespasian", "faction_b": "Vitellius", "commanders_a": "Marcus Antonius Primus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The storming followed the battle at once and is often counted as part of Second Bedriacum.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "The victorious Flavian legions (III Gallica, VII Claudia, VIII Augusta, VII Galbiana, XIII Gemina) stormed the fortified Vitellian camp and assaulted the walls held by the beaten Vitellian legions; the city surrendered and was sacked and burned for four days (Tacitus, Hist. 3.26-34).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Germanic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "As at Second Bedriacum: only III Gallica had many eastern recruits.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Tacitus, Histories 3.26-34; Cassius Dio 65.15; en.wikipedia Second Battle of Bedriacum", "note": "" }, { "id": 763, "key": "69-forum-alieni", "name": "Forum Alieni", "year": 69, "month": 10, "day": null, "date": "Early October 69", "type": "land", "war": "Year of the Four Emperors", "theatre": "Venetia", "place": "Forum Alieni, on the Adige (probably Legnago)", "lat": 45.19, "lon": 11.31, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Vespasian", "faction_b": "Vitellius", "commanders_a": "Marcus Antonius Primus, Arrius Varus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A small engagement at the start of Antonius Primus' invasion of Italy.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Flavian: Antonius Primus and Arrius Varus with picked auxiliary cohorts and part of the cavalry of the Pannonian army; Vitellian: cohorts and cavalry posted at Forum Alieni, which were surprised and routed (Tacitus, Hist. 3.6).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Pannonian auxilia against Rhine troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus, Histories 3.6", "note": "The identification of Forum Alieni with Legnago is probable, not certain." }, { "id": 764, "key": "69-capitol-siege", "name": "Capitol (siege)", "year": 69, "month": 12, "day": 19, "date": "18-19 December 69", "type": "land", "war": "Year of the Four Emperors", "theatre": "Rome", "place": "The Capitoline Hill, Rome", "lat": 41.89, "lon": 12.48, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Vitellius", "faction_b": "Vespasian", "commanders_a": "", "commanders_b": "Titus Flavius Sabinus (city prefect, killed), Domitian", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Street fighting rather than a field battle; known as the burning of the Capitol.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Vitellian soldiers of the German army in Rome stormed the Capitol; it was held by Flavius Sabinus with a small mixed force of soldiers, senators and knights and the young Domitian; the temple of Jupiter burned and Sabinus was killed (Tacitus, Hist. 3.69-73).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rhine troops against Sabinus' urban soldiers and civilians of Rome.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Tacitus, Histories 3.69-73; Suetonius, Vitellius 15, Domitian 1", "note": "" }, { "id": 765, "key": "69-rome", "name": "Rome", "year": 69, "month": 12, "day": 20, "date": "20 December 69", "type": "land", "war": "Year of the Four Emperors", "theatre": "Rome", "place": "Rome: the Campus Martius, the Colline Gate and the praetorian camp", "lat": 41.9, "lon": 12.5, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Vespasian", "faction_b": "Vitellius", "commanders_a": "Marcus Antonius Primus, Quintus Petillius Cerialis, Arrius Varus", "commanders_b": "Vitellius (killed after the fighting)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No en.wikipedia article; the fighting is narrated by Tacitus as a battle for the city.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Flavian: the Danubian army of Antonius Primus entering in three columns by the Via Flaminia, along the Tiber and by the Via Salaria to the Colline Gate; Vitellian: the praetorian cohorts and remnants of the German army, who fought in the streets and the Campus Martius and to the last in the praetorian camp (Tacitus, Hist. 3.79-84).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic", "Germanic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Only the Syrian-recruited III Gallica among the Flavian legions had many Greek speakers.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Tacitus, Histories 3.79-84; Cassius Dio 65.19-21; Suetonius, Vitellius 16-17", "note": "Cerialis' cavalry had been beaten outside the city two days earlier." }, { "id": 766, "key": "69-gelduba", "name": "Gelduba", "year": 69, "month": 12, "day": null, "date": "About 1 December 69", "type": "land", "war": "Batavian revolt", "theatre": "Germania Inferior", "place": "The Roman camp at Gelduba (Krefeld-Gellep), on the Rhine", "lat": 51.33, "lon": 6.68, "loc": "known", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Dillius Vocula, Herennius Gallus", "commanders_b": "Lieutenants of Gaius Julius Civilis", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Vocula's relief army of vexillations of the Upper and Lower German legions with Gallic auxilia, near defeat until the Vascon cohorts levied by Galba fell on the enemy's rear (Tacitus, Hist. 4.33).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic", "other" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rhine legionaries, Gallic auxilia and Spanish Vascones (an early Basque speech, 'other').", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus, Histories 4.26, 4.32-33; livius.org, Batavian Revolt chronology ('battle of Krefeld')", "note": "The Batavian veteran cohorts were cut to pieces, but Roman losses were heavy. Called the battle of Krefeld by livius.org and en.wikipedia." }, { "id": 767, "key": "69-mogontiacum-siege", "name": "Mogontiacum (siege)", "year": 69, "month": 12, "day": null, "date": "December 69 - January 70", "type": "land", "war": "Batavian revolt", "theatre": "Germania Superior", "place": "Mogontiacum (Mainz)", "lat": 50.0, "lon": 8.27, "loc": "known", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Dillius Vocula (relief)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Little detail of the fighting survives.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The depleted garrison of Mogontiacum (IV Macedonica and XXII Primigenia), relieved by Vocula's army (Tacitus, Hist. 4.37).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Upper German legions recruited in Gaul, the Rhineland and northern Italy.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus, Histories 4.37; livius.org, Batavian Revolt chronology", "note": "Chatti, Usipi and Mattiaci." }, { "id": 768, "key": "69-tarracina-siege", "name": "Tarracina (siege)", "year": 69, "month": 12, "day": null, "date": "Mid-December 69", "type": "land", "war": "Year of the Four Emperors", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Tarracina (Terracina), on the Via Appia", "lat": 41.29, "lon": 13.25, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Vitellius", "faction_b": "Vespasian", "commanders_a": "Lucius Vitellius", "commanders_b": "Apinius Tiro, Julianus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Vitellian: Lucius Vitellius with the cohorts and cavalry sent to Campania (six cohorts and 500 horse, Hist. 3.58); Flavian defenders: marines of the Misenum fleet who had declared for Vespasian and a band of gladiators; the town fell to a night attack (Tacitus, Hist. 3.57, 3.76-77).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Misenum marines included many recruits from Egypt, Thrace and the Greek East; the Vitellian cohorts came from the Rhine army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus, Histories 3.57-58, 3.76-77", "note": "It fell just as the Flavians took Rome." }, { "id": 769, "key": "69-vetera-second-siege", "name": "Vetera (second siege)", "year": 69, "month": 12, "day": null, "date": "December 69 - March 70", "type": "land", "war": "Batavian revolt", "theatre": "Germania Inferior", "place": "Castra Vetera, near Xanten", "lat": 51.64, "lon": 6.48, "loc": "known", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Julius Civilis", "commanders_b": "Munius Lupercus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A blockade renewed after Vocula's relief of the first siege (Tacitus Hist. 4.36); it ended in surrender through starvation (March 70) and little fighting is recorded.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The starving remnant of V Alaudae and XV Primigenia under Munius Lupercus, who surrendered in March 70 and were massacred on the march by Civilis' German allies (Tacitus, Hist. 4.59-60).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rhine legions.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus, Histories 4.36, 4.57-60; livius.org, Batavian Revolt chronology; en.wikipedia Revolt of the Batavi", "note": "Lupercus was sent as a gift to the prophetess Veleda; the surrendered legions were ambushed and massacred a few miles from the camp. Distinct from the first siege (September-December 69) and from Cerialis' battle at Vetera (summer 70)." }, { "id": 770, "key": "69-moesia", "name": "Moesia", "year": 69, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Winter 68/69 (early 69)", "type": "land", "war": "Sarmatian raids on Moesia", "theatre": "Moesia", "place": "Moesia, south of the lower Danube (site not given)", "lat": 43.7, "lon": 25.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sarmatians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Aponius Saturninus (governor of Moesia)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No conventional name; a distinct victory for which Otho gave Aponius triumphal honours, but the site is not recorded.", "main_enemy": "Sarmatians", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "Legio III Gallica, transferred from Syria to Moesia in 68, with the auxilia of Moesia; they caught some 9,000 Roxolani horsemen laden with plunder on thawing ground and destroyed them (Tacitus, Hist. 1.79).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "III Gallica had recruited for a century in the Greek- and Aramaic-speaking East (Tacitus notes its Syrian custom of saluting the rising sun, Hist. 3.24); the Moesian auxilia were mostly Thracian and Danubian.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus, Histories 1.79", "note": "Roxolani (Sarmatians)." }, { "id": 771, "key": "69-placentia-siege", "name": "Placentia (siege)", "year": 69, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Late March or early April 69", "type": "land", "war": "Year of the Four Emperors", "theatre": "Cisalpine Gaul", "place": "Placentia (Piacenza), on the Po", "lat": 45.05, "lon": 9.69, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Otho", "faction_b": "Vitellius", "commanders_a": "Titus Vestricius Spurinna", "commanders_b": "Aulus Caecina Alienus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Othonian garrison: three praetorian cohorts, a vexillation of about 1,000 legionaries and a few cavalry under Spurinna; Vitellian: Caecina's army from Upper Germany, legio XXI Rapax with German, Gallic and other auxilia, whose assaults on the walls failed (Tacitus, Hist. 2.17-22).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The praetorians were Italians and Caecina's army came from the Rhine.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus, Histories 2.17-22; Plutarch, Otho 6", "note": "" }, { "id": 772, "key": "70-jerusalem-siege", "name": "Jerusalem (siege)", "year": 70, "month": 4, "day": 14, "date": "14 April - 8 September 70", "type": "land", "war": "First Jewish-Roman War", "theatre": "Judaea", "place": "Jerusalem", "lat": 31.78, "lon": 35.23, "loc": "known", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "allies_a": [ "Herodian kingdom", "Commagene", "Emesa", "Nabataea" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Titus, Tiberius Julius Alexander", "commanders_b": "Simon bar Giora, John of Gischala, Eleazar ben Simon", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Jewish rebels", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "Legions V Macedonica, X Fretensis, XII Fulminata and XV Apollinaris, 2,000 men of III Cyrenaica and XXII Deiotariana from Egypt and 3,000 from the Euphrates garrisons, 20 auxiliary cohorts and 8 alae, troops of the client kings Agrippa II, Antiochus IV of Commagene, Sohaemus of Emesa and Malchus II of Nabataea, and Syrian levies; at least 48,000 men (Josephus, BJ 5.40-46; Tacitus, Hist. 5.1).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Arabic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Josephus names auxiliaries from the Greek cities of Caesarea and Sebaste and the 'Macedonians' of Antiochus Epiphanes of Commagene, and the Syrian legions X and XII were recruited in the Greek and Aramaic East; V and XV came from the Balkans and Pannonia.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Josephus, Jewish War 5-6; Tacitus, Histories 5.1, 5.11-13; Cassius Dio 66.4-7; en.wikipedia Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)", "note": "The Temple burned on 10 Ab (about 30 August); the upper city fell on 8 September." }, { "id": 773, "key": "70-augusta-treverorum", "name": "Augusta Treverorum", "year": 70, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 70 (probably 7/8 June)", "type": "land", "war": "Batavian revolt", "theatre": "Gallia Belgica", "place": "The Roman camp and the Moselle bridge at Augusta Treverorum (Trier)", "lat": 49.75, "lon": 6.64, "loc": "known", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples", "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Petillius Cerialis", "commanders_b": "Gaius Julius Civilis, Julius Classicus, Julius Tutor", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Cerialis' legions in their camp by the city (livius.org names II Adiutrix, XIII Gemina and XXI Rapax), with legions I Germanica and XVI Gallica lately returned to their allegiance and auxiliary cavalry; the rebels broke into the camp at dawn and were driven out (Tacitus, Hist. 4.75-78).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "II Adiutrix had just been raised from the marines of the Ravenna fleet, recruited in Dalmatia, Pannonia, Thrace and the Greek East; the other legions were western.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus, Histories 4.75-78; livius.org, Batavian Revolt (9) and chronology", "note": "Batavi and other Germans under Civilis, Treveri and Lingones under Classicus and Tutor. Livius calls it the decisive battle of the war; the day is uncertain." }, { "id": 774, "key": "70-grinnes-and-vada", "name": "Grinnes and Vada", "year": 70, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August 70", "type": "land", "war": "Batavian revolt", "theatre": "Germania Inferior", "place": "Roman posts on the Waal and Rhine: Arenacum, Batavodurum, Grinnes and Vada (sites not identified)", "lat": 51.88, "lon": 5.55, "loc": "region", "country": "Netherlands", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples", "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Petillius Cerialis", "commanders_b": "Gaius Julius Civilis, Julius Classicus, Julius Verax", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "X Gemina at Arenacum, II Adiutrix at Batavodurum and auxiliary cohorts and cavalry at Grinnes and Vada held off simultaneous attacks until Cerialis came up with cavalry and drove the enemy into the river; the loyal Batavian officer Briganticus fell (Tacitus, Hist. 5.19-21).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "II Adiutrix had eastern recruits from the Ravenna fleet; the rest were western legions and Gallic and German auxilia.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus, Histories 5.19-21; livius.org, Batavian Revolt (9)", "note": "Civilis escaped by swimming the Rhine. The revolt ended in a settlement in September 70." }, { "id": 775, "key": "70-rigodulum", "name": "Rigodulum", "year": 70, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Late spring or early summer 70", "type": "land", "war": "Batavian revolt", "theatre": "Gallia Belgica", "place": "Rigodulum (Riol), on the heights above the Moselle below Trier", "lat": 49.79, "lon": 6.79, "loc": "known", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Gauls" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Petillius Cerialis", "commanders_b": "Julius Valentinus (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Gauls", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "Cerialis with the legions and cavalry he had brought from Italy and Upper Germany (XXI Rapax among them), who stormed the Treveran position on the slopes above the river (Tacitus, Hist. 4.71).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Western legions and Gallic and German auxilia.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus, Histories 4.71; livius.org, Batavian Revolt (9)", "note": "Treveri. Cerialis entered Trier the next day." }, { "id": 776, "key": "70-vetera", "name": "Vetera", "year": 70, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Summer 70 (two days)", "type": "land", "war": "Batavian revolt", "theatre": "Germania Inferior", "place": "The flooded plain by the ruined camp of Vetera, near Xanten", "lat": 51.66, "lon": 6.43, "loc": "approx", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Quintus Petillius Cerialis", "commanders_b": "Gaius Julius Civilis", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Cerialis with legions II Adiutrix, VI Victrix, XIV Gemina and XXI Rapax, auxiliary infantry and cavalry; on the second day a Batavian deserter led cavalry round the enemy flank (Tacitus, Hist. 5.14-18).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "II Adiutrix, raised from the Ravenna fleet, included eastern recruits; VI Victrix came from Spain and XIV Gemina from Britain.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tacitus, Histories 5.14-18; livius.org, Batavian Revolt (9)", "note": "Batavi, Cugerni, Bructeri, Tencteri and Chauci. Rain stopped the Roman pursuit." }, { "id": 777, "key": "72-machaerus-siege", "name": "Machaerus (siege)", "year": 72, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "72 (or 71)", "type": "land", "war": "First Jewish-Roman War", "theatre": "Peraea", "place": "The fortress of Machaerus, east of the Dead Sea", "lat": 31.56, "lon": 35.63, "loc": "known", "country": "Jordan", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Sextus Lucilius Bassus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Jewish rebels", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "Lucilius Bassus, legate of Judaea, with legio X Fretensis and the auxilia of the province; after siege works and sorties the garrison surrendered on terms when the young fighter Eleazar was captured (Josephus, BJ 7.163-209).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "X Fretensis had long recruited in Syria and the Greek East, and the auxilia of Judaea were raised in the Greek cities of Caesarea and Sebaste.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Josephus, Jewish War 7.163-209; en.wikipedia Machaerus", "note": "en.wikipedia dates it 71; many give 72. Bassus had first taken Herodium." }, { "id": 778, "key": "72-forest-of-jardes", "name": "Forest of Jardes", "year": 72, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "72", "type": "land", "war": "First Jewish-Roman War", "theatre": "Judaea", "place": "The forest of Jardes (site unknown, perhaps near the Jordan valley)", "lat": 31.7, "lon": 35.55, "loc": "region", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Sextus Lucilius Bassus", "commanders_b": "Judas son of Ari (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Jewish rebels", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "Bassus with his cavalry and the infantry of X Fretensis surrounded the wood and killed some 3,000 fugitives from Jerusalem and Machaerus, losing twelve men (Josephus, BJ 7.210-215).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Judaea: X Fretensis and auxilia from Caesarea and Sebaste.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Josephus, Jewish War 7.210-215", "note": "The site of Jardes is unknown; the country is a guess." }, { "id": 779, "key": "72-commagene", "name": "Commagene", "year": 72, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "72", "type": "land", "war": "Annexation of Commagene", "theatre": "Syria (Commagene)", "place": "Commagene, near Samosata on the Euphrates", "lat": 37.53, "lon": 38.48, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Commagene" ], "allies_a": [ "Chalcis", "Emesa" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Caesennius Paetus", "commanders_b": "Epiphanes and Callinicus, sons of Antiochus IV", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No conventional name; Josephus describes a pitched battle.", "main_enemy": "Commagene", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Caesennius Paetus, governor of Syria, with legio VI Ferrata, some auxiliary cohorts and alae, and the troops of the client kings Aristobulus of Chalcis and Sohaemus of Emesa (Josephus, BJ 7.219-243).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Arabic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "VI Ferrata and the auxilia of Syria were recruited in the Greek- and Aramaic-speaking cities of Syria.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Josephus, Jewish War 7.219-243", "note": "The battle lasted a whole day without decision; the princes then fled to Parthia and Commagene, a Hellenistic kingdom with a Greek court, was annexed." }, { "id": 780, "key": "73-masada-siege", "name": "Masada (siege)", "year": 73, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Winter 72/73 - spring 73 (or 73/74)", "type": "land", "war": "First Jewish-Roman War", "theatre": "Judaea", "place": "Masada, above the Dead Sea", "lat": 31.32, "lon": 35.35, "loc": "known", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Flavius Silva", "commanders_b": "Eleazar ben Ya'ir", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Jewish rebels", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "Legio X Fretensis (about 4,800 men) with auxiliary units and thousands of Jewish prisoners as labourers, in eight camps behind a circumvallation; a ramp and ram breached the wall and the defenders killed themselves (Josephus, BJ 7.252-406).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Judaea: X Fretensis, long recruited in the East, and auxilia raised in Caesarea, Sebaste and Syria.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Josephus, Jewish War 7.252-406; en.wikipedia Siege of Masada", "note": "Sicarii. Traditionally dated to spring 73 (wall breached about 16 April); Campbell and Cotton argue for 73/74." }, { "id": 781, "key": "83-mons-graupius", "name": "Mons Graupius", "year": 83, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Late summer 83 (or 84)", "type": "land", "war": "Agricola's campaigns in Caledonia", "theatre": "Caledonia", "place": "Mons Graupius, north-east Scotland (perhaps Bennachie, Aberdeenshire)", "lat": 57.29, "lon": -2.52, "loc": "region", "country": "United Kingdom", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Britons" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gnaeus Julius Agricola", "commanders_b": "Calgacus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Britons", "opponent_group": "Celts", "roman_force": "8,000 auxiliary infantry in the centre, with four Batavian and two Tungrian cohorts leading the attack, 3,000 cavalry on the wings and four alae in reserve; the legions (detachments of II Augusta, II Adiutrix, IX Hispana and XX) stood before the camp and did not fight; Britons served in the auxilia (Tacitus, Agricola 29, 35-37).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The fighting was done by Germanic and Gallic auxilia; only II Adiutrix, raised from the Ravenna fleet in 69 and probably among the reserve, had a few eastern recruits.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Tacitus, Agricola 29-38; en.wikipedia Battle of Mons Graupius", "note": "Caledonii and other northern tribes; Tacitus claims 10,000 enemy and 360 Roman dead. The site is disputed (Bennachie, Raedykes, the Gask Ridge and others)." }, { "id": 782, "key": "85-oppius-sabinus-defeat", "name": "Oppius Sabinus' defeat", "year": 85, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "winter 85/86", "type": "land", "war": "Domitian's Dacian War", "theatre": "Moesia", "place": "Moesia, south of the lower Danube (site unknown)", "lat": 43.9, "lon": 24.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Dacians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Duras, Diurpaneus", "commanders_b": "Gaius Oppius Sabinus (governor of Moesia, killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An unnamed defeat whose site is unknown; the governor was killed.", "main_enemy": "Dacians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The army of Moesia under its governor; the units lost are not recorded (V Alaudae has been suggested, though many put its destruction with Fuscus).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Moesian army recruited in Italy, the Balkans and the Greek cities of the Black Sea coast; Greek speakers were few.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Suetonius, Domitian 6; Jordanes, Getica 76; Eutropius 7.23; en.wikipedia Domitian's Dacian War", "note": "The Dacians crossed the frozen Danube; Domitian came to Moesia in person and the war of 86-88 followed." }, { "id": 783, "key": "86-first-tapae", "name": "First Tapae", "year": 86, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "86 (or 87)", "type": "land", "war": "Domitian's Dacian War", "theatre": "Dacia", "place": "Dacia, north of the Danube (site unknown; traditionally at Tapae, by the Iron Gates of Transylvania)", "lat": 45.47, "lon": 22.7, "loc": "region", "country": "Romania", "side_a": [ "Dacians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Decebalus", "commanders_b": "Cornelius Fuscus (praetorian prefect, killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Dacians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Cornelius Fuscus crossed the Danube on a pontoon bridge with an army of five or six legions and praetorian cohorts; the army was destroyed and a standard lost, and V Alaudae is often thought to have perished here (Suetonius, Domitian 6; Cassius Dio 68.9.3; Jordanes, Getica 76-78).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Moesian army recruited along the Danube and in Thrace and Macedonia, with some men from the Greek cities of the Black Sea; most were Latin-speakers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Suetonius, Domitian 6; Cassius Dio 67.6, 68.9; Jordanes, Getica 76-78; en.wikipedia List of Roman battles; en.wikipedia Domitian's Dacian War", "note": "Dated 86 or 87 (the en.wikipedia list gives 87); the site and the name 'First Tapae' are modern conjectures. In the winter of 85/86 the governor Oppius Sabinus had already been defeated and killed in Moesia." }, { "id": 784, "key": "88-second-tapae", "name": "Second Tapae", "year": 88, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "88", "type": "land", "war": "Domitian's Dacian War", "theatre": "Dacia", "place": "Tapae, in the plain of Caransebes before the Iron Gates of Transylvania", "lat": 45.47, "lon": 22.7, "loc": "approx", "country": "Romania", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Dacians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lucius Tettius Julianus", "commanders_b": "Decebalus, Vezinas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Dacians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The reinforced army of Moesia under Tettius Julianus, with legions brought from Pannonia and the Rhine (among them IV Flavia Felix, I Adiutrix and II Adiutrix) and auxilia; Julianus had the soldiers write their names and units on their shields (Cassius Dio 67.10).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Danubian army recruited mainly in the Latin-speaking provinces and the Balkans.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Cassius Dio 67.10; en.wikipedia List of Roman battles; en.wikipedia Second Battle of Tapae", "note": "Julianus did not march on Sarmizegetusa; peace followed in 89." }, { "id": 785, "key": "89-saturninus-revolt", "name": "Saturninus' revolt", "year": 89, "month": 1, "day": null, "date": "January 89", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Saturninus", "theatre": "Germania Superior", "place": "Upper Germany, on the Rhine (site unknown)", "lat": 50.0, "lon": 8.2, "loc": "region", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Domitian", "faction_b": "Saturninus", "commanders_a": "Aulus Bucius Lappius Maximus", "commanders_b": "Lucius Antonius Saturninus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The battlefield has no name; a single decisive battle is attested.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Loyalist: the army of Lower Germany under Lappius Maximus (the legions I Minervia, VI Victrix, X Gemina and XXII Primigenia were later honoured for loyalty), helped by the procurator of Raetia; rebel: Saturninus' two legions at Mogontiacum, XIV Gemina and XXI Rapax, whose Chattan allies were cut off by a sudden thaw of the Rhine (Suetonius, Domitian 6-7; Cassius Dio 67.11).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rhine legions recruited in Gaul, the Rhineland and northern Italy.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Suetonius, Domitian 6-7; Cassius Dio 67.11; Plutarch, Aemilius Paullus 25", "note": "" }, { "id": 786, "key": "101-third-tapae", "name": "Third Tapae", "year": 101, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Autumn 101", "type": "land", "war": "Trajan's First Dacian War", "theatre": "Dacia", "place": "Tapae, by the Iron Gates of Transylvania", "lat": 45.47, "lon": 22.7, "loc": "approx", "country": "Romania", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Dacians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Trajan, Lusius Quietus", "commanders_b": "Decebalus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Dacians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Trajan's invasion army: the legions of the Danube with vexillations from other provinces, praetorian cohorts and many auxilia, including the Germanic irregulars, Moorish horsemen under Lusius Quietus and eastern archers shown on Trajan's Column; Roman losses were so heavy that Trajan gave his own clothes for bandages (Cassius Dio 68.8).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic", "Germanic", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Eastern archer cohorts and recruits from Macedonia, Thrace and the Greek cities of Moesia served, but the army was mainly Danubian and western.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Cassius Dio 68.8; Trajan's Column; en.wikipedia List of Roman battles; en.wikipedia Trajan's Dacian Wars", "note": "" }, { "id": 787, "key": "102-nicopolis-ad-istrum", "name": "Nicopolis ad Istrum", "year": 102, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Winter 101/102", "type": "land", "war": "Trajan's First Dacian War", "theatre": "Moesia Inferior", "place": "Near the later city of Nicopolis ad Istrum, on the Yantra", "lat": 43.22, "lon": 25.61, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Dacians", "Sarmatians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Trajan", "commanders_b": "Decebalus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Reconstructed from Trajan's Column and Jordanes (Trajan founded Nicopolis after defeating the Sarmatians); often treated as a phase of the Adamclisi campaign.", "main_enemy": "Dacians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Trajan with the army of Lower Moesia and troops brought down the Danube by ship, legionaries, auxiliary infantry and cavalry; Trajan's Column shows a night battle against Dacians and Roxolani cataphracts.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Lower Moesia's army recruited along the Danube and in Thrace, near the Greek cities of the Black Sea coast.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Trajan's Column; Jordanes, Getica 101; en.wikipedia Trajan's Dacian Wars; en.wikipedia Battle of Adamclisi", "note": "en.wikipedia's Adamclisi article calls the night battle near Nicopolis indecisive; its Dacian Wars article calls it a Roman victory." }, { "id": 788, "key": "102-adamclisi", "name": "Adamclisi", "year": 102, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Winter 101/102", "type": "land", "war": "Trajan's First Dacian War", "theatre": "Moesia Inferior", "place": "Adamclisi, Dobruja", "lat": 44.08, "lon": 27.95, "loc": "known", "country": "Romania", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Dacians", "Sarmatians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Trajan", "commanders_b": "Decebalus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Dacians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Trajan with the legions of Lower Moesia (such as I Italica, V Macedonica and XI Claudia) and auxilia, reinforced from the main army; losses were heavy on both sides, and the funerary altar at Adamclisi, listing some 3,800 Roman dead, may belong to this battle.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Lower Moesia's legions recruited along the Danube and in Thrace; the Greek cities of the Pontic coast (Tomis, Callatis, Histria) lay close by.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Trajan's Column; Tropaeum Traiani; en.wikipedia Battle of Adamclisi; en.wikipedia List of Roman battles", "note": "Dacians with Roxolani (Sarmatians) and Bastarnae. The Tropaeum Traiani (109) commemorates the victory; the altar may instead commemorate Fuscus' or Oppius Sabinus' dead." }, { "id": 789, "key": "106-sarmizegetusa-siege", "name": "Sarmizegetusa (siege)", "year": 106, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Summer 106", "type": "land", "war": "Trajan's Second Dacian War", "theatre": "Dacia", "place": "Sarmizegetusa Regia, the Dacian capital in the Orastie Mountains", "lat": 45.62, "lon": 23.31, "loc": "known", "country": "Romania", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Dacians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Trajan", "commanders_b": "Decebalus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Dacians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Trajan's army converging on the capital, with legions II Adiutrix and IV Flavia Felix and a vexillation of VI Ferrata attested at the site, many auxilia and Moorish and eastern units; the Romans cut the water pipes, stormed the city and razed it, and Decebalus killed himself.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic", "Germanic", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The vexillation of VI Ferrata came from the Judaean-Syrian army, recruited in the East; the main body was Danubian.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Cassius Dio 68.14; Trajan's Column; en.wikipedia Battle of Sarmisegetusa", "note": "" }, { "id": 790, "key": "116-maximus-defeat", "name": "Maximus' defeat", "year": 116, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "116 CE", "type": "land", "war": "Trajan's Parthian campaign", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Mesopotamia (site unknown)", "lat": 36.5, "lon": 42.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Parthia" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "Maximus (probably Appius Maximus Santra), killed", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An unnamed defeat known from one sentence of Dio.", "main_enemy": "Parthia", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "A Roman force of Trajan's eastern army under the general Maximus; its size and units are not recorded (Cassius Dio 68.30.1).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Trajan's eastern army drew many recruits from Syria and Asia Minor.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 68.30.1; en.wikipedia Trajan's Parthian campaign", "note": "Part of the general revolt of the conquered lands in 116; Lusius Quietus then retook Nisibis and sacked Edessa." }, { "id": 791, "key": "116-ctesiphon", "name": "Ctesiphon", "year": 116, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "116 (some date it to late 115)", "type": "land", "war": "Trajan's Parthian War", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Ctesiphon, on the Tigris", "lat": 33.09, "lon": 44.58, "loc": "known", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Parthia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Trajan", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The Parthian capital fell with little recorded fighting.", "main_enemy": "Parthia", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Trajan's eastern expeditionary army: the legions of Syria, Cappadocia, Judaea, Arabia and Egypt (by vexillations) with Danubian reinforcements and a river fleet brought down the Euphrates and hauled across to the Tigris; Trajan was hailed imperator and took the title Parthicus (Cassius Dio 68.28).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern legions and auxilia were recruited mainly in Syria, Asia Minor and Egypt; Danubian vexillations and Moorish cavalry added non-Greek elements.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Cassius Dio 68.28; en.wikipedia Trajan's Parthian campaign", "note": "" }, { "id": 792, "key": "116-edessa-siege", "name": "Edessa (siege)", "year": 116, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Summer 116", "type": "land", "war": "Trajan's Parthian War", "theatre": "Mesopotamia (Osrhoene)", "place": "Edessa (Sanliurfa)", "lat": 37.16, "lon": 38.79, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Osrhoene" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lusius Quietus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Little detail of the siege survives.", "main_enemy": "Osrhoene", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "Lusius Quietus with his Moorish cavalry and detachments of the eastern army, sent to crush the revolt of northern Mesopotamia; he recovered Nisibis and besieged, sacked and burned Edessa (Cassius Dio 68.30).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Berber", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Eastern legionary detachments recruited in Syria and Asia Minor alongside Quietus' Moors.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 68.30; en.wikipedia Trajan's Parthian campaign; en.wikipedia Kitos War", "note": "Osrhoene under Abgar VII had submitted in 115 and rose in 116; Eusebius links the Mesopotamian revolt with the Jews." }, { "id": 793, "key": "116-seleucia-siege", "name": "Seleucia (siege)", "year": 116, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Summer 116", "type": "land", "war": "Trajan's Parthian War", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Seleucia on the Tigris", "lat": 33.1, "lon": 44.52, "loc": "known", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Greek cities" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Erucius Clarus, Tiberius Julius Alexander Julianus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Little detail of the fighting survives.", "main_enemy": "Greek cities", "opponent_group": "Greeks", "roman_force": "Detachments of Trajan's eastern army under the legates Erucius Clarus and Julius Alexander, who recaptured the rebel city and burned it (Cassius Dio 68.30).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Eastern legionary and auxiliary detachments recruited in Syria and Asia Minor.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 68.30; en.wikipedia Trajan's Parthian campaign", "note": "Seleucia, a Macedonian foundation with a Greek council and a mixed Greek, Syrian, Babylonian and Jewish population, joined the Mesopotamian revolt of 116." }, { "id": 794, "key": "117-hatra-siege", "name": "Hatra (siege)", "year": 117, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Late 116 - spring 117", "type": "land", "war": "Trajan's Parthian War", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Hatra, in the desert west of the Tigris", "lat": 35.59, "lon": 42.72, "loc": "known", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Hatra" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "", "commanders_b": "Trajan", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Hatra", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "Trajan's eastern field army; he sent cavalry against the wall, which was thrown back, and was nearly hit himself; heat, lack of water and swarms of flies forced the withdrawal (Cassius Dio 68.31).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern legions and auxilia were recruited mainly in Syria and Asia Minor.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Cassius Dio 68.31; en.wikipedia Siege of Hatra (116-117); en.wikipedia Trajan's Parthian campaign", "note": "Hatra, an Arab-ruled Aramaic-speaking city allied to Parthia." }, { "id": 795, "key": "117-lydda-siege", "name": "Lydda (siege)", "year": 117, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "116 or 117", "type": "land", "war": "Kitos War", "theatre": "Judaea", "place": "Lydda (Lod)", "lat": 31.95, "lon": 34.89, "loc": "known", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lusius Quietus (probably)", "commanders_b": "Julian and Pappus (executed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known mainly from rabbinic tradition; date, commander and course are uncertain.", "main_enemy": "Jewish rebels", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "Probably the army of Judaea under Lusius Quietus, governor after his Mesopotamian campaign: X Fretensis with auxilia and perhaps his Moorish horsemen; the sources say nothing of its composition.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Inferred from the usual recruitment of the army of Judaea in Syria and the Greek cities of the coast.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Rabbinic tradition (the 'slain of Lydda'); Syriac chronicles; en.wikipedia Kitos War", "note": "The only named siege of the Kitos War; the fighting in Cyrenaica, Egypt and Cyprus has no named battles." }, { "id": 796, "key": "134-tel-shalem", "name": "Tel Shalem", "year": 134, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Unknown (132-135)", "type": "land", "war": "Bar Kokhba revolt", "theatre": "Judaea (Beth Shean valley)", "place": "Tel Shalem, in the Beth Shean valley", "lat": 32.4, "lon": 35.53, "loc": "approx", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "Hypothetical battle inferred from the Tel Shalem arch.", "main_enemy": "Jewish rebels", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "Unknown; a vexillation of VI Ferrata had a camp at Tel Shalem, where a triumphal arch for Hadrian was set up about 135-136.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "By Hadrian's time the legions of Judaea and Syria were recruited mainly in the East.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Tel Shalem arch inscription; W. Eck; en.wikipedia Bar Kokhba revolt", "note": "Werner Eck reads the arch as commemorating a victory over rebels in the north; Menahem Mor and others doubt that any battle was fought there." }, { "id": 797, "key": "135-betar-siege", "name": "Betar (siege)", "year": 135, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Summer 135 (traditionally 9 Ab)", "type": "land", "war": "Bar Kokhba revolt", "theatre": "Judaea", "place": "Betar (Battir), south-west of Jerusalem", "lat": 31.72, "lon": 35.13, "loc": "known", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Sextus Julius Severus (Hadrian in overall command)", "commanders_b": "Simon bar Kokhba (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Jewish rebels", "opponent_group": "Jews", "roman_force": "The army of the war under Julius Severus: X Fretensis and VI Ferrata with detachments of the eastern legions (III Cyrenaica, III Gallica and others), auxilia and siege artillery; inscriptions at Betar name vexillations of V Macedonica and XI Claudia from Lower Moesia. A siege wall and two camps cut the town off before it was stormed.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "By Hadrian's time the eastern legions were recruited mainly in Syria, Asia Minor and Egypt; the Moesian vexillations were Latin- and Thracian-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Cassius Dio 69.12-14; Eusebius, Church History 4.6; en.wikipedia Bar Kokhba revolt", "note": "The revolt's last stronghold; mopping-up in the Judaean Desert caves went on into 136." }, { "id": 798, "key": "161-elegeia", "name": "Elegeia", "year": 161, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Autumn 161", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Parthian War of 161-166", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "Elegeia, beyond the Cappadocian frontier near the headwaters of the Euphrates (probably Ilica, near Erzurum)", "lat": 39.95, "lon": 41.1, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Parthia" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Osroes (Chosroes)", "commanders_b": "Marcus Sedatius Severianus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Parthia", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The governor of Cappadocia with one legion (perhaps IX Hispana or XXII Deiotariana; disputed) and auxilia; it was surrounded and destroyed in three days and Severianus killed himself (Cassius Dio 71.2.1; Lucian, How to Write History 21, 25; Alexander 27).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Cappadocian army was recruited mainly in Asia Minor, but the identity of the destroyed legion is unknown.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 71.2.1; Lucian, How to Write History; en.wikipedia Roman-Parthian War of 161-166", "note": "About 5,000-6,000 Romans are thought to have died." }, { "id": 799, "key": "163-artaxata", "name": "Artaxata", "year": 163, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "163", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Parthian War of 161-166", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "Artaxata, the Armenian capital on the Araxes", "lat": 39.88, "lon": 44.58, "loc": "known", "country": "Armenia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Parthia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Armenia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Statius Priscus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Parthia", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Statius Priscus with the reinforcing legions I Minervia (from Bonn) and V Macedonica (from Troesmis), the Cappadocian army and auxilia; the Armenian capital was taken and destroyed (HA Marcus 9; HA Verus 7).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Celtic", "Germanic", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Two legions from the Rhine and lower Danube fought beside the Cappadocian army, which was recruited mainly in Asia Minor.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Historia Augusta, Marcus 9 and Verus 7; Fronto; en.wikipedia Roman-Parthian War of 161-166", "note": "The Parthian nominee Pacorus held Armenia; a new capital, Kaine Polis, replaced Artaxata in 164." }, { "id": 800, "key": "163-sura", "name": "Sura", "year": 163, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "163 or 164", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Parthian War of 161-166", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "Sura, on the right bank of the Euphrates", "lat": 35.91, "lon": 38.8, "loc": "approx", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Parthia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "unknown", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from a passing mention in Lucian.", "main_enemy": "Parthia", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Not recorded; presumably detachments of the Syrian army (legions such as III Gallica and IV Scythica) with auxilia.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Syrian army was recruited mainly in Syria, among Greek- and Aramaic-speakers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Lucian, How to Write History; en.wikipedia Roman-Parthian War of 161-166", "note": "It shows the Parthians still on the Roman bank of the Euphrates in 163; probably a Roman success in the counter-offensive." }, { "id": 801, "key": "165-ctesiphon", "name": "Ctesiphon", "year": 165, "month": 12, "day": null, "date": "Late 165", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Parthian War of 161-166", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Ctesiphon and Seleucia, on the Tigris", "lat": 33.09, "lon": 44.58, "loc": "known", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Parthia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Avidius Cassius", "commanders_b": "Vologases IV", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Little recorded fighting.", "main_enemy": "Parthia", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Avidius Cassius with III Gallica and the Syrian army reinforced from the Danube; Seleucia opened its gates and was sacked, and the royal palace at Ctesiphon was burned (Cassius Dio 71.2.3; HA Verus 8).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Syrian army, recruited mainly in the East, with Danubian vexillations.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 71.2.3; Historia Augusta, Verus 8; en.wikipedia Roman-Parthian War of 161-166", "note": "Plague broke out in the army on its return; the sack of Seleucia (which surrendered) is not a separate entry." }, { "id": 802, "key": "165-dura-europos", "name": "Dura-Europos", "year": 165, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "165", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Parthian War of 161-166", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Dura-Europos, on the middle Euphrates", "lat": 34.75, "lon": 40.73, "loc": "approx", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Parthia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Avidius Cassius", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Parthia", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Avidius Cassius with the Syrian army marching down the Euphrates, III Gallica and other legions with vexillations and auxilia; Lucian mocks a historian who claimed 70,236 Parthian dead against two Roman.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Syrian legions and auxilia were recruited in Syria, largely among Greek- and Aramaic-speakers.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Lucian, How to Write History 20, 28; en.wikipedia Roman-Parthian War of 161-166", "note": "Lucian's 'great battle of Europus'; the city passed to Rome." }, { "id": 803, "key": "165-nisibis-siege", "name": "Nisibis (siege)", "year": 165, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "165", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Parthian War of 161-166", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Nisibis (Nusaybin)", "lat": 37.07, "lon": 41.21, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Parthia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Few details survive.", "main_enemy": "Parthia", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Detachments of the eastern army and the reinforcing legions advancing into northern Mesopotamia (Martius Verus with V Macedonica operated in the region).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Eastern legions recruited in Syria and Asia Minor, with the Moesian V Macedonica.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Lucian, How to Write History; en.wikipedia Roman-Parthian War of 161-166", "note": "The retreating Parthian army was besieged and the city taken." }, { "id": 804, "key": "166-defeat-of-the-langobardi-and-obii", "name": "Defeat of the Langobardi and Obii", "year": 166, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 166 (or 167)", "type": "land", "war": "Marcomannic Wars", "theatre": "Pannonia Superior", "place": "Pannonia, south of the Danube (site not recorded)", "lat": 47.85, "lon": 17.6, "loc": "region", "country": "Hungary", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Macrinius Vindex (cavalry), Candidus (infantry)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Unnamed; the site is not recorded.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Cavalry under Macrinius Vindex (the ala I Ulpia contariorum) and infantry under Candidus (a detachment of I Adiutrix, by the inscriptions) routed some 6,000 invaders (Cassius Dio 72.1a).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Pannonian frontier army, recruited locally.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 72.1a (fragment preserved by Petrus Patricius); en.wikipedia Marcomannic Wars", "note": "Langobardi and Obii; afterwards Ballomar and ten other tribes sent envoys to the governor Iallius Bassus." }, { "id": 805, "key": "170-carnuntum", "name": "Carnuntum", "year": 170, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Spring 170", "type": "land", "war": "Marcomannic Wars", "theatre": "Pannonia Superior", "place": "Near Carnuntum, on the Danube", "lat": 48.11, "lon": 16.86, "loc": "region", "country": "Austria", "side_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ballomar", "commanders_b": "Marcus Aurelius (in overall command)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "A Roman army of the Pannonian frontier, perhaps with the newly raised legions II and III Italica; Lucian reports a disaster of about this time in which nearly 20,000 Romans died (Alexander 48).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Pannonian army was recruited along the middle Danube and in Italy; few Greek-speakers served.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Lucian, Alexander 48; Ammianus 29.6.1; en.wikipedia Battle of Carnuntum; en.wikipedia Marcomannic Wars", "note": "Marcomanni and Quadi. The battle's place and date are reconstructed from the course of the invasion that followed." }, { "id": 806, "key": "170-aquileia-siege", "name": "Aquileia (siege)", "year": 170, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "170 (or 167)", "type": "land", "war": "Marcomannic Wars", "theatre": "Italy (Venetia)", "place": "Aquileia", "lat": 45.77, "lon": 13.37, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tiberius Claudius Pompeianus, Publius Helvius Pertinax (relief); Titus Furius Victorinus (killed)", "commanders_b": "Ballomar", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The defenders of Aquileia, the troops of the praetentura Italiae et Alpium (the new legions II and III Italica) and praetorians under the prefect Furius Victorinus, who fell; the city was relieved by Pompeianus and Pertinax (Ammianus 29.6.1; HA Marcus 14).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "II and III Italica and the praetorians were raised in Italy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Ammianus 29.6.1; Historia Augusta, Marcus 14; en.wikipedia Marcomannic Wars", "note": "Marcomanni and Quadi; Opitergium (Oderzo) was destroyed. McLynn dates the invasion to 167." }, { "id": 807, "key": "170-elatea", "name": "Elatea", "year": 170, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "170 or 171", "type": "land", "war": "Marcomannic Wars (Costoboci invasion)", "theatre": "Achaea", "place": "Elatea, in Phocis", "lat": 38.62, "lon": 22.79, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Dacians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mnesibulus (killed)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A civic militia of a provincial city, not the imperial army.", "main_enemy": "Dacians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The citizen levy of Elatea, a city of the province of Achaea, led by the Olympic victor Mnesibulus, who killed many of the raiders and fell in the fight (Pausanias 10.34.5).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "A Greek civic militia of Phocis.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Pausanias 10.34.5; en.wikipedia Marcomannic Wars (the Costoboci raid)", "note": "The Costoboci, a Carpathian people akin to the Dacians, raided Thrace, Macedonia and Greece as far as Eleusis." }, { "id": 808, "key": "172-rain-miracle", "name": "Rain Miracle", "year": 172, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Summer 172 (173 or 174 in other reconstructions)", "type": "land", "war": "Marcomannic Wars", "theatre": "Land of the Quadi", "place": "In the territory of the Quadi, north of the middle Danube (site unknown)", "lat": 48.6, "lon": 17.8, "loc": "region", "country": "Slovakia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Aurelius (perhaps Pertinax in the field)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "A Roman army surrounded by the Quadi and dying of thirst until a sudden storm refreshed it and routed the enemy; Christian writers (Apollinaris, Tertullian, Eusebius) name legio XII Fulminata from Melitene in Cappadocia (Cassius Dio 71.8-10).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "If the tradition is right, a vexillation of the eastern XII Fulminata, recruited in Cappadocia, fought; the rest were Danubian troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Cassius Dio 71.8-10; Column of Marcus Aurelius; Eusebius, Church History 5.5; en.wikipedia Marcomannic Wars", "note": "Quadi. Dio credits an Egyptian magician, Christians their prayers." }, { "id": 809, "key": "173-frozen-danube", "name": "Frozen Danube", "year": 173, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "Winter 173/174", "type": "land", "war": "Marcomannic Wars", "theatre": "Pannonia", "place": "On the frozen middle Danube (site unknown)", "lat": 47.5, "lon": 19.05, "loc": "region", "country": "Hungary", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sarmatians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Aurelius (in overall command)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sarmatians", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "Roman legionaries who followed the Iazyges onto the ice, stood on their shields to keep their footing and dragged the riders from their horses (Cassius Dio 71.7).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Pannonian and Moesian legions recruited mainly in the Danube provinces.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 71.7", "note": "Iazyges (Sarmatians)." }, { "id": 810, "key": "177-singilia-barba-siege", "name": "Singilia Barba (siege)", "year": 177, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "About 177 (or 171/172)", "type": "land", "war": "Moorish invasions of Baetica", "theatre": "Baetica", "place": "Singilia Barba, near Antequera", "lat": 37.05, "lon": -4.63, "loc": "known", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Berbers" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaius Vallius Maximianus (procurator of Mauretania Tingitana)", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from an honorific inscription.", "main_enemy": "Berbers", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Auxiliary troops of Mauretania Tingitana brought across the straits by the procurator Vallius Maximianus, who broke a long siege of the town by the Mauri (CIL II 2015).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The auxilia of Tingitana were raised in the West and in Africa.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "CIL II 2015; Historia Augusta, Marcus 21", "note": "Moorish raiders crossed into Baetica in 171/172 and again about 177; Italica was also attacked." }, { "id": 811, "key": "179-laugaricio", "name": "Laugaricio", "year": 179, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "179 (or 180)", "type": "land", "war": "Marcomannic Wars", "theatre": "Land of the Quadi", "place": "Laugaricio (Trencin), on the Vah", "lat": 48.89, "lon": 18.04, "loc": "approx", "country": "Slovakia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Valerius Maximianus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The Trencin inscription records the winter quarters of the army and a dedication to the emperors' victory; the battle itself is inferred.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "A detachment of 855 men of legio II Adiutrix under Valerius Maximianus, part of the army of occupation in Quadic territory (Trencin inscription).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "II Adiutrix was by then recruited in Pannonia.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Trencin rock inscription (CIL III 13439); en.wikipedia List of Roman battles; en.wikipedia Marcomannic Wars", "note": "Quadi." }, { "id": 812, "key": "179-paternus-victory", "name": "Paternus' victory", "year": 179, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "179", "type": "land", "war": "Marcomannic Wars", "theatre": "North of the middle Danube", "place": "Beyond the Danube, in the lands of the Quadi or Marcomanni (site unknown)", "lat": 48.5, "lon": 18.3, "loc": "region", "country": "Slovakia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Publius Tarrutenius Paternus", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Unnamed (listed without a name in en.wikipedia's List of Roman battles); site unknown.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The imperial expeditionary army of the second Marcomannic war under the praetorian prefect Paternus, which fought for a whole day and cut the enemy down (Cassius Dio 71.33.3-4).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Danubian legions and praetorians, with eastern auxiliary units in small numbers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 71.33.3-4; en.wikipedia List of Roman battles", "note": "Dio calls the enemy 'Scythians'; probably Quadi or Marcomanni." }, { "id": 813, "key": "193-byzantium-siege", "name": "Byzantium (siege)", "year": 193, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "193 to late 195 (or early 196)", "type": "land", "war": "Severan civil wars (Severus against Pescennius Niger)", "theatre": "Thrace and the Bosporus", "place": "Byzantium, on the Bosporus", "lat": 41.01, "lon": 28.98, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Septimius Severus", "faction_b": "Pescennius Niger (the city of Byzantium)", "commanders_a": "Lucius Marius Maximus (commander of the Moesian army at the siege)", "commanders_b": "the citizens of Byzantium and Niger's partisans (no commander named by Dio)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Besiegers: the army of Moesia (exercitus Mysiacus) under Marius Maximus, with a fleet; defenders: the citizens of Byzantium and Niger's troops, with a fleet of some 500 ships and the engines of the engineer Priscus (Dio 75.10-12).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The defenders were the Greek citizens of Byzantium with Niger's eastern troops; the besiegers were the Latin- and Thracian-speaking Moesian army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Cassius Dio 75.10-14; Herodian 3.6.9; ILS 2935 (Marius Maximus); en.wikipedia Battle of Issus (194)", "note": "Dio says the siege lasted three years; the city fell after Niger's death, probably late 195. There was naval fighting in the Bosporus as well as assaults on the walls." }, { "id": 814, "key": "193-cyzicus", "name": "Cyzicus", "year": 193, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 193", "type": "land", "war": "Severan civil wars (Severus against Pescennius Niger)", "theatre": "Asia Minor (Hellespont)", "place": "near Cyzicus, on the Propontis", "lat": 40.38, "lon": 27.89, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Septimius Severus", "faction_b": "Pescennius Niger", "commanders_a": "Severus' generals (probably Tiberius Claudius Candidus)", "commanders_b": "Asellius Aemilianus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Severans: Danubian (Illyrian) legionary vexillations sent ahead into Asia; Nigrians: an army of the eastern provinces under Asellius Aemilianus.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Niger's army drew on Syria and Asia Minor, where Greek was the common language; Severus' advance guard came from the Danube.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 75.6.4; Herodian 3.2.2; en.wikipedia Battle of Cyzicus (193)", "note": "Dio names only 'Severus' generals'; the attribution to Candidus is modern. Aemilianus was killed after the defeat." }, { "id": 815, "key": "193-nicaea", "name": "Nicaea", "year": 193, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 193 or early 194", "type": "land", "war": "Severan civil wars (Severus against Pescennius Niger)", "theatre": "Asia Minor (Bithynia)", "place": "in the narrows between Nicaea and Cius, Bithynia", "lat": 40.43, "lon": 29.45, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Septimius Severus", "faction_b": "Pescennius Niger", "commanders_a": "Tiberius Claudius Candidus", "commanders_b": "Pescennius Niger", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Severans: the Danubian (Illyrian) advance army under Candidus; Nigrians: the eastern legions and auxilia of Syria and Asia Minor led by Niger.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Niger's army was raised in Syria and Asia Minor; the Severan army was Danubian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 75.6.4-6; en.wikipedia Battle of Nicaea (193)", "note": "Dio describes a hard-fought battle in the defiles between Nicaea and Cius; Niger then fell back on the Taurus passes." }, { "id": 816, "key": "194-issus", "name": "Issus", "year": 194, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 194", "type": "land", "war": "Severan civil wars (Severus against Pescennius Niger)", "theatre": "Cilicia", "place": "near Issus, at the head of the Gulf of Issus", "lat": 36.86, "lon": 36.16, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Septimius Severus", "faction_b": "Pescennius Niger", "commanders_a": "Publius Cornelius Anullinus, Valerianus (cavalry)", "commanders_b": "Pescennius Niger", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Severans: the Danubian (Illyrian) legions and their cavalry under Anullinus; Nigrians: the legions of Syria and the East with eastern auxilia and levies raised at Antioch (Herodian 3.1, 3.4). Dio gives 20,000 dead on Niger's side.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Niger's army was raised in Syria and Asia Minor, with Antiochene volunteers; Severus' Danubian army was Latin- and Illyrian-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Cassius Dio 75.7-8; Herodian 3.4; en.wikipedia Battle of Issus (194)", "note": "No month in the sources; modern accounts put it in spring (Wikipedia: May) 194. Niger fled from Antioch towards the Euphrates and was caught and killed." }, { "id": 817, "key": "197-lugdunum", "name": "Lugdunum", "year": 197, "month": 2, "day": 19, "date": "19 February 197", "type": "land", "war": "Severan civil wars (Severus against Clodius Albinus)", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "near Lugdunum (Lyon), Gallia Lugdunensis", "lat": 45.77, "lon": 4.85, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Septimius Severus", "faction_b": "Clodius Albinus", "commanders_a": "Septimius Severus, Julius Laetus", "commanders_b": "Decimus Clodius Albinus (suicide), Lucius Novius Rufus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Severus: the legions of Pannonia, Moesia, Dacia and the Danube with Rhine troops, strong in cavalry; Albinus: the three British legions (II Augusta, VI Victrix, XX Valeria Victrix) and VII Gemina from Spain under Novius Rufus. Dio's figure of 150,000 is read by some as each side, by others as the total.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were raised in the West and on the Danube; Greek speakers were few.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Cassius Dio 76.6-7; Herodian 3.7; Historia Augusta, Severus 11; en.wikipedia Battle of Lugdunum", "note": "Fought over two days; Laetus' cavalry, held back until late in the battle, decided it (Dio). Albinus killed himself in Lugdunum." }, { "id": 818, "key": "197-tinurtium", "name": "Tinurtium", "year": 197, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "winter 196-197", "type": "land", "war": "Severan civil wars (Severus against Clodius Albinus)", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Tinurtium (Tournus), on the Saône", "lat": 46.56, "lon": 4.91, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Septimius Severus", "faction_b": "Clodius Albinus", "commanders_a": "Septimius Severus", "commanders_b": "Decimus Clodius Albinus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A preliminary engagement known from a brief notice; the result was not decisive.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "As at Lugdunum: Severus' Danubian and Rhine legions against Albinus' British legions and troops from Spain.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were raised in the western and Danubian provinces; Greek speakers were very few.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Historia Augusta, Severus 11.1; en.wikipedia Battle of Lugdunum", "note": "Severus had the better of the fighting but did not win the decisive victory he needed." }, { "id": 819, "key": "197-nisibis-siege", "name": "Nisibis (siege)", "year": 197, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "197", "type": "land", "war": "Parthian war of Septimius Severus", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Nisibis, northern Mesopotamia", "lat": 37.07, "lon": 41.22, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Parthia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Julius Laetus", "commanders_b": "Vologases V", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from a brief notice in Dio; no Wikipedia battle article.", "main_enemy": "Parthia", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The Roman garrison of the new province of Mesopotamia under Julius Laetus; the sources name no units, and the normal eastern garrison of legions and auxilia is assumed.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The garrisons of Syria and Mesopotamia were recruited largely in the Greek- and Aramaic-speaking East.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 76.9.1", "note": "The Parthians withdrew when Severus arrived with his army." }, { "id": 820, "key": "198-ctesiphon", "name": "Ctesiphon", "year": 198, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 197 or January 198", "type": "land", "war": "Parthian war of Septimius Severus", "theatre": "Mesopotamia (Babylonia)", "place": "Ctesiphon, on the Tigris", "lat": 33.09, "lon": 44.58, "loc": "known", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Parthia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Septimius Severus", "commanders_b": "Vologases V", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Parthia", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Severus' expeditionary army: the new legions I, II and III Parthica, the praetorian guard, Danubian and eastern legions with auxilia, carried down the Euphrates by a river fleet (Dio 76.9).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern legions, recruited in Syria and Asia Minor, marched with Severus' Danubian army and guard.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Cassius Dio 76.9; Herodian 3.9.9-12; Historia Augusta, Severus 16; en.wikipedia Battle of Ctesiphon (198)", "note": "Severus took the title Parthicus Maximus on 28 January 198; the city was sacked and many inhabitants taken captive." }, { "id": 821, "key": "198-hatra-siege", "name": "Hatra (siege)", "year": 198, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "198 and 199 (two attempts)", "type": "land", "war": "Parthian war of Septimius Severus", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Hatra, northern Mesopotamia", "lat": 35.59, "lon": 42.72, "loc": "known", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Hatra" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Barsemias (probably Abdsamiya) of Hatra", "commanders_b": "Septimius Severus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Hatra", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "Severus' eastern expeditionary army with siege engines; Dio says the European troops refused to make the last assault and the Syrian troops sent in their place were cut down (Dio 76.12).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Dio names Syrian troops beside the European ones; the Syrian legions were Greek- and Aramaic-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 76.10-12; Herodian 3.9.3-7; en.wikipedia Siege of Hatra (197-198)", "note": "Dio describes two sieges (198 and 199); Wikipedia dates the siege 197-198 and Herodian puts it before Ctesiphon. Hatra was an Arab-ruled, Aramaic-speaking kingdom allied to Parthia." }, { "id": 822, "key": "213-main", "name": "Main", "year": 213, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late summer or autumn 213", "type": "land", "war": "Caracalla's Germanic campaign", "theatre": "Germania (Agri Decumates)", "place": "near the river Main (Moenus)", "lat": 50.0, "lon": 9.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Caracalla", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Named only by Aurelius Victor ('prope Moenum amnem'); no Wikipedia battle article.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Caracalla's field army entering from Raetia: the praetorian guard, his German bodyguard and vexillations of the Rhine and Danube legions (the sources name no units; the usual composition is assumed).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Celtic", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Rhine and Danube armies were recruited in the western and Danubian provinces.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Aurelius Victor 21.2; Cassius Dio 78.13-14; en.wikipedia Caracalla", "note": "Against the Alamanni (their first mention); Dio also names the Cenni. The victory was celebrated at Rome in October 213." }, { "id": 823, "key": "217-nisibis", "name": "Nisibis", "year": 217, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 217", "type": "land", "war": "Parthian war of Caracalla", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "near Nisibis, northern Mesopotamia", "lat": 37.07, "lon": 41.22, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Parthia" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Artabanus IV", "commanders_b": "Macrinus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Parthia", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The eastern expeditionary army assembled by Caracalla: legions in the centre (among them II Parthica and the Syrian legions), cavalry and light troops including Moorish javelin-men on the wings (Herodian 4.15).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army combined Italian and Danubian units (II Parthica, the guard) with the eastern legions raised in Syria.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Herodian 4.15; Cassius Dio 79.26-27; en.wikipedia Battle of Nisibis (217)", "note": "Three days of fighting with heavy losses on both sides; some treat it as indecisive (Wikipedia's List of Roman battles calls it a stalemate). Macrinus then bought peace." }, { "id": 824, "key": "218-raphanea", "name": "Raphanea", "year": 218, "month": 5, "day": null, "date": "May 218", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Elagabalus", "theatre": "Syria Phoenice", "place": "the camp of legio III Gallica at Raphanea", "lat": 34.93, "lon": 36.26, "loc": "known", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Elagabalus", "faction_b": "Macrinus", "commanders_a": "Gannys", "commanders_b": "Ulpius Julianus (praetorian prefect, killed by his own men)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An assault on a legionary camp that ended when the attackers deserted; not usually named as a battle.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Defenders: legio III Gallica in its fortress; attackers: a force under the prefect Ulpius Julianus, who assaulted the walls, then killed their officers and went over (Cassius Dio 79.32; Herodian 5.4.3-4).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "III Gallica was by then recruited in Syria, where Greek and Aramaic were spoken.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 79.32; Herodian 5.4; en.wikipedia Battle of Antioch (218)", "note": "Elagabalus had been proclaimed in the camp on 16 May 218; the decisive battle followed near Antioch on 8 June." }, { "id": 825, "key": "218-antioch", "name": "Antioch", "year": 218, "month": 6, "day": 8, "date": "8 June 218", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of 218 (Elagabalus against Macrinus)", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "outside a village some 180 stades from Antioch (perhaps Immae)", "lat": 36.24, "lon": 36.57, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Elagabalus", "faction_b": "Macrinus", "commanders_a": "Gannys", "commanders_b": "Macrinus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Elagabalus: legio III Gallica from Raphanea with deserters, probably including legio II Parthica; Macrinus: the praetorian guard (in lighter equipment) and other troops (Dio 79.37).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "III Gallica had long been recruited in Syria; the guard had been Danubian since Severus.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cassius Dio 79.37-38; Herodian 5.4; en.wikipedia Battle of Antioch (218)", "note": "Herodian places the battle near the border of Syria Phoenice; Downey proposes two engagements. Macrinus fled and was caught and killed." }, { "id": 826, "key": "230-nisibis-siege", "name": "Nisibis (siege)", "year": 230, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "230", "type": "land", "war": "First Mesopotamian campaign of Ardashir I", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Nisibis", "lat": 37.07, "lon": 41.22, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "Ardashir I", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A failed siege known from brief notices; the fighting is not described.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The garrison of Nisibis, chief city of Roman Mesopotamia; no details survive.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Mesopotamian garrisons were recruited in Syria and Mesopotamia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zonaras 12.15; George Syncellus; Herodian 6.2; en.wikipedia Sasanian campaign of Severus Alexander", "note": "Ardashir then raided Syria and Cappadocia, which brought on Severus Alexander's campaign." }, { "id": 827, "key": "232-severus-alexander-s-southern-column", "name": "Severus Alexander's southern column", "year": 232, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 232", "type": "land", "war": "Sasanian campaign of Severus Alexander", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "lower Mesopotamia, on the march towards Ctesiphon (site unknown)", "lat": 33.5, "lon": 43.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ardashir I", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Unnamed; known only from Herodian, whose account many modern historians doubt.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The southern of Alexander's three columns, of eastern legions and auxilia with Danubian vexillations, advancing down the Euphrates; Herodian says it was surrounded and shot down by Ardashir's archers and cavalry (Herodian 6.5.9-10).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "An eastern field army recruited largely in Syria and Asia Minor, with western vexillations.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Herodian 6.5-6; Historia Augusta, Severus Alexander 55-57; en.wikipedia Sasanian campaign of Severus Alexander", "note": "The Historia Augusta claims instead a great Roman victory over Ardashir; Herodian also reports heavy Persian losses, and the war ended without a change of frontier." }, { "id": 828, "key": "235-harzhorn", "name": "Harzhorn", "year": 235, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 235 (or 236)", "type": "land", "war": "Germanic campaign of Maximinus Thrax", "theatre": "Germania Magna", "place": "the Harzhorn hill, between Kalefeld and Bad Gandersheim, Lower Saxony", "lat": 51.82, "lon": 10.03, "loc": "known", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Maximinus Thrax (presumed)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known from archaeology only; the link with Maximinus' campaign and the date are inferred from coins.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Legionaries with artillery (scorpio and cheiroballistra bolts) and auxiliaries (about 1,500 Roman finds). Herodian (7.2.1) says Maximinus' army included Moorish javelin-men and Osroenian and Armenian archers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic", "Berber", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Rhine-Danube army with eastern archers who spoke Aramaic or Armenian rather than Greek.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Excavations since 2008; Herodian 7.2; en.wikipedia Battle at the Harzhorn", "note": "Germanic tribe unknown. The Roman army seems to have forced a blocked pass on its way back south." }, { "id": 829, "key": "237-nisibis-siege", "name": "Nisibis (siege)", "year": 237, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "237 (or 235-238, under Maximinus Thrax)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Mesopotamian campaign of Ardashir I", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Nisibis", "lat": 37.07, "lon": 41.22, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ardashir I (perhaps with Shapur)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A capture known from brief notices; whether there was a siege with fighting is not recorded.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The garrison of Nisibis; no details survive.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Mesopotamian garrisons were recruited in Syria and Mesopotamia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "George Syncellus p. 681; Zonaras 12.18; en.wikipedia Second Mesopotamian campaign of Ardashir I", "note": "Gordian III's army retook the city in 243." }, { "id": 830, "key": "238-carrhae-siege", "name": "Carrhae (siege)", "year": 238, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "238 (or 235-238, under Maximinus Thrax)", "type": "land", "war": "Second Mesopotamian campaign of Ardashir I", "theatre": "Osrhoene", "place": "Carrhae (Harran)", "lat": 36.87, "lon": 39.03, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ardashir I (perhaps with Shapur)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A capture known from brief notices; whether there was a siege with fighting is not recorded.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Carrhae; no details survive.", "languages": [ "Aramaic/Syriac", "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Carrhae was a Greek-founded colonia in an Aramaic-speaking land.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "George Syncellus p. 681; Zonaras 12.18; en.wikipedia Second Mesopotamian campaign of Ardashir I", "note": "Retaken under Gordian III before Resaena." }, { "id": 831, "key": "238-carthage", "name": "Carthage", "year": 238, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "early 238", "type": "land", "war": "Year of the Six Emperors (238)", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "outside Carthage", "lat": 36.85, "lon": 10.32, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Maximinus Thrax (Capelianus)", "faction_b": "Gordian I and Gordian II", "commanders_a": "Capelianus, governor of Numidia", "commanders_b": "Gordian II (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Capelianus: legio III Augusta and the auxiliary troops of Numidia, veterans of the Moorish frontier; the Gordians: a large untrained militia of Carthage and the province (Herodian 7.9).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Berber", "other" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both sides were raised in Africa; the militia spoke Latin and Punic.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Herodian 7.9; Historia Augusta, Gordians 15-16; en.wikipedia Battle of Carthage (238)", "note": "Gordian I hanged himself on hearing of his son's death. The month depends on the disputed chronology of 238 (January to April)." }, { "id": 832, "key": "238-aquileia-siege", "name": "Aquileia (siege)", "year": 238, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 238", "type": "land", "war": "Year of the Six Emperors (238)", "theatre": "Italy (Venetia)", "place": "Aquileia", "lat": 45.77, "lon": 13.37, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Senate (Pupienus and Balbinus)", "faction_b": "Maximinus Thrax", "commanders_a": "Rutilius Pudens Crispinus, Tullius Menophilus", "commanders_b": "Maximinus Thrax (killed), Maximus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Maximinus: the Pannonian and Rhine army, legio II Parthica and the praetorians, with German auxiliaries (Herodian 8.1); defenders: the citizens of Aquileia under the senatorial commissioners.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Germanic", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Danubian besiegers and Latin-speaking townsmen; at most a few Greek-speaking traders in the city.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Herodian 8.2-5; Historia Augusta, Maximini duo 21-23; en.wikipedia Siege of Aquileia (238)", "note": "Maximinus and his son were killed by soldiers of II Parthica during a lull in the siege (perhaps May 238), and the siege ended." }, { "id": 833, "key": "240-hatra-siege", "name": "Hatra (siege)", "year": 240, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "240 to April 241", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Sasanian wars (Ardashir I and Shapur I)", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Hatra, northern Mesopotamia", "lat": 35.59, "lon": 42.72, "loc": "known", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Hatra" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ardashir I, Shapur I", "commanders_b": "Sanatruq II of Hatra (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The principal defender was the allied kingdom of Hatra; the Roman garrison is probable, not certain.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The army of the kingdom of Hatra, a Roman ally, with a probable small Roman garrison (Latin dedications of 235; a Hatra inscription names cohors IX Maurorum Gordiana).", "languages": [ "Aramaic/Syriac", "Arabic", "Latin", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The defenders were Aramaic-speaking Hatrenes with, probably, a garrison of Moorish auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cologne Mani Codex; al-Tabari; Hatra inscriptions; en.wikipedia Fall of Hatra", "note": "The siege lasted one or two years; the city was destroyed and abandoned. Its fall probably provoked Gordian III's Persian war." }, { "id": 834, "key": "243-resaena", "name": "Resaena", "year": 243, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "243", "type": "land", "war": "Persian war of Gordian III (242-244)", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Resaena (Ras al-Ayn), Osroene", "lat": 36.85, "lon": 40.07, "loc": "approx", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gordian III, Timesitheus", "commanders_b": "Shapur I", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Gordian's expeditionary army: the praetorian guard, vexillations of the Danubian and Rhine legions, the eastern legions and, by Shapur's account, Gothic and German contingents.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Germanic", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern legions, recruited in Syria and Asia Minor, formed a large part of the army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Ammianus Marcellinus 23.5.17; Historia Augusta, Gordians 26-27; en.wikipedia Battle of Resaena", "note": "Carrhae and Nisibis were retaken. The site lies on the Turkish-Syrian border (Ceylanpinar / Ras al-Ayn)." }, { "id": 835, "key": "244-misiche", "name": "Misiche", "year": 244, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "early 244 (between January and March)", "type": "land", "war": "Persian war of Gordian III (242-244)", "theatre": "Mesopotamia (Babylonia)", "place": "Misiche (later Peroz-Shapur), on the Euphrates", "lat": 33.36, "lon": 43.8, "loc": "approx", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Goths", "Germanic peoples" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Shapur I", "commanders_b": "Gordian III (killed or died soon after), Philip the Arab, Gaius Julius Priscus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "By Shapur's inscription, a force raised 'from the Roman Empire and the lands of the Goths and Germans': the guard, Danubian and Rhine vexillations, eastern legions and Gothic and German allies.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Germanic", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "As at Resaena, the eastern legions of Syria and Asia Minor were a large part of the army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Shapur's inscription (SKZ); Zonaras 12.17; en.wikipedia Battle of Misiche", "note": "Roman sources never admit the defeat and make Gordian's death a plot by Philip or an accident; whether he died in the battle, and the exact site, are disputed." }, { "id": 836, "key": "248-marcianopolis-siege", "name": "Marcianopolis (siege)", "year": 248, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "248 (or 250)", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (248-253)", "theatre": "Moesia Inferior", "place": "Marcianopolis (near Devnya)", "lat": 43.22, "lon": 27.57, "loc": "known", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the citizens of Marcianopolis", "commanders_b": "Argaith and Guntheric (under Ostrogotha)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege ended by a payment; known chiefly from Jordanes.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The citizens and local garrison of Marcianopolis defending their walls; no field army was present.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Marcianopolis was a Greek-speaking city of Moesia Inferior with Thracian and Latin-speaking neighbours.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Jordanes, Getica 92; en.wikipedia Gothic War (248-253)", "note": "After a long siege the townsmen paid the Goths to withdraw." }, { "id": 837, "key": "249-verona", "name": "Verona", "year": 249, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "249 (late summer or autumn)", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of 249 (Decius against Philip the Arab)", "theatre": "Italy", "place": "near Verona", "lat": 45.44, "lon": 10.99, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Decius", "faction_b": "Philip the Arab", "commanders_a": "Decius", "commanders_b": "Philip the Arab (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Decius: the Danubian (Pannonian and Moesian) legions that had proclaimed him; Philip: the forces of Italy, including the praetorian guard, said to have been weaker in quality.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were Danubian or Italian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Aurelius Victor 28.10; Epitome de Caesaribus 28.2; Zosimus 1.22; Zonaras 12.19; en.wikipedia Battle of Verona (249)", "note": "The Latin sources put Philip's death at Verona; some modern scholars prefer Beroea in Macedonia. Philip's son was killed at Rome." }, { "id": 838, "key": "250-novae", "name": "Novae", "year": 250, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 250", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (248-253)", "theatre": "Moesia Inferior", "place": "Novae (near Svishtov), on the Danube", "lat": 43.61, "lon": 25.4, "loc": "known", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Trebonianus Gallus", "commanders_b": "Cniva", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A repulse of Cniva's attack known from a brief notice in Jordanes.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The Danube frontier troops under Trebonianus Gallus, based on the legionary fortress of Novae (legio I Italica).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The lower Danube garrison was recruited locally in Moesia and Thrace.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Jordanes, Getica 101-102; en.wikipedia Gothic War (248-253); en.wikipedia Battle of Nicopolis ad Istrum", "note": "Cniva then moved on to Nicopolis ad Istrum." }, { "id": 839, "key": "250-nicopolis-ad-istrum", "name": "Nicopolis ad Istrum", "year": 250, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 250", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (248-253)", "theatre": "Moesia Inferior", "place": "Nicopolis ad Istrum (near Nikyup)", "lat": 43.22, "lon": 25.61, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Decius, Herennius Etruscus", "commanders_b": "Cniva", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Decius' field army: Danubian legions with vexillations and auxiliaries (no units named).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Danubian army, recruited in Pannonia, Moesia and Thrace.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Jordanes, Getica 102; en.wikipedia Battle of Nicopolis ad Istrum", "note": "A surprise attack on the Goths near the city; not decisive, as Cniva withdrew in good order over the Haemus." }, { "id": 840, "key": "250-beroe", "name": "Beroe", "year": 250, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 250", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (248-253)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Beroe (Augusta Traiana, Stara Zagora)", "lat": 42.43, "lon": 25.63, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Goths" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Cniva", "commanders_b": "Decius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Decius' Danubian field army, surprised in camp.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Danubian army, recruited in Pannonia, Moesia and Thrace.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Jordanes, Getica 102-103; en.wikipedia Battle of Beroe", "note": "Heavy Roman losses; Decius withdrew over the Balkan range into Moesia and Philippopolis was left to its fate." }, { "id": 841, "key": "250-philippopolis-siege", "name": "Philippopolis (siege)", "year": 250, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "250 (or early 251)", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (248-253)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Philippopolis (Plovdiv)", "lat": 42.15, "lon": 24.75, "loc": "known", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Goths" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Cniva", "commanders_b": "Titus Julius Priscus, governor of Thrace", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The citizens of Philippopolis and the provincial troops of Thrace under the governor Priscus.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Philippopolis was the Greek-speaking metropolis of Thrace, and its citizens bore the defence.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Jordanes, Getica 103; Dexippus, Scythica (fragments); Ammianus Marcellinus 31.5.17; en.wikipedia Siege of Philippopolis (250)", "note": "The city fell by treachery after a long siege; Ammianus reports 100,000 dead, surely exaggerated. Priscus then claimed the throne with Gothic backing. Wikipedia's List of Roman battles calls it the Battle of Philippopolis." }, { "id": 842, "key": "251-abritus", "name": "Abritus", "year": 251, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer (June to August) 251", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (248-253)", "theatre": "Moesia Inferior", "place": "near Abritus (Razgrad), probably in the Beli Lom valley near Dryanovets", "lat": 43.6, "lon": 26.42, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Goths" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Cniva", "commanders_b": "Decius (killed), Herennius Etruscus (killed), Trebonianus Gallus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Decius' field army, probably built on three Danubian legions (XIV Gemina, IV Flavia Felix and VII Claudia) with vexillations and auxiliaries; Dexippus gives 80,000 for his reorganized army.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The legions came from Pannonia and Moesia Superior, Latin- and Illyrian-speaking regions.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Dexippus; Zosimus 1.23; Jordanes, Getica 103; Aurelius Victor 29; en.wikipedia Battle of Abritus", "note": "Fought in marshy ground; Decius was the first emperor killed in battle by a foreign enemy." }, { "id": 843, "key": "253-interamna", "name": "Interamna", "year": 253, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August 253", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of 253 (Aemilian against Trebonianus Gallus)", "theatre": "Italy (Umbria)", "place": "near Interamna (Terni)", "lat": 42.56, "lon": 12.64, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Aemilian", "faction_b": "Trebonianus Gallus", "commanders_a": "Aemilian (Aemilianus)", "commanders_b": "Trebonianus Gallus, Volusianus (both killed by their own troops)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The sources disagree whether a battle was fought: by some accounts Gallus' troops killed him after an initial defeat, by others they went over without fighting.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Aemilian: the Moesian army that had just beaten the Goths; Gallus: the troops in Italy, including the praetorian guard.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Danubian army against the Italian garrison.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Aurelius Victor 31; Eutropius 9.5; Zosimus 1.28; Zonaras 12.21; en.wikipedia Trebonianus Gallus", "note": "Aemilian was himself killed by his troops near Spoletium a few months later, as Valerian approached." }, { "id": 844, "key": "253-barbalissos", "name": "Barbalissos", "year": 253, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "253 (or 252)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Sasanian war of Shapur I (252-256)", "theatre": "Syria (Euphrates)", "place": "Barbalissos (Qal'at Balis), on the Euphrates", "lat": 36.0, "lon": 38.07, "loc": "approx", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Shapur I", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "By Shapur's inscription, a Roman force of 60,000: the field army of Syria and the East, legionaries, archers and cavalry.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Syria was recruited in Syria and the neighbouring eastern provinces.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Shapur's inscription (SKZ); en.wikipedia Battle of Barbalissos; en.wikipedia Roman-Persian Wars", "note": "The Roman army was destroyed and Antioch was taken soon after. Wikipedia's battle article gives 252." }, { "id": 845, "key": "253-emesa", "name": "Emesa", "year": 253, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "253", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Sasanian war of Shapur I (252-256)", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "Emesa (Homs)", "lat": 34.73, "lon": 36.71, "loc": "approx", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Uranius Antoninus (Sampsigeramus, priest of Emesa)", "commanders_b": "Shapur I's forces", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known from Malalas' anecdotal account; the identification of the priest with the usurper Uranius Antoninus is uncertain.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Local forces of Emesa raised by its priest; Malalas speaks of a band of slingers.", "languages": [ "Aramaic/Syriac", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Emesa was a bilingual Greek- and Aramaic-speaking city.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "John Malalas 12.296; coins of Uranius Antoninus; en.wikipedia Crisis of the Third Century", "note": "Uranius Antoninus was a local usurper; counted here as Roman against the Sasanians. Some date it 253/254." }, { "id": 846, "key": "254-thessalonica-siege", "name": "Thessalonica (siege)", "year": 254, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 254", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic invasions of the 250s", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Thessalonica", "lat": 40.64, "lon": 22.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the citizens of Thessalonica", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known from a brief notice in Zosimus; the date (254, or 256-257 in some accounts) is uncertain.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The citizens of Thessalonica manning the walls; Zosimus adds that the Greeks guarded Thermopylae and the Athenians rebuilt their wall.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The defenders were the Greek citizens of Thessalonica.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 1.29.2; en.wikipedia Gothic War (248-253)", "note": "Zosimus' 'Scythians', probably Goths and their allies, failed to take the city." }, { "id": 847, "key": "254-pityus-siege", "name": "Pityus (siege)", "year": 254, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 254-255", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic invasions of the 250s (Black Sea raids)", "theatre": "Pontus (eastern Black Sea coast)", "place": "Pityus (Pitsunda), on the eastern Black Sea coast", "lat": 43.16, "lon": 40.34, "loc": "known", "country": "Georgia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Successianus", "commanders_b": "unknown (the Borani)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Zosimus; no battle article. The raiders took Pityus in a second raid after Successianus had left.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The garrison of the fortress of Pityus under Successianus; the forts of this coast were held by auxiliary units of the army of Cappadocia.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "unknown", "greek_basis": "unknown", "greek_note": "The units of the Pontic forts in this period are not known.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 1.32", "note": "The raiders' identity (Zosimus' Boranoi, part of the 'Scythian' raids by sea) is uncertain; the date is 254 or 255." }, { "id": 848, "key": "256-dura-europos-siege", "name": "Dura-Europos (siege)", "year": 256, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "256 (or 257)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Sasanian war of Shapur I (252-256)", "theatre": "Syria (Euphrates)", "place": "Dura-Europos, on the Euphrates", "lat": 34.75, "lon": 40.73, "loc": "known", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Shapur I", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "A mixed garrison: cohors XX Palmyrenorum, vexillations of legions IV Scythica, III Cyrenaica and XVI Flavia Firma, and other cohorts (II Paphlagonum).", "languages": [ "Aramaic/Syriac", "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The garrison held Palmyrene and Syrian units in a Greek-speaking town, with a cohort raised in Paphlagonia in Greek-speaking Anatolia.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Excavations at Dura-Europos; en.wikipedia Siege of Dura-Europos (256)", "note": "The mines and countermines survive; a Persian gas attack killed about twenty Roman soldiers in a countermine. The town was then abandoned." }, { "id": 849, "key": "259-mediolanum", "name": "Mediolanum", "year": 259, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "259 (or 260)", "type": "land", "war": "Alamannic invasion of Italy (259-260)", "theatre": "Italy (Po valley)", "place": "near Mediolanum (Milan)", "lat": 45.46, "lon": 9.19, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gallienus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Gallienus' field army brought from the Rhine, strong in cavalry; Zonaras makes the Alamanni 300,000, surely an exaggeration.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Rhine and Danube army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Zonaras 12.24; en.wikipedia Battle of Mediolanum", "note": "The invaders (Alamanni; perhaps the Juthungi or Semnones of the Augsburg altar) were caught on their way back from Italy. Afterwards Gallienus based his mobile cavalry at Milan." }, { "id": 850, "key": "260-augusta-vindelicum", "name": "Augusta Vindelicum", "year": 260, "month": 4, "day": 24, "date": "24-25 April 260", "type": "land", "war": "Alamannic invasion of Italy (259-260)", "theatre": "Raetia", "place": "near Augusta Vindelicum (Augsburg), by the Lech", "lat": 48.37, "lon": 10.9, "loc": "approx", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcus Simplicinius Genialis, acting governor of Raetia", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from the altar (found 1992); not in the literary sources.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Soldiers of the province of Raetia, Germaniciani (troops from the Germanies) and populares (local levies), as listed on the Augsburg victory altar.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Provincial troops and local levies of Raetia and the Germanies.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Augsburg victory altar (AE 1993, 1231); en.wikipedia Augsburg Victory Altar", "note": "The Semnones or Juthungi were returning from Italy with thousands of Italian captives, who were freed." }, { "id": 851, "key": "260-edessa", "name": "Edessa", "year": 260, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring or early summer 260", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Sasanian war of Valerian (258-260)", "theatre": "Mesopotamia (Osroene)", "place": "between Carrhae and Edessa, Osroene", "lat": 37.16, "lon": 38.79, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Shapur I", "commanders_b": "Valerian (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "By Shapur's inscription, 70,000 men from provinces across the empire: Germania, Raetia, Noricum, Dacia, Moesia, Istria, Thrace, Spain, Africa, Mauretania, Bithynia, Asia, Pamphylia, Isauria, Lycaonia, Galatia, Cilicia, Cappadocia, Phrygia, Syria, Phoenicia, Judaea, Arabia, Osroene, Mesopotamia and Rhodes.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Shapur's list names many Greek-speaking provinces (Asia, Bithynia, Galatia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Phrygia, Rhodes) beside Syria and the Danube.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Shapur's inscription (SKZ); Zosimus 1.36; Zonaras 12.23; Aurelius Victor 32.5; en.wikipedia Battle of Edessa", "note": "Valerian was taken during or after negotiations; the course of the battle is obscure. The army had been weakened by plague." }, { "id": 852, "key": "260-mursa", "name": "Mursa", "year": 260, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "260 (or 258)", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Ingenuus", "theatre": "Pannonia", "place": "Mursa (Osijek), Pannonia Inferior", "lat": 45.56, "lon": 18.69, "loc": "approx", "country": "Croatia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Gallienus", "faction_b": "Ingenuus", "commanders_a": "Gallienus, Aureolus", "commanders_b": "Ingenuus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Gallienus: his new mobile cavalry under Aureolus and troops brought from the Rhine; Ingenuus: the legions of Moesia and Pannonia.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rhine and Danube armies on both sides.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zonaras 12.24; Aurelius Victor 33.2; Historia Augusta, Tyranni triginta 9; en.wikipedia Ingenuus; en.wikipedia Aureolus", "note": "The date is disputed (258 or 260). Ingenuus drowned himself or was killed after the defeat." }, { "id": 853, "key": "260-caesarea-siege", "name": "Caesarea (siege)", "year": 260, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "260", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Sasanian war of Valerian (258-260)", "theatre": "Cappadocia", "place": "Caesarea (Mazaca, Kayseri), Cappadocia", "lat": 38.72, "lon": 35.49, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Shapur I", "commanders_b": "Demosthenes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No Wikipedia battle article; the defence is known from Zonaras.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The citizens of Caesarea under Demosthenes, who held the walls until the city was betrayed (Zonaras).", "languages": [ "Greek", "other" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Caesarea was the Greek-speaking capital of Cappadocia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zonaras 12.23; Shapur's inscription (SKZ); en.wikipedia Shapur I; en.wikipedia Battle of Edessa", "note": "Many inhabitants were deported to Persia." }, { "id": 854, "key": "260-pompeiopolis", "name": "Pompeiopolis", "year": 260, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "260", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Sasanian war of Valerian (258-260)", "theatre": "Cilicia", "place": "near Pompeiopolis (Soli), Cilicia", "lat": 36.74, "lon": 34.54, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ballista (Callistus)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Remnants of the eastern army gathered by Ballista and Macrianus after Edessa, with ships that landed troops on the Cilician coast.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The surviving eastern units were recruited in Syria, Cilicia and Asia Minor.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zonaras 12.23; George Syncellus; en.wikipedia Battle of Edessa; en.wikipedia Balista", "note": "About 3,000 Persians were killed; Ballista also seized Shapur's harem and treasure in these operations." }, { "id": 855, "key": "260-cologne-siege", "name": "Cologne (siege)", "year": 260, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 260", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Empire (revolt of Postumus)", "theatre": "Germania Inferior", "place": "Colonia Agrippina (Cologne)", "lat": 50.94, "lon": 6.96, "loc": "known", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Postumus (Gallic Empire)", "faction_b": "Gallienus (Saloninus and Silvanus)", "commanders_a": "Postumus", "commanders_b": "Saloninus (killed), Silvanus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Ended when the defenders surrendered Saloninus and Silvanus; the fighting is not described.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Postumus: the Rhine army of Germania Inferior; defenders: the garrison and court of Saloninus at Cologne.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rhine troops on both sides.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 1.38.2; Zonaras 12.24; en.wikipedia Crisis of the Third Century; en.wikipedia Gallienus", "note": "Saloninus was proclaimed Augustus during the siege." }, { "id": 856, "key": "261-defeat-of-the-macriani", "name": "Defeat of the Macriani", "year": 261, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "261", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of the Macriani", "theatre": "Illyricum or Thrace", "place": "in Illyricum or on the borders of Thrace (site unknown)", "lat": 42.7, "lon": 23.3, "loc": "region", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Gallienus", "faction_b": "Macrianus", "commanders_a": "Aureolus (or his general Domitianus)", "commanders_b": "Fulvius Macrianus, Macrianus Minor (both killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Unnamed; the sources disagree on the commander, and part of the army seems to have surrendered without fighting.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Gallienus' Danubian forces under Aureolus against the eastern field army that the Macriani led west from Syria; much of it surrendered (Historia Augusta, Gallienus 2.6-7; Zonaras 12.24).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Macriani's army was the field army of the East, recruited largely in Syria and Asia Minor.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Historia Augusta, Gallienus 2.6-7, Tyranni Triginta 12-13; Zonaras 12.24; en.wikipedia Macrianus Major", "note": "Quietus, left in the East, was then besieged at Emesa by Odaenathus and killed by the citizens (not entered: little fighting is recorded)." }, { "id": 857, "key": "263-ctesiphon-siege", "name": "Ctesiphon (siege)", "year": 263, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 262 or 263", "type": "land", "war": "Odaenathus' Persian campaigns", "theatre": "Mesopotamia (Babylonia)", "place": "Ctesiphon, on the Tigris", "lat": 33.09, "lon": 44.58, "loc": "known", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Palmyra" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Shapur I", "commanders_b": "Odaenathus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Fought by Odaenathus, a Roman client and officer (corrector totius Orientis), with Roman troops in his army; Palmyra is in allies. Wikipedia's infobox lists Palmyra and the Roman Empire together.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The Palmyrene army of Odaenathus (heavy cavalry and horse-archers, desert nomads and Syrian levies) with Roman soldiers of the eastern army in its ranks.", "languages": [ "Aramaic/Syriac", "Arabic", "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army was mostly Palmyrene and Arab, with Greek-speaking Syrian and Roman elements.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Historia Augusta, Gallienus 10, 12; Zosimus 1.39; en.wikipedia Siege of Ctesiphon (263); en.wikipedia Odaenathus", "note": "The siege was raised for want of supplies after several battles near the city; strategically the campaign restored Mesopotamia to Rome. A second march on Ctesiphon (266?) is reported only by Zosimus." }, { "id": 858, "key": "265-gallienus-against-postumus", "name": "Gallienus against Postumus", "year": 265, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 265 (or 263)", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Empire", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Gaul (site unknown); Gallienus then besieged Postumus in an unnamed city", "lat": 47.0, "lon": 4.0, "loc": "region", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Gallienus", "faction_b": "Postumus", "commanders_a": "Gallienus, Aureolus", "commanders_b": "Postumus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Unnamed; neither the battlefield nor the besieged city is named.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Gallienus' field army, with Aureolus' cavalry, against Postumus' Rhine army and Gallic forces; Aureolus' slack pursuit let Postumus escape (Zonaras 12.24; Historia Augusta, Gallienus 4.4-6, 7.1).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were raised in the western and Danubian provinces; Greek speakers were few.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zonaras 12.24; Historia Augusta, Gallienus 4.4-6, 7.1, Tyranni Triginta 3.5; en.wikipedia Postumus", "note": "Gallienus won the field battle but was wounded by an arrow during the siege and broke it off; Postumus kept Gaul, Britain and Spain." }, { "id": 859, "key": "267-venerianus-naval-victory", "name": "Venerianus' naval victory", "year": 267, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "267 (or 268)", "type": "sea", "war": "Herulian and Gothic invasions (267-269)", "theatre": "Bosporus and Propontis", "place": "the waters near Byzantium (Bosporus or Propontis)", "lat": 41.05, "lon": 29.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Venerianus (killed); Cleodamus and Athenaeus at Byzantium", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Not given a name in the sources; the Historia Augusta credits Venerianus, Syncellus the citizens of Byzantium.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "An imperial fleet under the general Venerianus, with the forces of Byzantium, against a Herulian fleet said to number 500 ships (Historia Augusta, Gallienus 13.6-7; George Syncellus).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The citizens of Byzantium fought under their own commanders, and the eastern fleets were manned from the Greek coastal cities.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Historia Augusta, Gallienus 13.6-7; George Syncellus p. 717; en.wikipedia 267", "note": "Heruli. The survivors broke into the Aegean and raided Lemnos, Skyros and Athens." }, { "id": 860, "key": "267-athens", "name": "Athens", "year": 267, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 267", "type": "land", "war": "Herulian and Gothic invasions (267-269)", "theatre": "Achaea", "place": "Athens and the Attic countryside", "lat": 37.98, "lon": 23.73, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "Publius Herennius Dexippus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The Heruli took and sacked the city; the recorded fighting is the defence and Dexippus' counterattack.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The Athenian militia, some 2,000 men under Dexippus by his own account, who fought on from the woods after the city fell.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The defenders were Athenian citizens led by the historian Dexippus.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Dexippus (fragment of his speech to the Athenians); Historia Augusta, Gallienus 13.8; Zonaras 12.26; George Syncellus; en.wikipedia Heruli; en.wikipedia Dexippus", "note": "The Heruli then left Attica; the Historia Augusta credits Dexippus and a Roman fleet with driving them out." }, { "id": 861, "key": "268-tomis-siege", "name": "Tomis (siege)", "year": 268, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "268 (or 269)", "type": "land", "war": "Herulian and Gothic invasions (267-269)", "theatre": "Moesia Inferior", "place": "Tomis, on the Black Sea coast", "lat": 44.17, "lon": 28.65, "loc": "known", "country": "Romania", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An attack repulsed, known from one sentence of Zosimus.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The citizens and garrison of the walled city, who repulsed the attack; no details survive (Zosimus 1.42.1).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Tomis was a Greek city whose citizens manned the walls with the garrison.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 1.42.1; livius.org, Zosimus New History 1.42", "note": "Goths with Heruli, Peucini and others, gathered at the mouth of the Tyras; Zosimus' 6,000 ships and 320,000 men are surely exaggerated." }, { "id": 862, "key": "268-marcianopolis-siege", "name": "Marcianopolis (siege)", "year": 268, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "268 (or 269)", "type": "land", "war": "Herulian and Gothic invasions (267-269)", "theatre": "Moesia Inferior", "place": "Marcianopolis", "lat": 43.22, "lon": 27.57, "loc": "known", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An attack repulsed, known from one sentence of Zosimus.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The citizens and garrison of Marcianopolis, who beat off the attack; no details survive (Zosimus 1.42.1).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Marcianopolis was a Greek-speaking city of Lower Moesia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 1.42.1; livius.org, Zosimus New History 1.42", "note": "Distinct from the siege of 248 (or 250) already entered." }, { "id": 863, "key": "268-cassandreia-siege", "name": "Cassandreia (siege)", "year": 268, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "268 (or 269)", "type": "land", "war": "Herulian and Gothic invasions (267-269)", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Cassandreia (Potidaea), on the isthmus of Pallene", "lat": 40.19, "lon": 23.33, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege known from one sentence of Zosimus; the fighting is not described.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The citizens of Cassandreia; the besiegers left when they heard that the emperor was approaching (Zosimus 1.43.1).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Greek city of Macedonia defended by its citizens.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 1.43.1; livius.org, Zosimus New History 1.43", "note": "Besieged at the same time as Thessalonica." }, { "id": 864, "key": "268-doberus-and-pelagonia", "name": "Doberus and Pelagonia", "year": 268, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "268 (or 269)", "type": "land", "war": "Herulian and Gothic invasions (267-269)", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "near Doberus and Pelagonia, in Paeonia and Upper Macedonia", "lat": 41.2, "lon": 22.0, "loc": "region", "country": "North Macedonia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (generals of Claudius II)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A cavalry action before Naissus, not usually given its own name.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The Dalmatian cavalry, which killed some 3,000 of the invaders as they moved inland from Thessalonica (Zosimus 1.43.2).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Dalmatian horsemen from the western Balkans.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 1.43.2; livius.org, Zosimus New History 1.43", "note": "" }, { "id": 865, "key": "268-nestus", "name": "Nestus", "year": 268, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 268 (or late 267)", "type": "land", "war": "Herulian and Gothic invasions (267-269)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "on the river Nestus (Nessos, Nestos), Thrace", "lat": 41.1, "lon": 24.75, "loc": "region", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gallienus", "commanders_b": "Naulobatus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Gallienus' field army with its new mobile cavalry, including Dalmatian horsemen.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Danubian field army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "George Syncellus; Historia Augusta, Gallienus 13.9; en.wikipedia Heruli; en.wikipedia Naulobatus; en.wikipedia Battle of Naissus", "note": "Against the Heruli; about 3,000 were killed and Naulobatus submitted, receiving the consular insignia." }, { "id": 866, "key": "268-pons-aureoli", "name": "Pons Aureoli", "year": 268, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 268", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Aureolus (268)", "theatre": "Italy (Po valley)", "place": "Pons Aureoli (Pontirolo Nuovo), on the Adda east of Milan", "lat": 45.57, "lon": 9.57, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Gallienus", "faction_b": "Aureolus", "commanders_a": "Gallienus", "commanders_b": "Aureolus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Gallienus: his field army back from the Balkans with the mobile cavalry; Aureolus: the cavalry corps and garrison he commanded at Mediolanum.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Danubian and Italian troops on both sides.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Aurelius Victor 33.17-18; Zosimus 1.40; en.wikipedia Gallienus; en.wikipedia Aureolus", "note": "Aureolus was driven back into Milan. The bridge took its name from Aureolus, who was buried there." }, { "id": 867, "key": "268-mediolanum-siege", "name": "Mediolanum (siege)", "year": 268, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer to autumn 268", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Aureolus (268)", "theatre": "Italy (Po valley)", "place": "Mediolanum (Milan)", "lat": 45.46, "lon": 9.19, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Gallienus, then Claudius II", "faction_b": "Aureolus", "commanders_a": "Gallienus (murdered during the siege), Claudius II", "commanders_b": "Aureolus (surrendered, then killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Gallienus' field army and mobile cavalry besieging Aureolus' troops in the city.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Danubian and Italian troops on both sides.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 1.40-41; Aurelius Victor 33; Historia Augusta, Gallienus 14; en.wikipedia Gallienus; en.wikipedia Claudius Gothicus", "note": "Gallienus was killed by his officers during the siege (September 268?); Claudius received Aureolus' surrender, and Aureolus was then killed by the soldiers." }, { "id": 868, "key": "268-lake-benacus", "name": "Lake Benacus", "year": 268, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late autumn 268 (or early 269)", "type": "land", "war": "Alamannic invasion of Italy (268)", "theatre": "Italy (Venetia)", "place": "near Lake Benacus (Lake Garda)", "lat": 45.6, "lon": 10.65, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Claudius II, Aurelian", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Claudius' field army, joined by Aureolus' former troops.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Danubian and Italian field army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Epitome de Caesaribus 34.2; en.wikipedia Battle of Lake Benacus", "note": "Against the Alamanni; the Epitome says barely half of them survived. Claudius took the title Germanicus Maximus." }, { "id": 869, "key": "268-thessalonica-siege", "name": "Thessalonica (siege)", "year": 268, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "268 (or 269)", "type": "land", "war": "Herulian and Gothic invasions (267-269)", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Thessalonica", "lat": 40.64, "lon": 22.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the citizens of Thessalonica (relieved by Claudius II)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The citizens and garrison of Thessalonica; the invaders raised the siege when Claudius' army approached.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The defenders were the Greek citizens of Thessalonica.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 1.43; en.wikipedia Heruli", "note": "The invaders (Goths with Heruli and others) also attacked Cassandreia before moving inland towards Naissus." }, { "id": 870, "key": "268-naissus", "name": "Naissus", "year": 268, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "268 (or 269)", "type": "land", "war": "Herulian and Gothic invasions (267-269)", "theatre": "Moesia Superior", "place": "near Naissus (Nis)", "lat": 43.32, "lon": 21.9, "loc": "approx", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Claudius II (or Gallienus), Aurelian (cavalry)", "commanders_b": "unknown (Cniva and Cannabaudes have been suggested)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The Danubian field army, with the cavalry under Aurelian (including Dalmatian horse) delivering the decisive attack.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Danubian field army recruited in Illyricum and Thrace.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Zosimus 1.45; Historia Augusta, Claudius 6-8; en.wikipedia Battle of Naissus", "note": "Goths (Greuthungi and Thervingi) with Heruli, Gepids and Peucini. Most scholars credit Claudius, and many date it 269; Zosimus claims 50,000 enemy killed or captured." }, { "id": 871, "key": "269-mount-haemus", "name": "Mount Haemus", "year": 269, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "269 (after Naissus; or 270)", "type": "land", "war": "Herulian and Gothic invasions (267-269)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "the Haemus mountains (Balkan range)", "lat": 42.75, "lon": 25.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Claudius II", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An engagement in the pursuit after Naissus without a site name.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Claudius' Danubian field army, which surrounded the survivors of Naissus in the Haemus; the infantry, quarrelling with the cavalry, attacked alone and was beaten until the cavalry came to its aid (Zosimus 1.45).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Danubian field army; Greek speakers were few.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 1.45; tertullian.org, Zosimus book 1 (1814 translation)", "note": "The Goths were then worn down by hunger and plague; many were settled or enrolled in the army." }, { "id": 872, "key": "269-mogontiacum-siege", "name": "Mogontiacum (siege)", "year": 269, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 269", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Empire (revolt of Laelianus)", "theatre": "Germania Superior", "place": "Mogontiacum (Mainz)", "lat": 50.0, "lon": 8.27, "loc": "known", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Postumus (Gallic Empire)", "faction_b": "Laelianus", "commanders_a": "Postumus", "commanders_b": "Laelianus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Postumus: the Gallic field army; Laelianus: legio XXII Primigenia at Mainz, perhaps with VIII Augusta.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rhine and Gallic troops on both sides.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Aurelius Victor 33.8; Eutropius 9.9; en.wikipedia Laelianus", "note": "Postumus was killed by his own troops after refusing them the sack of the city." }, { "id": 873, "key": "270-bostra", "name": "Bostra", "year": 270, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 270", "type": "land", "war": "Palmyrene war (Zenobia)", "theatre": "Arabia", "place": "Bostra, capital of Arabia", "lat": 32.52, "lon": 36.48, "loc": "approx", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Palmyra" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Septimius Zabdas", "commanders_b": "Trassus (killed), commander of legio III Cyrenaica", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Palmyrene Empire of Zenobia: a foreign opponent here by the project's rule, though Zenobia still claimed to act within the empire.", "main_enemy": "Palmyra", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "Legio III Cyrenaica, the garrison of Arabia, under Trassus.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Arabic", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "III Cyrenaica was recruited locally in Arabia and Syria, a Greek-, Aramaic- and Arabic-speaking region.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Bostra inscriptions (temple of Jupiter Hammon); en.wikipedia Zenobia", "note": "Zabdas sacked Bostra and destroyed the legion's temple of Jupiter Hammon." }, { "id": 874, "key": "270-augustodunum-siege", "name": "Augustodunum (siege)", "year": 270, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "270 (or 269)", "type": "land", "war": "Gallic Empire (siege of Autun)", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Augustodunum (Autun), city of the Aedui", "lat": 46.95, "lon": 4.3, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Victorinus (Gallic Empire)", "faction_b": "Autun (for Claudius II)", "commanders_a": "Victorinus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Victorinus: the Gallic army; defenders: the citizens of Augustodunum, who had declared for Claudius and received no help.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Gallic troops and townsmen.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Panegyrici Latini (Eumenius); en.wikipedia Claudius Gothicus", "note": "The city fell after a siege of many weeks and was sacked." }, { "id": 875, "key": "270-babylon-fortress", "name": "Babylon Fortress", "year": 270, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 270", "type": "land", "war": "Palmyrene war (Zenobia)", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "the fortress of Babylon, near Memphis (Old Cairo)", "lat": 30.01, "lon": 31.23, "loc": "approx", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Palmyra" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Septimius Zabdas, Timagenes", "commanders_b": "Tenagino Probus (suicide)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Palmyrene Empire of Zenobia: a foreign opponent here by the project's rule.", "main_enemy": "Palmyra", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "The army of Egypt under the prefect Tenagino Probus: legio II Traiana, auxiliary units and levies; Zosimus gives 50,000 for the Roman army beaten by Zabdas earlier in the campaign.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Coptic", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Egypt was recruited in Egypt, where its soldiers wrote and spoke Greek.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 1.44; Historia Augusta, Claudius 11; en.wikipedia Palmyrene invasion of Egypt", "note": "The last of several actions in Egypt in 270: Zabdas beat the Roman army (Zosimus: 70,000 against 50,000), Probus briefly retook Alexandria, and Timagenes then ambushed him near Babylon." }, { "id": 876, "key": "271-placentia", "name": "Placentia", "year": 271, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "early 271", "type": "land", "war": "Juthungian invasion of Italy (270-271)", "theatre": "Italy (Po valley)", "place": "near Placentia (Piacenza)", "lat": 45.05, "lon": 9.69, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "Aurelian", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Aurelian's field army, marched from Pannonia after the Vandal war: Danubian legions and cavalry.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Danubian field army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Epitome de Caesaribus 35.2; Historia Augusta, Aurelian 21; Zosimus 1.49; en.wikipedia Battle of Placentia (271)", "note": "The Juthungi (the Historia Augusta says Marcomanni) ambushed the tired army in woods near Placentia; there was panic at Rome." }, { "id": 877, "key": "271-fano", "name": "Fano", "year": 271, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "271", "type": "land", "war": "Juthungian invasion of Italy (270-271)", "theatre": "Italy (Umbria and Picenum)", "place": "on the Metaurus, near Fanum Fortunae (Fano)", "lat": 43.8, "lon": 12.98, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aurelian", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Aurelian's Danubian field army.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Danubian field army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Epitome de Caesaribus 35.2; Historia Augusta, Aurelian 18; en.wikipedia Battle of Fano", "note": "Against the Juthungi; many were driven into the river." }, { "id": 878, "key": "271-pavia", "name": "Pavia", "year": 271, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "271", "type": "land", "war": "Juthungian invasion of Italy (270-271)", "theatre": "Italy (Po valley)", "place": "the plains of Ticinum (Pavia)", "lat": 45.19, "lon": 9.16, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aurelian", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Aurelian's Danubian field army.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Danubian field army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Epitome de Caesaribus 35.2; en.wikipedia Battle of Pavia (271)", "note": "Against the Juthungi; it ended their invasion of Italy." }, { "id": 879, "key": "271-mint-workers-revolt", "name": "Mint workers' revolt", "year": 271, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "271", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of the mint workers (271)", "theatre": "Italy (Rome)", "place": "Rome, on the Caelian Hill by the mint", "lat": 41.88, "lon": 12.5, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Aurelian", "faction_b": "Felicissimus and the mint workers", "commanders_a": "Aurelian's officers", "commanders_b": "Felicissimus (rationalis)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An urban revolt rather than a battle between armies; included because the sources record heavy fighting, with 7,000 soldiers killed (Victor, Eutropius).", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Aurelian's troops in Rome, against the mint workers and those who joined them in the city.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Aurelian's soldiers were mainly Danubian; the rebels were the workers of the Roman mint.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Aurelius Victor 35.6; Eutropius 9.14; Historia Augusta, Aurelian 38", "note": "The revolt followed Aurelian's attempt to stop the debasement of the coinage." }, { "id": 880, "key": "272-immae", "name": "Immae", "year": 272, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring or early summer 272", "type": "land", "war": "Palmyrene war (Aurelian)", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "Immae, east of Antioch", "lat": 36.24, "lon": 36.57, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Palmyra" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aurelian", "commanders_b": "Zenobia, Septimius Zabdas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Palmyrene Empire of Zenobia: a foreign opponent here by the project's rule.", "main_enemy": "Palmyra", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "Aurelian's cavalry (Dalmatian and Moorish horse) drew the Palmyrene clibanarii into a long pursuit in the heat and then turned on them; the legions formed the infantry core.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Berber", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Aurelian's army was mainly Danubian; eastern levies joined it in Asia Minor and Syria.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Zosimus 1.50; Festus 24; Historia Augusta, Aurelian 25; en.wikipedia Battle of Immae", "note": "Antioch opened its gates after the battle." }, { "id": 881, "key": "272-daphne", "name": "Daphne", "year": 272, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "272", "type": "land", "war": "Palmyrene war (Aurelian)", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "the hill above Daphne, south of Antioch", "lat": 36.13, "lon": 36.14, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Palmyra" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aurelian", "commanders_b": "unknown (Palmyrene rearguard)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A rearguard action known only from Zosimus; Palmyra counted as foreign by the project's rule.", "main_enemy": "Palmyra", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "Aurelian's infantry, who stormed the steep hill in close order under their shields (Zosimus 1.52).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Aurelian's army was mainly Danubian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 1.52.1-2", "note": "" }, { "id": 882, "key": "272-emesa", "name": "Emesa", "year": 272, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "272", "type": "land", "war": "Palmyrene war (Aurelian)", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "the plain before Emesa (Homs)", "lat": 34.73, "lon": 36.71, "loc": "approx", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Palmyra" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aurelian", "commanders_b": "Zenobia, Septimius Zabdas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Palmyrene Empire of Zenobia: a foreign opponent here by the project's rule.", "main_enemy": "Palmyra", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "By Zosimus' list: Dalmatian cavalry, Moesian and Pannonian legions, Norican and Raetian (Celtic) legions, the praetorian guard, Moorish horse, troops from Tyana and Mesopotamia, Syrians, Phoenicians, and Palestinians armed with clubs and maces.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic", "Berber", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The eastern contingents named by Zosimus (Tyaneans, Mesopotamians, Syrians, Phoenicians, Palestinians) were largely Greek-speaking; the core was Danubian and Latin-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Zosimus 1.52-53; Historia Augusta, Aurelian 25; en.wikipedia Battle of Emesa", "note": "Zosimus gives the Palmyrene army 70,000 men. The Palmyrene cavalry again pursued too far and was destroyed by the infantry and the Palestinian clubmen." }, { "id": 883, "key": "272-palmyra-siege", "name": "Palmyra (siege)", "year": 272, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "272", "type": "land", "war": "Palmyrene war (Aurelian)", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "Palmyra", "lat": 34.55, "lon": 38.27, "loc": "known", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Palmyra" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aurelian", "commanders_b": "Zenobia", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Palmyrene Empire of Zenobia: a foreign opponent here by the project's rule.", "main_enemy": "Palmyra", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "Aurelian's army from Emesa, supplied by the Syrian cities; the Palmyrenes repulsed several assaults.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic", "Berber", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The same mainly Danubian army as at Emesa, with eastern contingents.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Zosimus 1.54-56; Historia Augusta, Aurelian 26-28; en.wikipedia Battle of Emesa", "note": "Zenobia fled towards Persia and was captured at the Euphrates; the city then surrendered. A revolt in 273 led to its sack." }, { "id": 884, "key": "274-chalons", "name": "Châlons", "year": 274, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "early 274 (or 273)", "type": "land", "war": "Reconquest of the Gallic Empire (Aurelian)", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "the Catalaunian Plains, near Châlons-en-Champagne", "lat": 48.96, "lon": 4.37, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Aurelian", "faction_b": "Tetricus I (Gallic Empire)", "commanders_a": "Aurelian", "commanders_b": "Tetricus I, Tetricus II", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Aurelian: his field army of Danubian veterans, with eastern contingents from the Palmyrene war; Tetricus: the Gallic army of the Rhine legions and Gaul.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic", "Germanic", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Western and Danubian armies; any Greek speakers came with Aurelian's eastern contingents.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Aurelius Victor 35.3-5; Eutropius 9.13; Orosius 7.23.5; Historia Augusta, Aurelian 32; en.wikipedia Battle of Châlons (274)", "note": "The sources say Tetricus betrayed his army and went over to Aurelian at the start of the battle; modern scholars suspect propaganda. The Gallic army suffered heavy losses." }, { "id": 885, "key": "278-probus-victory-over-the-burgundians-and-vandals", "name": "Probus' victory over the Burgundians and Vandals", "year": 278, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "278 (or 279)", "type": "land", "war": "Probus' Germanic campaigns", "theatre": "Raetia or the upper Danube", "place": "an unnamed river on the frontier (site unknown)", "lat": 48.5, "lon": 10.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Probus", "commanders_b": "Igillus (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Unnamed; Zosimus does not name the river.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Probus' field army, smaller than the enemy; it provoked part of them to cross the river and destroyed them, then beat the rest when they broke the truce (Zosimus 1.68).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A field army of the Danubian and western provinces.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 1.68; tertullian.org, Zosimus book 1 (1814 translation)", "note": "Burgundians and Vandals; the captives were sent to Britain." }, { "id": 886, "key": "278-cremna-siege", "name": "Cremna (siege)", "year": 278, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 278", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Lydius (Isauria)", "theatre": "Pisidia", "place": "Cremna, Pisidia", "lat": 37.5, "lon": 30.69, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Isaurians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the Roman commander (unnamed by Zosimus)", "commanders_b": "Lydius (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Against a brigand band holding a Roman city; not counted as civil, as the Isaurians were not a Roman army.", "main_enemy": "Isaurians", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "Provincial troops of Lycia and Pamphylia, who built a siege wall and an assault mound against the city (Zosimus 1.69-70; the works survive).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The troops of southern Anatolia were recruited in a Greek-speaking region.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 1.69-70; excavations at Cremna (S. Mitchell); en.wikipedia Cremna", "note": "Lydius was shot from the Roman lines by a deserter from his own band. The date (276-278) is uncertain." }, { "id": 887, "key": "281-bonosus-revolt", "name": "Bonosus' revolt", "year": 281, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "280 or 281", "type": "land", "war": "Revolts against Probus", "theatre": "Germania", "place": "the Rhine frontier, perhaps near Colonia Agrippina (site unknown)", "lat": 50.94, "lon": 6.96, "loc": "region", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Probus", "faction_b": "Bonosus", "commanders_a": "Probus", "commanders_b": "Bonosus (hanged himself)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from the Historia Augusta; the site is not given.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Probus' field army against the Rhine troops raised by Bonosus at Cologne; the Historia Augusta calls it a long and hard-fought battle.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Celtic", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were raised in the western and Danubian provinces.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Historia Augusta, Quadrigae Tyrannorum 14-15; Historia Augusta, Probus 18", "note": "Proculus, who rose at Lugdunum at about the same time, was also put down (no battle described)." }, { "id": 888, "key": "282-carus-victory-over-the-sarmatians", "name": "Carus' victory over the Sarmatians", "year": 282, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 282 or early 283", "type": "land", "war": "Carus' Sarmatian war", "theatre": "Pannonia", "place": "the middle Danube (site unknown)", "lat": 46.5, "lon": 19.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Hungary", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sarmatians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Carus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Unnamed; the site is unknown and the figures come from the Historia Augusta.", "main_enemy": "Sarmatians", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "Carus' field army of the Danubian provinces; the Historia Augusta claims 16,000 enemies killed and 20,000 captured.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Danubian field army; Greek speakers were few.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Historia Augusta, Carus 9.4; Eutropius 9.18", "note": "Carus then marched against the Persians." }, { "id": 889, "key": "283-meinas-sabatha", "name": "Meinas Sabatha", "year": 283, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 283", "type": "land", "war": "Carus' Sasanian campaign (283)", "theatre": "Mesopotamia (Babylonia)", "place": "Meinas Sabatha, on the Royal Canal near Seleucia", "lat": 33.12, "lon": 44.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Carus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from later notices of a city destroyed by Carus; the fighting is not described.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Carus' expeditionary army (see Ctesiphon, 283).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Danubian detachments marched with the eastern legions of Syria and Mesopotamia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus Marcellinus 24.5.3; Zosimus 3.23; en.wikipedia Carus' Sasanian campaign", "note": "Described as the most serious resistance the Romans met before Seleucia." }, { "id": 890, "key": "283-ctesiphon", "name": "Ctesiphon", "year": 283, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 283", "type": "land", "war": "Carus' Sasanian campaign (283)", "theatre": "Mesopotamia (Babylonia)", "place": "Ctesiphon and Seleucia (Coche), on the Tigris", "lat": 33.09, "lon": 44.58, "loc": "known", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Carus", "commanders_b": "Bahram II (absent)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Little fighting is recorded: Bahram II was occupied in the east and the cities were taken quickly.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Carus' expeditionary army: detachments of the Danubian and perhaps Rhine legions, the field cavalry, the guard, and the eastern legions and auxiliaries, perhaps with a supply fleet on the Euphrates (modern reconstruction; the sources name no units).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Danubian detachments marched with the eastern legions of Syria and Mesopotamia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Historia Augusta, Carus 8; Eutropius 9.18; Aurelius Victor 38; Zonaras 12.30; en.wikipedia Carus' Sasanian campaign", "note": "Zonaras tells of a Persian attempt to flood the Roman camp, beaten off by Carus. Carus died soon after, reportedly struck by lightning." }, { "id": 891, "key": "285-margus", "name": "Margus", "year": 285, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "July 285", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of Diocletian and Carinus", "theatre": "Moesia", "place": "valley of the Margus (Great Morava), near Margum, Moesia Superior", "lat": 44.65, "lon": 21.1, "loc": "approx", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Diocletian", "faction_b": "Carinus", "commanders_a": "Diocletian", "commanders_b": "Carinus (killed); his praetorian prefect Aristobulus went over to Diocletian", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Diocletian led the army of Carus' Persian expedition, an eastern field force with an Illyrian core, which had proclaimed him at Nicomedia; Carinus led the larger army of the West and Illyricum with which he had just beaten Julianus. No numbers survive.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The core of both armies was Danubian and western; Greek speakers came only with the eastern units of Carus' expedition.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Eutropius 9.20; Aurelius Victor 39.11-12; Epitome de Caesaribus 38.8; Zonaras 12.30; en.wikipedia Battle of the Margus", "note": "Carinus was killed by his own officers, perhaps when his army was winning; some date the battle to spring 285." }, { "id": 892, "key": "285-verona", "name": "Verona", "year": 285, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "early 285", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Julianus (285)", "theatre": "Northern Italy", "place": "the plains of Verona (campi Veronenses), Venetia; Aurelius Victor places it in Illyricum", "lat": 45.44, "lon": 10.99, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Carinus", "faction_b": "Julianus", "commanders_a": "Carinus", "commanders_b": "Marcus Aurelius (Sabinus) Julianus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only as Carinus' defeat of Julianus; rarely treated as a named battle, and the site is disputed.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Carinus' western field army against the usurper Julianus, corrector of Venetia (Epitome) or a commander in Pannonia (Aurelius Victor), with the troops of his provinces; no numbers survive.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were raised in Italy and the Latin-speaking Danube provinces.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Epitome de Caesaribus 38.6; Aurelius Victor 39.10; Zosimus 1.73; en.wikipedia Sabinus Julianus", "note": "Some scholars think there were two usurpers named Julianus, one beaten in Illyricum and one near Verona." }, { "id": 893, "key": "293-gesoriacum-siege", "name": "Gesoriacum (siege)", "year": 293, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "293", "type": "land", "war": "Carausian revolt", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Gesoriacum (Bononia, Boulogne-sur-Mer), Gallia Belgica", "lat": 50.73, "lon": 1.61, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantius I", "faction_b": "Carausius", "commanders_a": "Constantius I (Chlorus), Caesar", "commanders_b": "the garrison of Carausius", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A blockade that ended in the garrison's surrender; little fighting is recorded.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Constantius' field army of Gaul blockaded Carausius' garrison, drawn from the troops he had seized in northern Gaul and Britain, and closed the harbour with a mole; Constantius also cleared Carausius' Frankish allies from the Rhine delta.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both forces were raised in Gaul, Britain and among Germanic recruits.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Panegyrici Latini 8(5).6-7, 6(7).5.2; en.wikipedia Carausian revolt", "note": "Carausius was murdered by Allectus later in 293." }, { "id": 894, "key": "296-calleva", "name": "Calleva", "year": 296, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "296", "type": "land", "war": "Carausian revolt", "theatre": "Britain", "place": "southern Britain, probably near Calleva Atrebatum (Silchester), after a landing near Southampton", "lat": 51.36, "lon": -1.08, "loc": "approx", "country": "United Kingdom", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantius I", "faction_b": "Allectus", "commanders_a": "Asclepiodotus, praetorian prefect (for Constantius I)", "commanders_b": "Allectus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No conventional name: the panegyric does not name the site; Silchester is a modern suggestion from archaeology.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Asclepiodotus' division of Constantius' invasion fleet and army of Gaul, landed in fog past Allectus' fleet off the Isle of Wight, against Allectus' army of Britain, much of it Frankish mercenaries (Panegyrici Latini 8(5).16).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The invaders were the army of Gaul; Allectus had British troops and Frankish mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Panegyrici Latini 8(5).14-17; Eutropius 9.22; Aurelius Victor 39.42; en.wikipedia Carausian revolt", "note": "Constantius' soldiers who reached London after losing their way in the fog killed the remnants of Allectus' Franks there (not counted separately)." }, { "id": 895, "key": "296-carrhae", "name": "Carrhae", "year": 296, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "296 (or 297)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Sasanian war of 296-298", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "between Carrhae (Harran) and Callinicum (Raqqa), Osrhoene", "lat": 36.4, "lon": 39.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Armenia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Narseh", "commanders_b": "Galerius, Caesar; Tiridates III of Armenia", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Galerius' relatively small army of the eastern frontier provinces, with Tiridates III's Armenians; no numbers or units survive.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern frontier legions were recruited in Syria, Mesopotamia and Asia Minor, beside Danubian detachments.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Eutropius 9.24; Festus 25; Aurelius Victor 39.34; Ammianus 14.11.10; en.wikipedia Battle of Carrhae (296)", "note": "Also called Callinicum (296): Eutropius puts it between Callinicum and Carrhae; dated 296 or 297." }, { "id": 896, "key": "297-alexandria-siege", "name": "Alexandria (siege)", "year": 297, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "297 to March 298", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Domitius Domitianus", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "Alexandria, Egypt", "lat": 31.2, "lon": 29.92, "loc": "known", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Diocletian", "faction_b": "Domitius Domitianus and Aurelius Achilleus", "commanders_a": "Diocletian", "commanders_b": "Aurelius Achilleus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Diocletian's imperial field army with eastern and Danubian detachments besieged the rebel garrison and people of Alexandria, who had the Egyptian army behind them.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Coptic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The defenders were the Greek-speaking city and the army of Egypt; the besiegers came from the Danube and the East.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Eutropius 9.22-23; Aurelius Victor 39.38; en.wikipedia Domitius Domitianus", "note": "Eutropius gives an eight-month siege; the city fell in March 298 (older chronologies 297)." }, { "id": 897, "key": "298-satala", "name": "Satala", "year": 298, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "298", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Sasanian war of 296-298", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "Armenia, probably the district of Basean east of Erzurum; Satala was the Roman base", "lat": 39.98, "lon": 41.68, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [ "Armenia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Galerius, Caesar; Tiridates III of Armenia", "commanders_b": "Narseh (wounded)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Galerius' new army, raised in Illyricum and Moesia (Eutropius 9.25), about 25,000 by the usual figure, with Tiridates III's Armenians; it surprised Narseh's camp.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Armenian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Eutropius says the army was gathered in Illyricum and Moesia, Latin- and Thracian-speaking provinces.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Eutropius 9.25; Festus 25; Aurelius Victor 39.34-35; en.wikipedia Battle of Satala (298)", "note": "Site uncertain: Armenian tradition places it at Osxay in Basean. Some date it 297. Narseh's family and treasury were taken; the peace of Nisibis followed." }, { "id": 898, "key": "298-lingones", "name": "Lingones", "year": 298, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "298", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Alamannic wars", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Lingones (Langres), Gallia Lugdunensis", "lat": 47.86, "lon": 5.33, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Constantius I (Chlorus), Caesar", "commanders_b": "unknown (Alamanni)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Constantius' field army of Gaul: surprised and wounded, Constantius was hauled up the town wall by rope, and his army arrived within hours and routed the Alamanni (Eutropius 9.23).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Gaul and the Rhine was raised in Gaul and among Germanic recruits.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Eutropius 9.23; Panegyrici Latini 6(7).6.3; en.wikipedia Battle of Lingones", "note": "Eutropius claims 60,000 Alamanni killed. Dated 298 (some c. 300-302)." }, { "id": 899, "key": "298-vindonissa", "name": "Vindonissa", "year": 298, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "298 (or 302)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Alamannic wars", "theatre": "Upper Germany", "place": "the plains of Vindonissa (Windisch), Maxima Sequanorum", "lat": 47.48, "lon": 8.22, "loc": "approx", "country": "Switzerland", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Constantius I (Chlorus), Caesar", "commanders_b": "unknown (Alamanni)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Constantius' field army of Gaul and the Rhine; the sources give no details.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Gaul and the Rhine was raised in Gaul and among Germanic recruits.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Panegyrici Latini 6(7).6.4; en.wikipedia Battle of Vindonissa", "note": "Known from a passing mention in the panegyric of 310; dated 298 or 302." }, { "id": 900, "key": "310-massilia-siege", "name": "Massilia (siege)", "year": 310, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "310", "type": "land", "war": "Civil wars of the Tetrarchy (revolt of Maximian)", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Massilia (Marseille), Gallia Narbonensis", "lat": 43.3, "lon": 5.37, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantine", "faction_b": "Maximian", "commanders_a": "Constantine I", "commanders_b": "Maximian", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A short siege with one failed assault; the city was opened by its citizens.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Constantine's army of the Rhine, brought south by forced marches, against the troops in southern Gaul whom Maximian had won over with largesse; an assault failed because the ladders were too short, and then citizens opened a gate.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both forces belonged to the army of Gaul and the Rhine.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 29-30; Panegyrici Latini 6(7).18-20; en.wikipedia Civil wars of the Tetrarchy", "note": "Maximian was captured and soon hanged himself (c. July 310)." }, { "id": 901, "key": "312-milvian-bridge", "name": "Milvian Bridge", "year": 312, "month": 10, "day": 28, "date": "28 October 312", "type": "land", "war": "Civil wars of the Tetrarchy (Constantine against Maxentius)", "theatre": "Italy", "place": "Saxa Rubra and the Milvian Bridge on the Tiber, north of Rome", "lat": 41.94, "lon": 12.47, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantine", "faction_b": "Maxentius", "commanders_a": "Constantine I", "commanders_b": "Maxentius (drowned)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Constantine's army of Gaul (Zosimus 2.15: 90,000 foot and 8,000 horse of Germans, other Celts and Britons; modern estimates about 40,000) against Maxentius' army (Zosimus: 170,000 foot and 18,000 horse of Romans, Italians, Etruscans, Africans and Sicilians), with the praetorian guard and the horse guard (equites singulares).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Zosimus counts Sicilians, some of them Greek speakers, among Maxentius' troops; Constantine's army of Gaul had almost none.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 44; Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 9.9 and Life of Constantine 1.37-38; Panegyrici Latini 12(9).16-18, 4(10).28-30; Zosimus 2.15-16; en.wikipedia Battle of the Milvian Bridge", "note": "Zosimus' numbers are much exaggerated. The praetorians were disbanded after the battle." }, { "id": 902, "key": "312-segusium-siege", "name": "Segusium (siege)", "year": 312, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 312", "type": "land", "war": "Civil wars of the Tetrarchy (Constantine against Maxentius)", "theatre": "Northern Italy", "place": "Segusium (Susa), at the foot of the Cottian Alps", "lat": 45.14, "lon": 7.05, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantine", "faction_b": "Maxentius", "commanders_a": "Constantine I", "commanders_b": "the Maxentian garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A storming of a fortified town, counted as a siege with fighting.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Constantine's invasion army, about 40,000 by modern estimate (the panegyric of 313 says barely a quarter of his forces), drawn from the armies of Gaul, the Rhine and Britain with Germanic recruits; it burned the gates and scaled the walls.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Constantine's army came from Gaul, Britain and the Rhine; the defenders were a north Italian garrison.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Panegyrici Latini 12(9).5.4-6, 4(10).21; en.wikipedia Battle of Turin (312)", "note": "" }, { "id": 903, "key": "312-turin", "name": "Turin", "year": 312, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 312", "type": "land", "war": "Civil wars of the Tetrarchy (Constantine against Maxentius)", "theatre": "Northern Italy", "place": "outside Augusta Taurinorum (Turin)", "lat": 45.07, "lon": 7.69, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantine", "faction_b": "Maxentius", "commanders_a": "Constantine I", "commanders_b": "unknown Maxentian generals", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Constantine's army of Gaul (about 40,000) against a Maxentian army whose core was heavily armoured cavalry (clibanarii or cataphractarii) in a wedge; Constantine's cavalry broke them with iron-shod clubs (Panegyrici Latini 4(10).22-24).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The armies were raised in Gaul, Britain, the Rhine and northern Italy.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Panegyrici Latini 12(9).6, 4(10).22-24; en.wikipedia Battle of Turin (312)", "note": "The people of Turin shut the gates on the fleeing Maxentians." }, { "id": 904, "key": "312-brescia", "name": "Brescia", "year": 312, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 312", "type": "land", "war": "Civil wars of the Tetrarchy (Constantine against Maxentius)", "theatre": "Northern Italy", "place": "near Brixia (Brescia)", "lat": 45.54, "lon": 10.22, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantine", "faction_b": "Maxentius", "commanders_a": "Constantine I", "commanders_b": "unknown Maxentian commander", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A minor cavalry action known only from Nazarius' panegyric of 321.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Constantine's advancing army routed a large Maxentian cavalry force camped near Brixia.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The armies were raised in Gaul, Britain, the Rhine and northern Italy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Panegyrici Latini 4(10).25.1; en.wikipedia Civil wars of the Tetrarchy", "note": "" }, { "id": 905, "key": "312-verona", "name": "Verona", "year": 312, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer or early autumn 312", "type": "land", "war": "Civil wars of the Tetrarchy (Constantine against Maxentius)", "theatre": "Northern Italy", "place": "Verona, in the loop of the Adige, and the field to the east", "lat": 45.44, "lon": 10.99, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantine", "faction_b": "Maxentius", "commanders_a": "Constantine I", "commanders_b": "Ruricius Pompeianus, praetorian prefect (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Constantine's army of Gaul besieged Verona; Pompeianus' large army of Venetia sallied, then came back as a relief army, and Constantine fought it on a second front while part of his force held the siege lines.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The armies were raised in Gaul, Britain, the Rhine and northern Italy.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Panegyrici Latini 12(9).8-10, 4(10).25-26; en.wikipedia Battle of Verona (312)", "note": "Siege, sortie and relief battle counted as one entry; the garrison surrendered and the prisoners were fettered with their own swords." }, { "id": 906, "key": "313-tzirallum", "name": "Tzirallum", "year": 313, "month": 4, "day": 30, "date": "30 April 313", "type": "land", "war": "Civil wars of the Tetrarchy (Licinius against Maximinus Daia)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "the Campus Ergenus (Lactantius' Campus Serenus), near Tzirallum (Corlu), between Heraclea and Adrianople", "lat": 41.16, "lon": 27.8, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Licinius", "faction_b": "Maximinus Daia", "commanders_a": "Licinius", "commanders_b": "Maximinus Daia", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Licinius' army of about 30,000, hastily gathered in Illyricum and Thrace, against Maximinus' 70,000 from the East (Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 45-47).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Maximinus' larger army came from the Greek- and Aramaic-speaking East; Licinius' from the Latin- and Thracian-speaking Danube lands.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 45-47; Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History 9.10; en.wikipedia Battle of Tzirallum", "note": "Also called the battle of the Campus Ergenus." }, { "id": 907, "key": "313-byzantium-siege", "name": "Byzantium (siege)", "year": 313, "month": 4, "day": null, "date": "April 313", "type": "land", "war": "Civil wars of the Tetrarchy (Licinius against Maximinus Daia)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Byzantium, on the Bosporus", "lat": 41.01, "lon": 28.98, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Maximinus Daia", "faction_b": "Licinius", "commanders_a": "Maximinus Daia", "commanders_b": "Licinius' garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A short siege: Maximinus tried bribes before force, and the garrison yielded after eleven days.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Maximinus' eastern army, 70,000 by Lactantius' figure, from Syria, Asia Minor and Egypt, against Licinius' garrison, which held out for eleven days.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Maximinus' army was raised in the Greek- and Aramaic-speaking East.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 45; en.wikipedia Civil wars of the Tetrarchy", "note": "" }, { "id": 908, "key": "313-heraclea-siege", "name": "Heraclea (siege)", "year": 313, "month": 4, "day": null, "date": "April 313", "type": "land", "war": "Civil wars of the Tetrarchy (Licinius against Maximinus Daia)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Heraclea Perinthus (Marmara Ereglisi), on the Propontis", "lat": 40.97, "lon": 27.96, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Maximinus Daia", "faction_b": "Licinius", "commanders_a": "Maximinus Daia", "commanders_b": "Licinius' garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege of a few days with little recorded fighting.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Maximinus' eastern army took the town after a siege of a few days, while Licinius was gathering his army at Adrianople.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Maximinus' army was raised in the Greek- and Aramaic-speaking East.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 45; en.wikipedia Civil wars of the Tetrarchy", "note": "" }, { "id": 909, "key": "313-cilician-gates", "name": "Cilician Gates", "year": 313, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 313", "type": "land", "war": "Civil wars of the Tetrarchy (Licinius against Maximinus Daia)", "theatre": "Asia Minor", "place": "the Cilician Gates pass in the Taurus", "lat": 37.28, "lon": 34.8, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Licinius", "faction_b": "Maximinus Daia", "commanders_a": "Licinius' generals", "commanders_b": "Maximinus Daia's troops", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Forcing of a fortified pass, told in one sentence by Lactantius; not usually treated as a named battle.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Licinius' army forced the fortified lines Maximinus had built in the pass; Maximinus fell back to Tarsus and died there.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Maximinus' remaining troops were eastern; Licinius' were mainly Danubian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Lactantius, De mortibus persecutorum 49; en.wikipedia Civil wars of the Tetrarchy", "note": "" }, { "id": 910, "key": "316-cibalae", "name": "Cibalae", "year": 316, "month": 10, "day": 8, "date": "8 October 316", "type": "land", "war": "Civil wars of the Tetrarchy (first war of Constantine and Licinius)", "theatre": "Pannonia", "place": "near Cibalae (Vinkovci), between the Save and the Drave, Pannonia Secunda", "lat": 45.28, "lon": 18.8, "loc": "approx", "country": "Croatia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantine", "faction_b": "Licinius", "commanders_a": "Constantine I", "commanders_b": "Licinius", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Constantine's 20,000, from the armies of Gaul and the western Danube, against Licinius' 35,000 of the Illyrian and Thracian armies (Zosimus 2.18); Licinius lost some 20,000.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Germanic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were drawn mainly from the Latin-speaking West and the Danube provinces.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Origo Constantini (Anonymus Valesianus) 5.16; Zosimus 2.18; Eutropius 10.5; en.wikipedia Battle of Cibalae", "note": "Dated 8 October 316 by the consensus; some (from Hydatius' consular list) prefer 314." }, { "id": 911, "key": "316-mardia", "name": "Mardia", "year": 316, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 316 or early 317", "type": "land", "war": "Civil wars of the Tetrarchy (first war of Constantine and Licinius)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "the Campus Ardiensis (Mardia), probably near Harmanli, west of Adrianople", "lat": 41.93, "lon": 25.9, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantine", "faction_b": "Licinius", "commanders_a": "Constantine I", "commanders_b": "Licinius; Valerius Valens, his co-emperor", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "The bulk of Constantine's army against Licinius' survivors of Cibalae and a second army raised at Adrianople under Valens from the Thracian and eastern forces.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Greek", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Licinius' Thracian and eastern reinforcements brought some Greek speakers; the rest were Latin-speaking western and Danubian troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Origo Constantini 5.17-18; Zosimus 2.19; en.wikipedia Battle of Mardia", "note": "Constantine held the field but the result was not decisive: fighting ended at nightfall and Licinius withdrew in order; the peace of Serdica followed on 1 March 317." }, { "id": 912, "key": "324-adrianople", "name": "Adrianople", "year": 324, "month": 7, "day": 3, "date": "3 July 324", "type": "land", "war": "Civil wars of the Tetrarchy (second war of Constantine and Licinius)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "on the Hebrus near Adrianople (Edirne)", "lat": 41.68, "lon": 26.56, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantine", "faction_b": "Licinius", "commanders_a": "Constantine I (wounded in the thigh)", "commanders_b": "Licinius", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Zosimus 2.22: Constantine 120,000 foot and 10,000 horse and sailors from the West and Illyricum; Licinius 150,000 foot and 15,000 horse, the cavalry from Phrygia and Cappadocia.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Germanic", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Licinius' army was raised in Asia Minor and the East (Zosimus names Phrygia and Cappadocia); Constantine's in the Latin West and Illyricum.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Origo Constantini 5.24; Zosimus 2.22; Eusebius, Life of Constantine 2.6-10; en.wikipedia Battle of Adrianople (324)", "note": "Zosimus' numbers are inflated; he says 34,000 of Licinius' men fell." }, { "id": 913, "key": "324-hellespont", "name": "Hellespont", "year": 324, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "July 324", "type": "sea", "war": "Civil wars of the Tetrarchy (second war of Constantine and Licinius)", "theatre": "Hellespont", "place": "the Hellespont (Dardanelles), off Elaious and Kallipolis", "lat": 40.3, "lon": 26.55, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantine", "faction_b": "Licinius", "commanders_a": "Crispus, Caesar", "commanders_b": "Abantus (Amandus)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Crispus with 80 thirty-oared ships, picked from Constantine's 200 assembled at Piraeus, against Abantus' 200 from Licinius' 350 triremes, furnished by Egypt (80), Phoenicia (80), the Ionians and Dorians of Asia (60), Cyprus (30), Caria (20), Bithynia (30) and Africa (50) (Zosimus 2.22-24).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Coptic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Constantine's fleet was gathered at Piraeus from Greek waters and Licinius' came from Egypt, Phoenicia and the Greek coasts of Asia Minor and Cyprus; most crews on both sides spoke Greek.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Zosimus 2.22-24; Origo Constantini 5.23, 5.26; en.wikipedia Battle of the Hellespont", "note": "Two days of fighting; on the second day a storm wrecked most of Licinius' fleet, and only four ships escaped. Both sides were Roman, so greek_opponent is false although Licinius' fleet was largely Greek-crewed." }, { "id": 914, "key": "324-byzantium-siege", "name": "Byzantium (siege)", "year": 324, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "July to September 324", "type": "land", "war": "Civil wars of the Tetrarchy (second war of Constantine and Licinius)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Byzantium, on the Bosporus", "lat": 41.01, "lon": 28.98, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantine", "faction_b": "Licinius", "commanders_a": "Constantine I", "commanders_b": "Licinius, then his garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Usually told only as part of the Hellespont and Chrysopolis campaign.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Constantine's army besieged the city with mounds and siege towers (Zosimus 2.25) while Licinius' strong garrison held it; Licinius crossed to Chalcedon after his fleet was lost, and the city surrendered after Chrysopolis.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Germanic", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The garrison belonged to Licinius' eastern army; the besiegers to Constantine's western and Illyrian army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 2.25; Origo Constantini 5.25-26; en.wikipedia Battle of the Hellespont", "note": "" }, { "id": 915, "key": "324-chrysopolis", "name": "Chrysopolis", "year": 324, "month": 9, "day": 18, "date": "18 September 324", "type": "land", "war": "Civil wars of the Tetrarchy (second war of Constantine and Licinius)", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "Chrysopolis (Uskudar), on the Asian shore of the Bosporus", "lat": 41.02, "lon": 29.03, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Goths" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantine", "faction_b": "Licinius", "commanders_a": "Constantine I", "commanders_b": "Licinius; Martinianus, his co-emperor; Alica with the Goths", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Constantine's army, ferried across the Bosporus, against Licinius' eastern army reinforced by Martinianus' corps and Gothic auxiliaries under Alica (Origo Constantini 5.27); about 25,000 of Licinius' men fell (Origo).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Germanic", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Licinius' army was recruited in Asia Minor and the East; Constantine's in the West and Illyricum.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Origo Constantini 5.27; Zosimus 2.26; Eusebius, Life of Constantine 2.16-18; en.wikipedia Battle of Chrysopolis", "note": "Zosimus' figure of 100,000 dead is considered exaggerated. Licinius surrendered at Nicomedia and was executed in 325." }, { "id": 916, "key": "337-narasara", "name": "Narasara", "year": 337, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "337 (or October 343)", "type": "land", "war": "Perso-Roman wars of 337-361", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Narasara, in upper Mesopotamia; perhaps Nehar Harre east of Amida, or near Nineveh or Singara", "lat": 37.9, "lon": 40.45, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (perhaps Constantius II)", "commanders_b": "Narseh, brother of Shapur II (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Roman commander and date uncertain.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "A local Roman force of Mesopotamia; the sources give no composition.", "languages": [ "Aramaic/Syriac", "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The frontier troops of Mesopotamia were largely recruited locally among Aramaic speakers, with some Greek speakers from Syria and Asia Minor.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Festus 27; Libanius, Oration 59; Theophanes, Chronographia; en.wikipedia Battle of Narasara", "note": "Dated 337 (traditional), 335, 341 or October 343; site disputed. Festus makes Narseh Shapur's son." }, { "id": 917, "key": "338-nisibis-siege", "name": "Nisibis (siege)", "year": 338, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "summer 338", "type": "land", "war": "Perso-Roman wars of 337-361", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Nisibis (Nusaybin), Mesopotamia", "lat": 37.07, "lon": 41.22, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Bishop Jacob (James) of Nisibis; perhaps Count Lucillianus", "commanders_b": "Shapur II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Nisibis, led in Christian tradition by Bishop Jacob; units and numbers unknown.", "languages": [ "Aramaic/Syriac", "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Nisibis was a Syriac-speaking city whose defence relied on local troops and citizens.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Jerome, Chronicle; Theophanes, Chronographia; Theodoret, Ecclesiastical History 2.30; en.wikipedia Siege of Nisibis (338)", "note": "About 60-70 days, probably mid-June to August 338 (some date it 337). Theodoret's account may conflate it with the siege of 350." }, { "id": 918, "key": "340-aquileia", "name": "Aquileia", "year": 340, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "March or April 340", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of Constantine II and Constans", "theatre": "Northern Italy", "place": "near Aquileia, by the river Alsa (Ausa)", "lat": 45.8, "lon": 13.3, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constans", "faction_b": "Constantine II", "commanders_a": "generals of Constans (unnamed)", "commanders_b": "Constantine II (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An ambush rather than a pitched battle; no standard name.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "An advance force of Constans' army of Illyricum and Italy, sent from Naissus, ambushed Constantine II's army of Gaul, which had invaded Italy; Constantine was killed and his body thrown into the Alsa.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were western; Constans' Illyrian troops may have included a few Greek speakers from Macedonia and Achaea.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Epitome de Caesaribus 41.21; Zosimus 2.41; Eutropius 10.9; en.wikipedia Constantine II (emperor)", "note": "" }, { "id": 919, "key": "344-singara", "name": "Singara", "year": 344, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "344 (also dated 343 or 348)", "type": "land", "war": "Perso-Roman wars of 337-361", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "near Singara (Sinjar), Mesopotamia", "lat": 36.35, "lon": 41.85, "loc": "approx", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Constantius II", "commanders_b": "Shapur II; his son Narseh (killed)", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Constantius II's eastern field army, with heavy cavalry; the Romans stormed the Persian camp but, fighting on into the night in disorder against orders, were driven out (Julian, Oration 1).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern comitatenses of Constantius were recruited in Thrace, Illyricum, Asia Minor and Syria.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Julian, Oration 1; Libanius, Oration 59; Festus 27; Eutropius 10.10; Ammianus 18.5.7; en.wikipedia Battle of Singara", "note": "The night battle of Singara. Modern scholars variously call it a Persian victory, a Roman victory or indecisive; both sides claimed it." }, { "id": 920, "key": "346-nisibis-siege", "name": "Nisibis (siege)", "year": 346, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "346", "type": "land", "war": "Perso-Roman wars of 337-361", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Nisibis (Nusaybin), Mesopotamia", "lat": 37.07, "lon": 41.22, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "Shapur II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Nisibis; nothing is known of their composition.", "languages": [ "Aramaic/Syriac", "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Nisibis was a Syriac-speaking city whose defence relied on local troops and citizens.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Jerome, Chronicle; Theophanes, Chronographia; en.wikipedia Perso-Roman wars of 337-361", "note": "Known only from brief chronicle notices; the Persians withdrew." }, { "id": 921, "key": "350-nisibis-siege", "name": "Nisibis (siege)", "year": 350, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring and summer 350", "type": "land", "war": "Perso-Roman wars of 337-361", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Nisibis (Nusaybin), Mesopotamia", "lat": 37.07, "lon": 41.22, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Count Lucillianus; Bishop Vologaeses", "commanders_b": "Shapur II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The garrison under Lucillianus and the citizens of Nisibis; Shapur dammed the Mygdonius, flooded the plain, breached the wall and attacked with elephants and boats, but the defenders rebuilt the breach overnight.", "languages": [ "Aramaic/Syriac", "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Nisibis was a Syriac-speaking city; its siege is told in Ephrem's Syriac hymns.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Julian, Orations 1 and 2; Ephrem, Carmina Nisibena; Theodoret, Ecclesiastical History 2.30; Zonaras 13.7; en.wikipedia Siege of Nisibis (350)", "note": "Lasted 100 days or more; Shapur withdrew because of nomad invasions in the east." }, { "id": 922, "key": "351-mursa", "name": "Mursa", "year": 351, "month": 9, "day": 28, "date": "28 September 351", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Magnentius", "theatre": "Pannonia", "place": "the plain north-west of Mursa (Osijek), on the Drave", "lat": 45.56, "lon": 18.68, "loc": "approx", "country": "Croatia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantius II", "faction_b": "Magnentius", "commanders_a": "Constantius II (not in the fighting)", "commanders_b": "Magnentius", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Constantius' eastern and Illyrian armies, about 80,000, strong in cataphracts and mounted archers, against Magnentius' 36,000 (Zonaras 13.8) of the Gallic field army with Frankish and Saxon recruits (Julian, Oration 1); the officer Silvanus deserted to Constantius with his men before the battle.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Greek", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Greek speakers served only in Constantius' eastern units; Magnentius' western army had almost none.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Zosimus 2.45-53; Julian, Orations 1 and 2; Zonaras 13.8; Eutropius 10.12; Ammianus 15.5.33; en.wikipedia Battle of Mursa Major", "note": "Also called Mursa Major. Zonaras gives losses of 24,000 for Magnentius and 30,000 for Constantius; a ruinous victory." }, { "id": 923, "key": "353-mons-seleucus", "name": "Mons Seleucus", "year": 353, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 353 (before 10 August)", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Magnentius", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Mons Seleucus (La Batie-Montsaleon), Cottian Alps", "lat": 44.45, "lon": 5.75, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantius II", "faction_b": "Magnentius", "commanders_a": "Constantius II", "commanders_b": "Magnentius", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Constantius' army, advancing from Italy into Gaul, against what was left of Magnentius' western army; no details survive.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Greek speakers served only in Constantius' eastern units.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Socrates, Ecclesiastical History 2.32; Sozomen 4.7; Zonaras 13.9; en.wikipedia Battle of Mons Seleucus", "note": "Magnentius fled to Lugdunum and killed himself on 10 or 11 August 353." }, { "id": 924, "key": "356-reims", "name": "Reims", "year": 356, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 356", "type": "land", "war": "Julian's Gallic campaigns (Roman-Alamannic wars)", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "near Decem Pagi (Dieuze), on Julian's march from Reims (Durocortorum) towards the Rhine", "lat": 48.81, "lon": 6.72, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (Alamanni)", "commanders_b": "Julian, Caesar", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Julian's army of Gaul, mustered at Reims; in fog the Alamanni fell on the two legions of the rearguard, which were saved by auxiliary troops (Ammianus 16.2.10).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Julian's army of Gaul was raised in Gaul and among Germanic recruits.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 16.2.8-10; en.wikipedia Battle of Reims (356)", "note": "Wikipedia calls it the battle of Reims (Durocortorum), but Ammianus places the attack at Decem Pagi; the rearguard was rescued, so it was a check rather than a rout." }, { "id": 925, "key": "356-brumath", "name": "Brumath", "year": 356, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 356", "type": "land", "war": "Julian's Gallic campaigns (Roman-Alamannic wars)", "theatre": "Upper Germany", "place": "near Brocomagus (Brumath), Alsace", "lat": 48.73, "lon": 7.71, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Julian, Caesar", "commanders_b": "unknown (Alamanni)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Julian's army of Gaul, drawn up with two wings in a crescent, enveloped an Alamannic war band (Ammianus 16.2.12-13).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Julian's army of Gaul was raised in Gaul and among Germanic recruits.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 16.2.12-13; en.wikipedia Battle of Brumath", "note": "" }, { "id": 926, "key": "356-sens-siege", "name": "Sens (siege)", "year": 356, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "winter 356-357", "type": "land", "war": "Julian's Gallic campaigns (Roman-Alamannic wars)", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Senones (Sens), Gallia Lugdunensis", "lat": 48.2, "lon": 3.28, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Julian, Caesar", "commanders_b": "unknown (Alamanni)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A month-long blockade with little recorded fighting.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Julian with a weak garrison, his scutarii and gentiles being quartered in other towns; he held the walls for thirty days until the Alamanni withdrew, while the magister equitum Marcellus failed to help (Ammianus 16.4, 16.7.1).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The garrison and guard units in Gaul were western and Germanic.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 16.4.1-3, 16.7.1; en.wikipedia Battle of Strasbourg", "note": "" }, { "id": 927, "key": "357-argentoratum", "name": "Argentoratum", "year": 357, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August 357 (probably)", "type": "land", "war": "Julian's Gallic campaigns (Roman-Alamannic wars)", "theatre": "Upper Germany", "place": "near Argentoratum (Strasbourg), perhaps at Oberhausbergen", "lat": 48.61, "lon": 7.7, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Julian, Caesar; Severus, magister equitum", "commanders_b": "Chnodomarius (captured); Serapio", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Julian's 13,000 (Ammianus 16.12.2) of the field army of Gaul: the auxilia palatina Cornuti, Bracchiati, Batavi and Reges, the legion of the Primani, and cataphract cavalry; perhaps a third to a half of the auxilia palatina were Germanic-born.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The units Ammianus names (Cornuti, Bracchiati, Batavi, Reges, Primani) were western regiments recruited in Gaul and among Germanic peoples.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Ammianus 16.12; Libanius, Oration 18.53-62; Julian, Letter to the Athenians; en.wikipedia Battle of Strasbourg", "note": "Also called the battle of Strasbourg. Ammianus: 243 Romans and about 6,000 Alamanni killed, many more drowned in the Rhine; 35,000 Alamanni." }, { "id": 928, "key": "359-acimincum", "name": "Acimincum", "year": 359, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 359", "type": "land", "war": "Sarmatian war of Constantius II", "theatre": "Pannonia", "place": "Acimincum (Stari Slankamen), on the Danube, Pannonia Secunda", "lat": 45.14, "lon": 20.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sarmatians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Constantius II", "commanders_b": "unknown (Limigantes)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A parley that turned into a slaughter; Ammianus describes real fighting, but it is rarely treated as a named battle.", "main_enemy": "Sarmatians", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "Constantius II's escort and the army of Pannonia; the Limigantes, admitted to a parley, rushed the emperor's tribunal and were cut down by the troops (Ammianus 19.11.8-15).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Pannonia was Latin-speaking; the emperor's escort included eastern palatine units.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 19.11.1-16", "note": "The Limigantes were the former subject people of the Sarmatians." }, { "id": 929, "key": "359-amida-siege", "name": "Amida (siege)", "year": 359, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer and autumn 359 (73 days)", "type": "land", "war": "Perso-Roman wars of 337-361", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Amida (Diyarbakir), on the Tigris", "lat": 37.91, "lon": 40.24, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Shapur II; Grumbates, king of the Chionitae", "commanders_b": "Count Aelianus (crucified); Ursicinus outside the city", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Seven legions (Ammianus 18.9.3-4): V Parthica, the garrison; the Magnentiaci and Decentiaci, Gauls of Magnentius' former army; XXX Ulpia; a detachment of X Fretensis; the Superventores and Praeventores; with the comites sagittarii, a native cavalry unit and the citizens (120,000 people in all, 19.2.14).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Greek", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Ammianus names western and frontier units, two of them Gallic legions; the citizens spoke mainly Aramaic.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Ammianus 18.9-19.8; en.wikipedia Siege of Amida (359)", "note": "Ammianus was among the defenders and escaped. The Gauls' night sortie cost 400 of them." }, { "id": 930, "key": "360-singara-siege", "name": "Singara (siege)", "year": 360, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "360", "type": "land", "war": "Perso-Roman wars of 337-361", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Singara (Sinjar), Mesopotamia", "lat": 36.32, "lon": 41.86, "loc": "known", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Shapur II", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Legions I Flavia and I Parthica with many local troops and cavalry (Ammianus 20.6.8); the wall was breached by a ram and the garrison taken to Persia.", "languages": [ "Aramaic/Syriac", "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Ammianus names two frontier legions and local troops of an Aramaic-speaking district.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 20.6; en.wikipedia Perso-Roman wars of 337-361", "note": "" }, { "id": 931, "key": "360-bezabde-siege", "name": "Bezabde (siege)", "year": 360, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "360", "type": "land", "war": "Perso-Roman wars of 337-361", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Bezabde (Phoenice), on the Tigris, Zabdicene", "lat": 37.33, "lon": 42.19, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Shapur II", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Legions II Flavia, II Armeniaca and II Parthica with many Zabdicene archers (Ammianus 20.7.1); the city was stormed and its defenders killed or taken.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Armenian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Ammianus names three frontier legions and local Zabdicene archers.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 20.7.1-16; en.wikipedia Perso-Roman wars of 337-361", "note": "Usually identified with Eski Hendek near Cizre." }, { "id": 932, "key": "360-virta-siege", "name": "Virta (siege)", "year": 360, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "360", "type": "land", "war": "Perso-Roman wars of 337-361", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "the fortress of Virta (Birtha), on the edge of the Mesopotamian desert", "lat": 34.61, "lon": 43.68, "loc": "approx", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "Shapur II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The garrison of Virta, a fortress said to have been founded by Alexander (Ammianus 20.7.17-18); units not named.", "languages": [ "Aramaic/Syriac", "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Frontier garrisons in Mesopotamia were largely recruited locally.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 20.7.17-18; en.wikipedia Perso-Roman wars of 337-361", "note": "Site uncertain; often identified with Tikrit." }, { "id": 933, "key": "360-bezabde-roman-siege", "name": "Bezabde (Roman siege)", "year": 360, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 360", "type": "land", "war": "Perso-Roman wars of 337-361", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Bezabde (Phoenice), on the Tigris, Zabdicene", "lat": 37.33, "lon": 42.19, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the Persian garrison", "commanders_b": "Constantius II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Constantius' eastern field army with rams and artillery; Persian sorties burned the siege engines and the autumn rains ended the siege (Ammianus 20.11.6-31).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Germanic", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern comitatenses were recruited in Thrace, Illyricum, Asia Minor and Syria.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 20.11.6-31; en.wikipedia Perso-Roman wars of 337-361", "note": "Constantius withdrew to winter at Antioch." }, { "id": 934, "key": "361-aquileia-siege", "name": "Aquileia (siege)", "year": 361, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 361", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of Julian and Constantius II", "theatre": "Northern Italy", "place": "Aquileia, Venetia", "lat": 45.77, "lon": 13.37, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Julian", "faction_b": "Constantius II", "commanders_a": "Jovinus, then Immo (for Julian)", "commanders_b": "Nigrinus, tribune", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Julian's troops besieged two legions and a cohort of archers of Constantius' army, sent from Sirmium towards Gaul, which had mutinied at Aquileia with the citizens' support; assaults by land and from the river failed (Ammianus 21.11-12).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both forces were western and Danubian units.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 21.11-12; Zosimus 3.10", "note": "The defenders gave in only after news of Constantius' death (3 November 361)." }, { "id": 935, "key": "363-pirisabora-siege", "name": "Pirisabora (siege)", "year": 363, "month": 4, "day": 27, "date": "27-29 April 363", "type": "land", "war": "Julian's Persian War", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Pirisabora (Peroz-Shapur, al-Anbar), on the Euphrates", "lat": 33.38, "lon": 43.7, "loc": "approx", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Julian; Hormisdas", "commanders_b": "Mamersides", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Julian's main army, about 65,000 (Zosimus 3.13): Gallic and Germanic regiments he had brought from the West (Celtae, Petulantes, Heruli, Batavi), the eastern comitatenses, Gothic auxiliaries and Saracen allies, with a river fleet of 1,100 supply ships and 50 warships (Ammianus 23.3.9).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Arabic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Julian joined his western regiments to Constantius' eastern field army, which was recruited partly in Greek-speaking Thrace and Asia Minor.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 24.2.9-22; Zosimus 3.17-18; Libanius, Oration 18; en.wikipedia Siege of Pirisabora", "note": "The garrison of 2,500 surrendered after the outer works were stormed; the city was burned." }, { "id": 936, "key": "363-ctesiphon", "name": "Ctesiphon", "year": 363, "month": 5, "day": 29, "date": "29 May 363", "type": "land", "war": "Julian's Persian War", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "the east bank of the Tigris before Ctesiphon", "lat": 33.1, "lon": 44.57, "loc": "approx", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Julian", "commanders_b": "the Surena and other Persian generals", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Julian's army crossed the Tigris at night in the fleet's ships, stormed the bank and routed the Persian cataphracts and elephants into Ctesiphon (Ammianus 24.6.4-16); about 2,500 Persians and 70 Romans fell.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Arabic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Julian joined his western regiments to Constantius' eastern field army, which was recruited partly in Greek-speaking Thrace and Asia Minor.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Ammianus 24.6; Zosimus 3.25; Libanius, Oration 18; en.wikipedia Battle of Ctesiphon (363)", "note": "Julian did not besiege the city and burned his fleet before turning back." }, { "id": 937, "key": "363-maiozamalcha-siege", "name": "Maiozamalcha (siege)", "year": 363, "month": 5, "day": null, "date": "May 363", "type": "land", "war": "Julian's Persian War", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Maiozamalcha, south-west of Ctesiphon", "lat": 33.2, "lon": 44.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Julian", "commanders_b": "Nabdates, commander of the garrison (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Julian's army of the Persian expedition (as at Pirisabora); the city was taken by a mine driven under the walls while the rest of the army assaulted (Ammianus 24.4).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Arabic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Julian joined his western regiments to Constantius' eastern field army, which was recruited partly in Greek-speaking Thrace and Asia Minor.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 24.4.2-30; Zosimus 3.20-22; Libanius, Oration 18; en.wikipedia Julian's Persian War", "note": "Site not identified." }, { "id": 938, "key": "363-maranga", "name": "Maranga", "year": 363, "month": 6, "day": 22, "date": "22 June 363", "type": "land", "war": "Julian's Persian War", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Maranga, on the Tigris north of Ctesiphon", "lat": 33.9, "lon": 44.1, "loc": "region", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Julian", "commanders_b": "Merena, master of the cavalry, and two sons of Shapur", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Julian's retreating army, drawn up in a crescent, charged at the run to cut short the Persian archery and drove off the cataphracts and elephants (Ammianus 25.1.11-19).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Julian joined his western regiments to Constantius' eastern field army, which was recruited partly in Greek-speaking Thrace and Asia Minor.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 25.1.11-19; Zosimus 3.28; en.wikipedia Battle of Maranga", "note": "Site not identified." }, { "id": 939, "key": "363-samarra", "name": "Samarra", "year": 363, "month": 6, "day": 26, "date": "26 June 363", "type": "land", "war": "Julian's Persian War", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "on the Tigris south of Samarra", "lat": 34.15, "lon": 43.9, "loc": "approx", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Julian (mortally wounded)", "commanders_b": "Merena and Nohodares (killed)", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Julian's army on the march, attacked in rear and flank by Persian cavalry and elephants; Julian, riding without his cuirass, was struck by a cavalry spear and died that night (Ammianus 25.3).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Julian joined his western regiments to Constantius' eastern field army, which was recruited partly in Greek-speaking Thrace and Asia Minor.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Ammianus 25.3; Zosimus 3.28-29; Libanius, Oration 18; en.wikipedia Battle of Samarra", "note": "Ammianus reports heavy Persian losses, including Merena, Nohodares and fifty nobles and satraps, and the Romans held the field; but the emperor's death made it a strategic defeat, and it is usually rated indecisive. Jovian's peace followed." }, { "id": 940, "key": "365-cyzicus-siege", "name": "Cyzicus (siege)", "year": 365, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 365", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Procopius", "theatre": "Asia Minor", "place": "Cyzicus, on the Propontis", "lat": 40.38, "lon": 27.89, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Procopius", "faction_b": "Valens", "commanders_a": "Marcellus (for Procopius); the tribune Aliso", "commanders_b": "Serenianus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A minor siege of the revolt of Procopius.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Procopius' troops under Marcellus stormed Cyzicus, held for Valens by Serenianus, after the tribune Aliso broke the chain across the harbour mouth (Ammianus 26.8.6-11).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The defenders included the citizens of a Greek city; both forces belonged to the eastern army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 26.8.6-11; en.wikipedia Procopius (usurper)", "note": "" }, { "id": 941, "key": "366-nacolia", "name": "Nacolia", "year": 366, "month": 5, "day": null, "date": "May 366", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Procopius", "theatre": "Asia Minor", "place": "near Nacolia (Seyitgazi), Phrygia", "lat": 39.44, "lon": 30.69, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Valens", "faction_b": "Procopius", "commanders_a": "Valens", "commanders_b": "Procopius; Agilo", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Decided by desertion more than by fighting.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Valens' eastern field army against Procopius' last army; Agilo and his men deserted as the lines met, and Procopius fled (Ammianus 26.9.7-9).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were drawn from the eastern field forces, recruited partly in Greek-speaking Asia Minor and Thrace.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 26.9.7-10; Zosimus 4.8; en.wikipedia Battle of Nacolia", "note": "Procopius was betrayed and beheaded on 27 May 366." }, { "id": 942, "key": "366-thyatira", "name": "Thyatira", "year": 366, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 366", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Procopius", "theatre": "Asia Minor", "place": "near Thyatira (Akhisar), Lydia", "lat": 38.92, "lon": 27.84, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Valens", "faction_b": "Procopius", "commanders_a": "Valens; Arbitio", "commanders_b": "Gomoarius", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Valens' eastern field army against Procopius' army, whose core were the Divitenses and Tungricani iuniores (western regiments passing through Thrace) and other troops he had won over; many of Procopius' men went over to their old commanders.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were drawn from the eastern field forces, recruited partly in Greek-speaking Asia Minor and Thrace.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 26.9.4-6; Zosimus 4.8; en.wikipedia Battle of Thyatira", "note": "" }, { "id": 943, "key": "366-scarponna", "name": "Scarponna", "year": 366, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "366", "type": "land", "war": "Valentinian's Alamannic wars", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Scarponna (Scarpone, Dieulouard), on the Moselle", "lat": 48.84, "lon": 6.06, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Jovinus, magister equitum", "commanders_b": "unknown (Alamanni)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A surprise attack on an unprepared war band.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Jovinus with the field army of Gaul surprised a large Alamannic band near Scarponna before it could arm, and destroyed it (Ammianus 27.2.1-2).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Gaul was raised in Gaul and among Germanic recruits.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 27.2.1-2", "note": "Jovinus then surprised a second band bathing by the river, and fought the third at Chalons." }, { "id": 944, "key": "366-chalons", "name": "Chalons", "year": 366, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "366", "type": "land", "war": "Valentinian's Alamannic wars", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "near Catelauni (Chalons-en-Champagne), on the Marne", "lat": 48.96, "lon": 4.36, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Jovinus, magister equitum; Balchobaudes, tribune of the armaturae", "commanders_b": "unknown (Alamanni)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Jovinus' army of Gaul, with the armaturae and the Ascarii among its units; Ammianus gives 6,000 Alamanni killed and 4,000 wounded against 1,200 Romans killed and 200 wounded (Ammianus 27.2.4-9).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Gaul was raised in Gaul and among Germanic recruits.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 27.2.4-9; en.wikipedia Battle of Solicinium", "note": "Ammianus' Catelauni. Usually dated 366 (some 367). Jovinus was rewarded with the consulship of 367." }, { "id": 945, "key": "368-solicinium", "name": "Solicinium", "year": 368, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "368", "type": "land", "war": "Valentinian's Alamannic wars", "theatre": "Upper Germany", "place": "Solicinium, a wooded height in the Alamannic lands beyond the Rhine (site unknown)", "lat": 48.35, "lon": 8.96, "loc": "region", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Valentinian I; Gratian; Count Sebastianus; Jovinus and Severus", "commanders_b": "unknown (Alamanni)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Valentinian's field army of Gaul, with the Joviani and other palatine units held in reserve by Gratian, and Count Sebastianus with the Illyrian and Italian troops, who climbed the hill and took the Alamanni from behind (Ammianus 27.10).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The western field armies of Gaul, Italy and Illyricum were Latin- and Germanic-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 27.10; Ausonius, Mosella; en.wikipedia Battle of Solicinium", "note": "Site unknown: Hechingen, Sulz am Neckar, Rottenburg, Heidelberg and Schwetzingen have been proposed; coordinates are a placeholder near Hechingen." }, { "id": 946, "key": "370-deuso", "name": "Deuso", "year": 370, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "370", "type": "land", "war": "Saxon raids under Valentinian I", "theatre": "Lower Germany", "place": "Deuso, in the land of the Franks on the lower Rhine (site unknown)", "lat": 51.0, "lon": 6.9, "loc": "region", "country": "Germany", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Severus, magister peditum", "commanders_b": "unknown (Saxons)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A treacherous ambush; the name Deuso comes only from Jerome's Chronicle, and the site is unknown.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Severus' infantry and cavalry of the army of Gaul ambushed a Saxon raiding force that had been granted a truce; the Saxons fought back hard before they were destroyed (Ammianus 28.5.1-7).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Gaul was raised in Gaul and among Germanic recruits.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 28.5.1-7; Jerome, Chronicle; Orosius 7.32.10", "note": "Jerome dates it a few years later than Ammianus; Deutz has been suggested for the site." }, { "id": 947, "key": "371-bagavan", "name": "Bagavan", "year": 371, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 371", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Sasanian conflict over Armenia (371)", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "near Bagavan, in Bagrevand, at the foot of Mount Npat near the source of the Arsanias", "lat": 39.61, "lon": 43.48, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [ "Armenia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Traianus and Vadomarius; Mushegh Mamikonian, sparapet of Armenia", "commanders_b": "generals of Shapur II; Urnayr, king of Albania (wounded)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "A large Roman army sent by Valens under Traianus and the Alamannic prince Vadomarius, fighting beside the Armenian army of Mushegh Mamikonian (the Epic Histories give 90,000 Armenians).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Armenian", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern comitatenses were recruited partly in Greek-speaking Asia Minor and Thrace; the allied Armenians are counted separately.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 29.1.3; Epic Histories (Buzandaran) 5.4; en.wikipedia Battle of Bagavan", "note": "Armenian tradition (Movses Khorenatsi) calls it the battle of Dzirav. Caucasian Albanians fought on the Persian side." }, { "id": 948, "key": "376-adrianople-siege", "name": "Adrianople (siege)", "year": 376, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 376 (or early 377)", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (376-382)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Hadrianopolis (Edirne), Thrace", "lat": 41.68, "lon": 26.56, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the chief magistrate of the city (unnamed)", "commanders_b": "Fritigern; Sueridus and Colias", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The defenders were townspeople, not an army; the first clash, in which the Goths of Sueridus and Colias routed the armed citizens, is counted with the siege.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The townspeople of Hadrianopolis and the workers of the state arms factory (fabricenses), armed by the city's chief magistrate; no regular troops are mentioned (Ammianus 31.6).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Hadrianopolis lay in the Greek-speaking south of Thrace, and its defenders were its own citizens and factory workers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus Marcellinus 31.6; en.wikipedia Gothic War (376-382)", "note": "Sueridus and Colias, Gothic officers in Roman service wintering at Hadrianopolis, were provoked by the magistrate, routed the armed citizens and joined Fritigern; the Goths lost heavily before the walls, and Fritigern left a force behind and went off to plunder, saying that he 'kept peace with walls'. Wikipedia dates it 376; it follows Marcianople in Ammianus." }, { "id": 949, "key": "376-marcianople", "name": "Marcianople", "year": 376, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 376 (or early 377)", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (376-382)", "theatre": "Moesia", "place": "about nine miles from Marcianople (Devnya), Moesia Secunda", "lat": 43.22, "lon": 27.45, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Goths" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Fritigern", "commanders_b": "Lupicinus, comes per Thracias", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Lupicinus with the troops he could gather in Thrace and Moesia, about 5,000 by modern estimate; most were killed and the standards lost (Ammianus 31.5.8-9).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Thrace and Moesia was recruited in provinces mainly Latin- and Thracian-speaking, with Greek in the coastal cities.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 31.5.4-9; Jordanes, Getica 26; en.wikipedia Battle of Marcianople", "note": "Also Marcianopolis." }, { "id": 950, "key": "377-ad-salices", "name": "Ad Salices", "year": 377, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late summer 377", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (376-382)", "theatre": "Scythia Minor", "place": "Ad Salices (the Willows), in the Dobruja; site not identified", "lat": 44.8, "lon": 28.7, "loc": "region", "country": "Romania", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Richomeres; Traianus; Profuturus (killed)", "commanders_b": "Fritigern", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Legions brought from Armenia under Traianus and Profuturus, and part of Gratian's palatine troops under Richomeres; Frigeridus with Pannonian and transalpine auxilia was sent but kept away by gout (Ammianus 31.7.2-5); perhaps 5,000-6,000 men.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Armenian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Armenian-front legions were eastern units, but the western palatine troops of Gratian were Latin and Germanic speakers.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Ammianus 31.7-8.1; en.wikipedia Battle of the Willows", "note": "Also the battle of the Willows. A bloody draw: the Goths stayed in their wagon laager for a week. Wikipedia places the site in Bulgaria near Marcianople; the itineraries put Salices in the northern Dobruja." }, { "id": 951, "key": "377-dibaltum", "name": "Dibaltum", "year": 377, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 377", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (376-382)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "outside Dibaltum (Deultum, Debelt), near the Black Sea coast of Thrace", "lat": 42.39, "lon": 27.28, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Goths" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Huns", "Alans" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown Gothic leaders", "commanders_b": "Barzimeres, tribune of the scutarii (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Barzimeres with a unit of scutarii cavalry, the Cornuti and other infantry (Ammianus 31.8.9-10); they were surrounded by a late-arriving cavalry force and mostly destroyed.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Cornuti and scutarii were palatine units of western and Germanic origin.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 31.8.9-10; en.wikipedia Battle of Dibaltum", "note": "" }, { "id": 952, "key": "378-argentovaria", "name": "Argentovaria", "year": 378, "month": 5, "day": null, "date": "May 378", "type": "land", "war": "Gratian's war with the Lentienses (Roman-Alamannic wars)", "theatre": "Upper Germany", "place": "Argentovaria (Horbourg-Wihr, near Colmar), Alsace", "lat": 48.08, "lon": 7.36, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Nannienus; Mallobaudes, comes domesticorum and king of the Franks (for Gratian)", "commanders_b": "Priarius, king of the Lentienses (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The army of Gaul under Nannienus and the Frankish king Mallobaudes, with units recalled from the march to Illyricum (Ammianus 31.10.6-10).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The western field army of Gaul was Latin- and Germanic-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 31.10; Orosius 7.33.8; Epitome de Caesaribus 47.2; en.wikipedia Battle of Argentovaria", "note": "Ammianus gives the Lentienses 40,000 (or 70,000, as some boasted); later writers claim about 30,000 killed. Gratian then campaigned beyond the Rhine." }, { "id": 953, "key": "378-adrianople", "name": "Adrianople", "year": 378, "month": 8, "day": 9, "date": "9 August 378", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (376-382)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "north of Adrianople (Edirne), at the Gothic wagon laager", "lat": 41.8, "lon": 26.6, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Goths" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Alans" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Fritigern; Alatheus and Saphrax", "commanders_b": "Valens (killed); Sebastianus, Traianus, Victor, Richomeres", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Valens' eastern field army, perhaps 15,000-30,000 by modern estimates, including the Lanciarii and Mattiarii, the Batavi in reserve, the scutarii under Cassio and the sagittarii under Bacurius the Iberian (Ammianus 31.12-13); about two-thirds fell.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Germanic", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern field army was recruited largely in Thrace, Illyricum and Asia Minor, with many Germanic soldiers; Greek speakers were a large minority.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Ammianus 31.12-13; Zosimus 4.24; Orosius 7.33; Socrates, Ecclesiastical History 4.38; en.wikipedia Battle of Adrianople", "note": "Valens' body was never found. The Greuthungi and Alans under Alatheus and Saphrax decided the battle." }, { "id": 954, "key": "378-adrianople-siege", "name": "Adrianople (siege)", "year": 378, "month": 8, "day": 10, "date": "from 10 August 378", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (376-382)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Adrianople (Edirne)", "lat": 41.68, "lon": 26.56, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "Fritigern", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The garrison, survivors of the battle who had taken refuge, the palace officials and the townspeople; they beat off the assaults with artillery and stones and foiled a ruse by deserters (Ammianus 31.15).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The defence relied on the people of a Greek-speaking Thracian city as well as on soldiers of the eastern army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 31.15; en.wikipedia Gothic War (376-382)", "note": "" }, { "id": 955, "key": "378-hebrus", "name": "Hebrus", "year": 378, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 378 (before Valens reached Adrianople)", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (376-382)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "on the river Hebrus (Maritsa), near Hadrianopolis", "lat": 41.72, "lon": 26.45, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Sebastianus, magister peditum", "commanders_b": "unknown (Gothic raiding bands)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No standard name: a night ambush of Gothic plunderers, called Sebastianus's ambush in Wikipedia's article on the war.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "A picked force drawn from the units of Valens' eastern army at Hadrianopolis, about 2,000 men (Zosimus 4.23), under Sebastianus, who surprised the Goths at night.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Germanic", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Valens' eastern field army was recruited in Thrace, Anatolia and Syria as well as among Germanic volunteers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus Marcellinus 31.11; Zosimus 4.23; en.wikipedia Gothic War (376-382)", "note": "Ammianus says Sebastianus hid his men behind mounds and thickets until nightfall and destroyed nearly all the sleeping Goths; the success encouraged Valens to seek battle at Adrianople." }, { "id": 956, "key": "378-constantinople", "name": "Constantinople", "year": 378, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late summer or autumn 378", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (376-382)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "before the walls of Constantinople", "lat": 41.01, "lon": 28.94, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_b": [ "Huns", "Alans" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown; the empress Dominica paid volunteers (Socrates)", "commanders_b": "unknown Gothic leaders", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A sortie before the walls rather than a pitched battle.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The city garrison with a band of Saracen (Arab) auxiliaries and armed citizens (Ammianus 31.16.4-7; Socrates, Ecclesiastical History 5.1).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Arabic", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Socrates says the people of Constantinople took up arms with the Saracens.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ammianus 31.16.4-7; Socrates, Ecclesiastical History 5.1; Sozomen 7.1; Zosimus 4.22; en.wikipedia Gothic War (376-382)", "note": "Ammianus tells of a Saracen who drank the blood of a slain Goth, which unnerved the Goths." }, { "id": 957, "key": "380-thessalonica", "name": "Thessalonica", "year": 380, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer or autumn 380", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (376-382)", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "in Macedonia, near Thessalonica", "lat": 40.64, "lon": 22.94, "loc": "region", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Goths" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Fritigern", "commanders_b": "Theodosius I", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Theodosius' rebuilt eastern army of new recruits and barbarian, largely Gothic, enlistments, with Egyptian units brought to Macedonia in exchange for Goths sent to Egypt; the barbarian recruits went over to the enemy (Zosimus 4.30-31).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Germanic", "Coptic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Zosimus says Theodosius recruited heavily in the East and brought Egyptian troops to Macedonia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 4.30-31; en.wikipedia Battle of Thessalonica (380)", "note": "Zosimus does not name the site precisely." }, { "id": 958, "key": "386-danube", "name": "Danube", "year": 386, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "386", "type": "sea", "war": "Gothic incursion of Odotheus (386)", "theatre": "Lower Danube", "place": "the lower Danube, Scythia Minor or Moesia", "lat": 45.1, "lon": 28.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Romania", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Promotus, magister peditum in Thrace", "commanders_b": "Odotheus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No standard name.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Promotus with the army of Thrace and the Danube river fleet, whose warships rammed and sank the Greuthungi's dugout boats as they crossed at night (Zosimus 4.38-39).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Thrace and the Danube flotilla were recruited in the Latin- and Thracian-speaking Danube provinces, with Greek in the coastal cities.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 4.35, 4.38-39; Claudian, Fourth Consulship of Honorius; Consularia Constantinopolitana s.a. 386; en.wikipedia Odotheus", "note": "A river battle fought by the Roman Danube fleet. Zosimus tells the story twice; survivors were settled in Phrygia." }, { "id": 959, "key": "388-save", "name": "Save", "year": 388, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 388", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of Theodosius I and Magnus Maximus", "theatre": "Pannonia", "place": "on the Save near Siscia (Sisak), Pannonia Savia", "lat": 45.48, "lon": 16.37, "loc": "approx", "country": "Croatia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Goths", "Huns", "Alans" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Theodosius I", "faction_b": "Magnus Maximus", "commanders_a": "Theodosius I", "commanders_b": "generals of Magnus Maximus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Theodosius' eastern army with barbarian cavalry of Goths, Huns and Alans (Pacatus, Panegyrici Latini 2(12).32), which swam the Save and routed Maximus' troops of the western army.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Greek", "Iranian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Greek speakers served in Theodosius' eastern regiments; Maximus' army of Gaul and Britain had almost none, and much of Theodosius' cavalry was barbarian.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Panegyrici Latini 2(12).32-34; Orosius 7.35.3-4; Zosimus 4.46; en.wikipedia Battle of Poetovio", "note": "Also called the battle of Siscia." }, { "id": 960, "key": "388-poetovio", "name": "Poetovio", "year": 388, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 388", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of Theodosius I and Magnus Maximus", "theatre": "Pannonia", "place": "near Poetovio (Ptuj), on the Drave", "lat": 46.42, "lon": 15.87, "loc": "approx", "country": "Slovenia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Goths", "Huns", "Alans" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Theodosius I", "faction_b": "Magnus Maximus", "commanders_a": "Theodosius I", "commanders_b": "Marcellinus, brother of Maximus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Theodosius' eastern army with its Gothic, Hunnic and Alan contingents against Maximus' main western army under Marcellinus, which fought hard before breaking (Pacatus, Panegyrici Latini 2(12).35-36).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Greek", "Iranian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Greek speakers served in Theodosius' eastern regiments; Maximus' army of Gaul and Britain had almost none.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Panegyrici Latini 2(12).35-36; Orosius 7.35.4; Zosimus 4.46; en.wikipedia Battle of Poetovio", "note": "Maximus was handed over at Aquileia and executed on 28 August 388." }, { "id": 961, "key": "391-hebrus", "name": "Hebrus", "year": 391, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "391", "type": "land", "war": "Alaric's rising in Thrace (391)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "the Hebrus (Maritsa) valley, southern Thrace; Zosimus places the attack on Theodosius in the marshes of Macedonia", "lat": 41.9, "lon": 25.9, "loc": "region", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Theodosius I; Stilicho; Timasius", "commanders_b": "Alaric", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No standard name; known from Claudian's praise of Stilicho and from Zosimus, whose accounts differ.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Theodosius' eastern army with Stilicho; Zosimus says barbarians hiding in the marshes nearly captured the emperor, and Claudian that Stilicho trapped Alaric's Goths by the Hebrus but was ordered to let them go.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Theodosius' eastern army was recruited partly in Greek-speaking Thrace and Asia Minor, beside many Goths.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Claudian, Against Rufinus 1 and On the Consulship of Stilicho 1; Zosimus 4.48-49; en.wikipedia List of Roman battles; en.wikipedia Alaric I", "note": "Outcome unclear: Wikipedia's list gives a Roman victory under Stilicho; Zosimus describes a near-disaster for Theodosius." }, { "id": 962, "key": "394-frigidus", "name": "Frigidus", "year": 394, "month": 9, "day": 5, "date": "5-6 September 394", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of Theodosius I and Eugenius", "theatre": "Julian Alps", "place": "the valley of the Frigidus (Vipava), in the Julian Alps", "lat": 45.87, "lon": 13.94, "loc": "approx", "country": "Slovenia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Goths" ], "allies_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Theodosius I", "faction_b": "Eugenius and Arbogast", "commanders_a": "Theodosius I; Timasius and Stilicho; Gainas, Alaric, Saul and Bacurius (barbarian contingents)", "commanders_b": "Eugenius (executed); Arbogast", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Theodosius' eastern field army under Timasius and Stilicho, with about 20,000 Gothic foederati under Gainas and Alaric and other barbarians under Saul and Bacurius (Zosimus 4.57-58), against the western field army of Arbogast and Eugenius, with Frankish and Alamannic contingents; about 10,000 Goths fell on the first day (Orosius 7.35).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Greek speakers served only in Theodosius' eastern regiments; most troops on both sides were Latin or Germanic speakers.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Zosimus 4.54-58; Orosius 7.35; Rufinus, Ecclesiastical History 11.33; Socrates 5.25; Theodoret 5.24; Claudian, Third Consulship of Honorius; en.wikipedia Battle of the Frigidus", "note": "On the second day the bora wind blew into the westerners' faces, as Christian writers stressed. Bacurius fell; Arbogast killed himself." }, { "id": 963, "key": "397-pholoe", "name": "Pholoe", "year": 397, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "397", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Alaric I (395-398)", "theatre": "Peloponnese", "place": "Mount Pholoe, between Elis and Arcadia", "lat": 37.77, "lon": 21.75, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Stilicho", "commanders_b": "Alaric I", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A blockade of the Goths on the mountain with little recorded fighting; rarely treated as a named battle.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Stilicho's western field army, shipped to the Peloponnese, with barbarian federates whose reliability was later blamed for Alaric's escape (Zosimus 5.7; Claudian).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The field army of Italy and Gaul had few Greek speakers; a few eastern-recruited units kept since 395 are possible.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 5.7; Claudian, De IV consulatu Honorii 459-483; en.wikipedia Stilicho", "note": "Stilicho surrounded the Goths on Mount Pholoe but let Alaric escape to Epirus; Claudian claims a victory. Wikipedia's Stilicho article speaks of a victory 'in Macedonia' in 397." }, { "id": 964, "key": "398-ardalio", "name": "Ardalio", "year": 398, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 398", "type": "land", "war": "Gildonic revolt", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "On the river Ardalio, between Theveste and Ammaedara, Africa Proconsularis", "lat": 35.47, "lon": 8.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "Algeria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Berbers" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Honorius (Mascezel)", "faction_b": "Gildo", "commanders_a": "Mascezel", "commanders_b": "Gildo", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Mascezel led about 5,000 veterans of the Gallic field army (Claudian names the Ioviani, Herculiani, Augustei, Nervii and other units); Gildo had the regular garrison of Africa and a great Moorish and Gaetulian cavalry, put at 70,000 (Orosius 7.36).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Berber", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies came from Gaul and Latin-speaking Africa; no Greek units are recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Orosius 7.36; Claudian, De bello Gildonico; Zosimus 5.11; en.wikipedia Gildonic revolt", "note": "The site on the Ardalio between Theveste (Tebessa) and Ammaedara (Haidra) is not precisely located. Most of Gildo's regulars went over to Mascezel and the Moorish cavalry fled, so the victory was almost bloodless; Gildo was caught at Tabraca and killed himself (31 July 398)." }, { "id": 965, "key": "400-hellespont", "name": "Hellespont", "year": 400, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 400", "type": "sea", "war": "Revolt of Gainas", "theatre": "Thrace and the Hellespont", "place": "The Hellespont, off the Thracian Chersonese", "lat": 40.3, "lon": 26.55, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (East)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Fravitta", "commanders_b": "Gainas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Gainas was a Roman magister militum in revolt with Gothic soldiers of the imperial army; the battle could be classed as civil.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Fravitta's liburnian warships of the eastern navy with imperial troops, against the rafts on which Gainas's Goths tried to cross from Thrace to Asia (Zosimus 5.21).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern fleet was crewed from the Aegean and Asian coasts; its commander and some of the soldiers were Goths.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 5.21; Socrates 6.6; Sozomen 8.4; en.wikipedia Gainas", "note": "Gainas escaped across the Danube and was killed by the Huns of Uldin, who sent his head to Arcadius (January 401). The massacre of his Goths in Constantinople (12 July 400) is excluded as a massacre." }, { "id": 966, "key": "402-pollentia", "name": "Pollentia", "year": 402, "month": 4, "day": 6, "date": "6 April 402 (Easter Sunday)", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (401-403)", "theatre": "Liguria", "place": "Pollentia (Pollenzo), on the Tanaro", "lat": 44.69, "lon": 7.89, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [ "Alans" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Stilicho; Saul (Alan cavalry)", "commanders_b": "Alaric I", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Stilicho's field army of Italy, reinforced by units withdrawn from Raetia, the Rhine and perhaps Britain, with Alan federate cavalry (under Saul, per Orosius 7.37) whose leader fell; modern estimates are 10,000-15,000 on each side.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Iranian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The western army was recruited in Italy, Gaul and among Germanic and Alan federates; no Greek units are recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Claudian, De bello Getico; Orosius 7.37; Prudentius, Contra Symmachum 2; Jordanes, Getica 154-155; en.wikipedia Battle of Pollentia", "note": "Result disputed: Roman sources claim a clear victory (the Gothic camp, with Alaric's wife, was taken), Jordanes a Gothic one; Alaric withdrew in good order." }, { "id": 967, "key": "402-asti-siege", "name": "Asti (siege)", "year": 402, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "early 402", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (401-403)", "theatre": "Liguria", "place": "Hasta (Asti) on the Tanaro", "lat": 44.9, "lon": 8.21, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Honorius (in the town); Stilicho (relief)", "commanders_b": "Alaric I", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A blockade of the emperor's refuge; no assault is recorded.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The emperor's escort in the town, relieved by Stilicho with the field army of Italy, strengthened by units recalled from Raetia and the Rhine and by Alan federates (Claudian, De bello Getico).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Iranian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The western field army was Latin- and Germanic-speaking; Greek speakers were at most a handful.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Claudian, De bello Getico; Claudian, De VI consulatu Honorii; en.wikipedia List of Roman battles; en.wikipedia Battle of Pollentia", "note": "Alaric withdrew west when Stilicho arrived. Claudian is vague about the town, usually identified as Hasta; some put Alaric's siege of Honorius at Milan instead." }, { "id": 968, "key": "402-verona", "name": "Verona", "year": 402, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 402 (or 403)", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (401-403)", "theatre": "Venetia", "place": "Near Verona", "lat": 45.44, "lon": 10.99, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Stilicho", "commanders_b": "Alaric I", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Stilicho's field army of Italy with federate troops; many of Alaric's own Gothic chiefs deserted to Stilicho (Claudian, De VI consulatu Honorii).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "As at Pollentia, a Latin- and Germanic-speaking western army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Claudian, De VI consulatu Honorii 201-330; en.wikipedia List of Roman battles; en.wikipedia Battle of Pollentia", "note": "Wikipedia dates it June 402; many historians prefer 403. Alaric escaped and left Italy for Illyricum." }, { "id": 969, "key": "406-faesulae", "name": "Faesulae", "year": 406, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August 406 (Radagaisus executed 23 August)", "type": "land", "war": "War of Radagaisus", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "The hills of Faesulae (Fiesole), above Florence", "lat": 43.81, "lon": 11.29, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [ "Huns", "Alans", "Goths" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Stilicho; Uldin (Huns); Sarus (Goths)", "commanders_b": "Radagaisus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Thirty numeri of the western field army with Hunnic federates under Uldin, Gothic under Sarus, and Alans (Zosimus 5.26).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "other", "Iranian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A western army with steppe and Germanic federates; no Greek units recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Zosimus 5.26; Orosius 7.37; Augustine, De civitate Dei 5.23; Olympiodorus fr. 9; en.wikipedia List of Roman battles", "note": "Radagaisus' host (Goths with others) was surrounded and starved rather than beaten in a pitched battle; 12,000 of his best men were taken into Roman service. Radagaisus was executed on 23 August 406." }, { "id": 970, "key": "406-florence-siege", "name": "Florence (siege)", "year": 406, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "406 (or late 405)", "type": "land", "war": "War of Radagaisus", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "Florentia (Florence)", "lat": 43.77, "lon": 11.25, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [ "Huns", "Alans", "Goths" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Stilicho; Uldin (Huns); Sarus (Goths)", "commanders_b": "Radagaisus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No assault or relief battle is described: the city was close to surrender when Stilicho's approach ended the siege; the fighting that followed is the Faesulae entry.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The townspeople, relieved by Stilicho's army gathered at Ticinum: thirty numeri of Roman troops with Alan and Hunnic federates under Uldin and Goths under Sarus, perhaps 15,000-20,000 men; slaves were enrolled (Zosimus 5.26; Orosius 7.37).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "other", "Iranian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The thirty numeri came from the western field army; the federates were Huns, Alans and Goths.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 5.26; Orosius 7.37; Paulinus, Vita Ambrosii 50; en.wikipedia List of Roman battles; en.wikipedia Stilicho", "note": "Stilicho's arrival ended the siege and drove Radagaisus onto the hills of Faesulae (next entry); Florence was nearly lost." }, { "id": 971, "key": "407-valence-siege", "name": "Valence (siege)", "year": 407, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "407 (or 408)", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Constantine III", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Valentia (Valence), on the Rhone", "lat": 44.93, "lon": 4.89, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantine III", "faction_b": "Honorius (Sarus)", "commanders_a": "Constantine III; Gerontius and Edobichus (relief)", "commanders_b": "Sarus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Sarus led a small, largely Gothic army of Honorius, which had beaten and killed Constantine's general Justinianus; Constantine held Valence with the army of Britain and Gaul and was relieved by Gerontius and Edobichus with newly raised Franks and Alamanni (Zosimus 6.2).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both sides were western armies of Britain, Gaul and Italy with Germanic recruits.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 6.2; Olympiodorus fr. 13; Sozomen 9.11-13; en.wikipedia Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)", "note": "Before the siege Sarus defeated and killed Justinianus and treacherously killed Nebiogastes; he gave up after seven days and had to buy his way over the Alps from the Bagaudae." }, { "id": 972, "key": "409-pisa", "name": "Pisa", "year": 409, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "409", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic invasion of Italy (408-410)", "theatre": "Etruria", "place": "near Pisa, Etruria", "lat": 43.72, "lon": 10.4, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Olympius, magister officiorum", "commanders_b": "unknown (the Goths of Athaulf's army)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A small action known only from Zosimus; no standard battle name.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "300 Huns sent from Ravenna under Olympius; they killed 1,100 Goths and lost 17 men (Zosimus 5.45.6).", "languages": [ "other" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The force was entirely Hunnic.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 5.45.6; livius.org Zosimus, New History 5.45", "note": "The Goths were the reinforcements Athaulf was bringing from Pannonia to Alaric; Zosimus does not name Athaulf in the sentence. Olympius fell from power soon after." }, { "id": 973, "key": "409-ostia", "name": "Ostia", "year": 409, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 409", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic invasion of Italy (408-410)", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Portus, the harbour of Rome at Ostia", "lat": 41.78, "lon": 12.26, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Goths" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Alaric I", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Treated as a battle only in Jaques's dictionary; the ancient sources describe Alaric's seizure of Portus, which forced the Senate to accept Attalus as emperor.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The garrison of Portus, Rome's grain harbour; no units are recorded.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Rome's harbour town had eastern traders, but the garrison is unknown.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zosimus 6.6; Olympiodorus fr. 13; en.wikipedia Battle of Ostia (409) (after Jaques, Dictionary of Battles and Sieges)", "note": "" }, { "id": 974, "key": "411-arles-siege", "name": "Arles (siege)", "year": 411, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring-summer 411", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Constantine III", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Arelate (Arles), and the Rhone crossing nearby", "lat": 43.68, "lon": 4.63, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Honorius (Constantius)", "faction_b": "Constantine III", "commanders_a": "Constantius; Ulfilas", "commanders_b": "Constantine III; Edobichus (relief army)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Constantius led Honorius's field army of Italy and took over the siege that the rebel Gerontius had begun; Edobichus's relief army of Franks and Alamanni with Gallic troops was ambushed by Ulfilas's cavalry across the Rhone (Sozomen 9.14; Zosimus 6.13; Olympiodorus).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "All the armies involved were western, from Italy, Gaul and the Rhine.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sozomen 9.13-15; Olympiodorus fr. 17; Gregory of Tours 2.9 (Frigeridus); en.wikipedia Constantine III (Western Roman emperor)", "note": "Gerontius besieged Constantine in Arles first; most of his troops deserted to Constantius and he fled to Spain. The defeat of Edobichus is sometimes listed as a separate battle. Constantine surrendered and was executed in August or September 411." }, { "id": 975, "key": "413-utriculum", "name": "Utriculum", "year": 413, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "413", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Heraclian", "theatre": "Italy", "place": "Utriculum, probably Ocriculum (Otricoli) on the Via Flaminia", "lat": 42.42, "lon": 12.48, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Honorius (Marinus)", "faction_b": "Heraclian", "commanders_a": "Marinus (comes)", "commanders_b": "Heraclian", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Only Hydatius reports a battle; Orosius and Marcellinus say Heraclian fled when Marinus approached.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Heraclian, comes Africae, landed with the army of Africa (Orosius 7.42 gives an incredible 3,700 ships) and was met by Honorius's forces of Italy under the comes Marinus; Hydatius claims 50,000 dead.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Berber", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were western, from Africa and Italy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Hydatius 51, 56; Orosius 7.42; Marcellinus Comes s.a. 413; en.wikipedia Heraclianus", "note": "Heraclian fled to Carthage and was put to death there." }, { "id": 976, "key": "413-massilia-siege", "name": "Massilia (siege)", "year": 413, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "413", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic war in Gaul (412-416)", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Massilia (Marseille)", "lat": 43.3, "lon": 5.37, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Bonifacius", "commanders_b": "Athaulf", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The defenders of Massilia under Bonifacius, who wounded Athaulf himself (Olympiodorus fr. 22).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Massilia was a Greek foundation, but by the fifth century its people spoke Latin; Greek survived only marginally.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Olympiodorus fr. 22; en.wikipedia Siege of Massilia (413)", "note": "The Goths were Visigoths. Athaulf withdrew and later married Galla Placidia at Narbo (414)." }, { "id": 977, "key": "419-nervasos-mountains", "name": "Nervasos Mountains", "year": 419, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "419 (or 420)", "type": "land", "war": "Vandal-Suebian war in Gallaecia", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "The Nervasian mountains (Nerbasii montes), Gallaecia; site unknown", "lat": 42.6, "lon": -7.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Vandals" ], "allies_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_b": [ "Alans" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Asterius (comes Hispaniarum); Maurocellus (vicarius); Hermeric (Suebi, besieged)", "commanders_b": "Gunderic", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Vandals", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The field troops of Spain under the comes Hispaniarum Asterius with forces of the vicarius Maurocellus, coming to relieve the Suebi of Hermeric (Hydatius 71).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman troops in Spain were western and locally raised.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Hydatius 71, 74; en.wikipedia Battle of the Nervasos Mountains", "note": "The Vandals lifted their siege of the Suebi when Asterius approached, but on their retreat they killed some of Maurocellus's men at Bracara (Braga); the usurper Maximus, backed by barbarians, was put down at the same time." }, { "id": 978, "key": "421-arzanene", "name": "Arzanene", "year": 421, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "421", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Sasanian War of 421-422", "theatre": "Mesopotamia and Armenia", "place": "Arzanene, east of the Tigris", "lat": 38.2, "lon": 41.2, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (East)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ardabur", "commanders_b": "Narses (Mihr Narseh)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Not a separately named battle in most works; recorded as Ardabur's victory over Narses after his raid into Arzanene.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The field army of the East under Ardabur, an Alan; no units are named (Socrates 7.18).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Latin", "Germanic", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of the East was recruited in Anatolia, Syria and Armenia, with Gothic and other federates.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Socrates 7.18; en.wikipedia Roman-Sasanian War of 421-422", "note": "Narses retreated to Nisibis." }, { "id": 979, "key": "421-nisibis-siege", "name": "Nisibis (siege)", "year": 421, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "421", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Sasanian War of 421-422", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Nisibis (Nusaybin)", "lat": 37.07, "lon": 41.21, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (East)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Narses; Bahram V (relief)", "commanders_b": "Ardabur", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Ardabur's field army of the East, reinforced and equipped with siege engines (Socrates 7.18).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Latin", "Germanic", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "As at Arzanene, the eastern field army of Anatolia, Syria and Armenia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Socrates 7.18; Malalas 14.23; en.wikipedia Roman-Sasanian War of 421-422", "note": "Ardabur burned his engines and withdrew on the approach of Bahram V and his Lakhmid allies under al-Mundhir; Socrates then tells how the Lakhmids were routed and drowned in the Euphrates, a story of miraculous tone." }, { "id": 980, "key": "421-theodosiopolis-siege", "name": "Theodosiopolis (siege)", "year": 421, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "421 (or 422)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Sasanian War of 421-422", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "Theodosiopolis, probably in Armenia (Erzurum); possibly Resaina in Osroene", "lat": 39.91, "lon": 41.27, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (East)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Bishop Eunomius", "commanders_b": "unnamed Sasanian commander", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The townspeople and garrison led by Bishop Eunomius; no relief army came (Theodoret, Historia ecclesiastica 5.37).", "languages": [ "Armenian", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A frontier town of Armenia (or Osroene) whose people spoke Armenian or Syriac; Greek was the language of the officials and clergy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theodoret, Historia ecclesiastica 5.37; en.wikipedia Roman-Sasanian War of 421-422", "note": "The Persians gave up after 30 days when a stone from a catapult (said to be blessed by the bishop) killed a subject king; the account is hagiographic and the town's identity disputed." }, { "id": 981, "key": "422-tarraco", "name": "Tarraco", "year": 422, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "422", "type": "land", "war": "Vandal wars in Hispania", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Baetica (site unknown)", "lat": 37.4, "lon": -5.8, "loc": "region", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Vandals" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Alans" ], "allies_b": [ "Goths" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gunderic", "commanders_b": "Castinus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Vandals", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Castinus, magister utriusque militiae, led palatine units of the field army of Italy with Gothic federates from Aquitaine, perhaps 10,000-15,000 men in all (Heather); the Goths deserted him (Hydatius 77).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A western army of Italian palatini and Gothic federates.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Hydatius 77; Prosper s.a. 422; Salvian 7.11; en.wikipedia Battle of Tarraco", "note": "The battle was fought in Baetica; the name Tarraco comes from a modern addition to an online translation of Hydatius (Castinus may have retreated to Tarraco). The Vandals kept Baetica." }, { "id": 982, "key": "425-ravenna", "name": "Ravenna", "year": 425, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 425", "type": "land", "war": "Usurpation of Joannes", "theatre": "Italy", "place": "Ravenna", "lat": 44.42, "lon": 12.2, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (East)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Theodosius II and Valentinian III (Aspar)", "faction_b": "Joannes", "commanders_a": "Aspar; Ardabur (a prisoner in the city)", "commanders_b": "Joannes", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The city fell to Aspar's men, led through the marshes by a shepherd (Socrates) or by treachery of the garrison; whether there was real fighting is unclear.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Aspar led the cavalry of the eastern army sent by Theodosius II from Thessalonica and Aquileia (the fleet under Ardabur had been wrecked and he captured); Joannes held Ravenna with the palace troops of Italy.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The attackers were an eastern field army raised in Thrace and Anatolia with Gothic and Alan officers; the defenders were Latin-speaking Italians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Socrates 7.23; Philostorgius 12.13-14; Procopius, Wars 3.3.8-9; Olympiodorus fr. 43; en.wikipedia Joannes", "note": "Here roman_state marks the eastern army fighting for the western throne. Aetius arrived three days after Joannes's execution with a large Hunnic army and skirmished with Aspar's troops before a settlement (Philostorgius)." }, { "id": 983, "key": "425-arles-siege", "name": "Arles (siege)", "year": 425, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "425 (or 426)", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic revolt of Theodoric I", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Arelate (Arles)", "lat": 43.68, "lon": 4.63, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [ "Huns" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Flavius Aetius", "commanders_b": "Theodoric I", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Aetius with the troops of Gaul and the Huns he had brought to Italy for the usurper Joannes; the Goths left 'not unpunished' when he approached (Prosper s.a. 425).", "languages": [ "Latin", "other", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Gallic army with Hunnic auxiliaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Prosper s.a. 425; en.wikipedia Siege of Arles (425)", "note": "The Goths were Visigoths. Theodoric made peace and his Goths were later sent against the Vandals." }, { "id": 984, "key": "430-arles", "name": "Arles", "year": 430, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "430", "type": "land", "war": "Aetius's wars with the Visigoths", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "not far from Arelate (Arles)", "lat": 43.68, "lon": 4.63, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Flavius Aetius", "commanders_b": "Anaolsus (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known from one line of Hydatius.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The army of Gaul under Aetius; the sources give no units or numbers. In these years it combined the Gallic comitatenses with Hunnic and other federates (assumed from the period, not stated).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "other" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Gallic field army was raised in Gaul and among Germanic and Hunnic federates.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Hydatius, Chronicle s.a. 430; en.wikipedia Flavius Aetius; en.wikipedia Battle of Arles (435)", "note": "Hydatius: the Goths were beaten by Aetius in a fight not far from Arles and their noble Anaolsus was captured. Wikipedia's 'Battle of Arles (435)', sourced only to Jaques, describes a Gothic siege of Arles broken by Aetius and his Huns that is not in the ancient sources; it is probably this battle (or the siege of 425) misdated, and is not entered separately." }, { "id": 985, "key": "430-hippo-regius-siege", "name": "Hippo Regius (siege)", "year": 430, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "May/June 430 - July/August 431", "type": "land", "war": "Vandal conquest of Africa", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "Hippo Regius (Annaba)", "lat": 36.88, "lon": 7.75, "loc": "known", "country": "Algeria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Vandals" ], "allies_a": [ "Goths" ], "allies_b": [ "Alans" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Bonifacius (comes Africae)", "commanders_b": "Gaiseric", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Vandals", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Bonifacius with what remained of the army of Africa, his bucellarii and Gothic federates, in a city crowded with refugees (Possidius, Vita Augustini 28-29; Procopius, Wars 3.3).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The African army and Gothic federates were Latin- and Germanic-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Possidius, Vita Augustini 28-29; Procopius, Wars 3.3.30-36; en.wikipedia Siege of Hippo Regius", "note": "Augustine died in the besieged city on 28 August 430. The Vandals raised the siege after about 14 months (a technical Roman success), but occupied the abandoned city after the battle of 431/432." }, { "id": 986, "key": "431-hippo-regius", "name": "Hippo Regius", "year": 431, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "431 (or early 432)", "type": "land", "war": "Vandal conquest of Africa", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "Near Hippo Regius", "lat": 36.88, "lon": 7.75, "loc": "region", "country": "Algeria", "side_a": [ "Vandals" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Alans" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaiseric", "commanders_b": "Bonifacius; Aspar", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Vandals", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Bonifacius's African army joined by an eastern expeditionary army under Aspar sent by Theodosius II (Procopius, Wars 3.3.35-36).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern army, raised in Thrace and Anatolia, may have made up a large part of the force.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 3.3.35-36; en.wikipedia Siege of Hippo Regius", "note": "A joint western and eastern army; roman_state gives the western command. The future emperor Marcian, then Aspar's officer, was said to have been captured here." }, { "id": 987, "key": "432-rimini", "name": "Rimini", "year": 432, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "432", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of Aetius and Bonifacius", "theatre": "Italy", "place": "Near Ariminum (Rimini)", "lat": 44.06, "lon": 12.57, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Bonifacius (Galla Placidia)", "faction_b": "Aetius", "commanders_a": "Bonifacius (mortally wounded)", "commanders_b": "Flavius Aetius", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Bonifacius brought part of his African troops, mainly his bucellarii, with Italian forces; Aetius came with troops from Gaul; modern estimates put both armies together below 7,000 men.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were western, from Africa, Italy and Gaul.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Hydatius 99; Prosper s.a. 432; Marcellinus Comes s.a. 432; en.wikipedia Battle of Ravenna (432)", "note": "Also called the Battle of Ravenna. Bonifacius won but died of his wounds; Aetius returned to power with Hunnic help in 433." }, { "id": 988, "key": "436-narbonne", "name": "Narbonne", "year": 436, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "436-437", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (436-439)", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Narbo (Narbonne)", "lat": 43.18, "lon": 3.0, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [ "Huns" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Litorius", "commanders_b": "Theodoric I", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Litorius led Hunnic auxiliaries and the field army of Gaul; each horseman carried two measures of wheat for the starving city (Prosper s.a. 436; Sidonius, Carm. 7.246-248).", "languages": [ "other", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Gallic army with Hunnic cavalry.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Prosper s.a. 436; Sidonius, Carmen 7.246-248; en.wikipedia Battle of Narbonne (436)", "note": "The Visigoths besieging Narbonne were routed before they could form a line, and the siege was relieved (437)." }, { "id": 989, "key": "438-mons-colubrarius", "name": "Mons Colubrarius", "year": 438, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "438", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (436-439)", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Mons Colubrarius, perhaps the Roc de la Garde Roland near Olonzac", "lat": 43.28, "lon": 2.73, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Flavius Aetius", "commanders_b": "Gothic commanders (Theodoric I absent)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Aetius with the field army of Gaul and probably Hunnic auxiliaries; no units are recorded. Hydatius says 8,000 Goths were killed.", "languages": [ "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Gallic army; no Greek units recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Merobaudes, Panegyric 1 fr. IIA; Hydatius 112; en.wikipedia Battle of Mons Colubrarius", "note": "Site uncertain; the panegyric may exaggerate." }, { "id": 990, "key": "439-toulouse", "name": "Toulouse", "year": 439, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "439", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (436-439)", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Before Tolosa (Toulouse)", "lat": 43.6, "lon": 1.44, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Goths" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Huns" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Theodoric I", "commanders_b": "Litorius (captured and executed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Litorius's army was largely Hunnic auxiliaries with Gallic troops (Prosper s.a. 439; Salvian, De gubernatione Dei 7.39).", "languages": [ "other", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Gallic army whose core was Hunnic.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Prosper s.a. 439; Hydatius 117; Salvian 7.39-40; en.wikipedia Battle of Toulouse (439)", "note": "The Goths also lost heavily; Avitus then made peace with Theodoric." }, { "id": 991, "key": "440-panormus-siege", "name": "Panormus (siege)", "year": 440, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "440", "type": "land", "war": "Vandal War (439-442)", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Panormus (Palermo), Sicily", "lat": 38.12, "lon": 13.36, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Vandals" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (the garrison and citizens)", "commanders_b": "Gaiseric", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No fighting is described: Gaiseric besieged the city and failed to take it.", "main_enemy": "Vandals", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Unknown: the garrison and citizens of Panormus; no commander is named, and the western field army under Sigisvult was guarding the coasts of Italy.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Sicily was bilingual; Panormus, a Roman colony, was mainly Latin-speaking with a Greek-speaking population.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Hydatius, Chronicle s.a. 440; Cassiodorus, Chronica s.a. 440; en.wikipedia Vandal War (439-442)", "note": "Gaiseric then ravaged Sicily and may have occupied Lilybaeum; an eastern fleet reached Sicily in 441 but was recalled." }, { "id": 992, "key": "443-naissus-siege", "name": "Naissus (siege)", "year": 443, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "443 (or 442)", "type": "land", "war": "Hunnic invasions of the Balkans (441-447)", "theatre": "Illyricum", "place": "Naissus (Nis), Dacia Mediterranea", "lat": 43.32, "lon": 21.9, "loc": "known", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Huns" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (East)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Attila and Bleda", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Huns", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Naissus, who fought the Huns' rams and wheeled towers with stones from the walls (Priscus fr. 6).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Naissus lay in the Latin-speaking part of the Balkans.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Priscus fr. 6 (Blockley); en.wikipedia Attila", "note": "Thompson dates the fall to 443; others to 442. Priscus found the riverbank still full of bones years later." }, { "id": 993, "key": "447-utus", "name": "Utus", "year": 447, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "447", "type": "land", "war": "Hunnic invasions of the Balkans (441-447)", "theatre": "Moesia", "place": "On the river Utus (Vit), Dacia Ripensis", "lat": 43.61, "lon": 24.68, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Huns" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (East)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Attila", "commanders_b": "Arnegisclus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Huns", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "The praesental army and the field armies of Thrace and Illyricum under the magister militum Arnegisclus, a Goth; their paper strength has been estimated at about 71,000.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Germanic", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Balkan field armies drew on Thrace, Illyricum and Anatolia (and Gothic federates); Latin and Greek speakers both served.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Marcellinus Comes s.a. 447; Jordanes, Romana 331; Chronicon Paschale s.a. 447; en.wikipedia Battle of the Utus", "note": "The Roman field armies were destroyed, but the Huns also lost heavily; Marcianopolis fell soon after." }, { "id": 994, "key": "447-chersonesus", "name": "Chersonesus", "year": 447, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "447 (Thompson: 443)", "type": "land", "war": "Hunnic invasions of the Balkans (441-447)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "The Thracian Chersonese, near Callipolis (Gelibolu)", "lat": 40.41, "lon": 26.67, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Huns" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (East)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Attila", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Huns", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "A second eastern army, apparently the troops left around Constantinople and in Thrace; no units are recorded (Priscus fr. 9.3).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Troops gathered near the capital were drawn from Thrace and Anatolia, with Gothic and Isaurian soldiers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Priscus fr. 9.3 (Blockley); en.wikipedia Battle of the Utus; en.wikipedia Attila", "note": "Dated 447 by Maenchen-Helfen, Blockley and the Wikipedia Utus article; Thompson and Wikipedia's Attila article put it in 443, after an unnamed defeat outside Constantinople. Peace was made by Anatolius 'after the battle in the Chersonese'." }, { "id": 995, "key": "447-asemus", "name": "Asemus", "year": 447, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "447", "type": "land", "war": "Hunnic invasions of the Balkans (441-447)", "theatre": "Moesia", "place": "Asemus (Asamus), a fort near the mouth of the Osam on the Danube", "lat": 43.65, "lon": 24.85, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Huns" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (East)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the citizens of Asemus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A local resistance by sorties, described only by Priscus; not a named battle in most works.", "main_enemy": "Huns", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "The citizen militia of the fortified town of Asemus, who sallied out, killed many Huns and freed captives (Priscus fr. 9.3).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Danube town of Latin-speaking Moesia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Priscus fr. 9.3 (Blockley)", "note": "Attila later demanded the return of the Hunnic prisoners the Asemuntians held." }, { "id": 996, "key": "448-vicus-helena", "name": "Vicus Helena", "year": 448, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 448 (c. 445-450; Jaques: 431)", "type": "land", "war": "Aetius's wars with the Franks", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Vicus Helena, in the territory of the Atrebates (Artois); site unidentified", "lat": 50.4, "lon": 2.8, "loc": "region", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Flavius Aetius; Majorian (cavalry)", "commanders_b": "Chlodio", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Aetius's army of Gaul, with the young Majorian leading the cavalry that surprised a Frankish wedding feast (Sidonius, Carm. 5.210-218).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "other" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Gallic army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sidonius, Carmen 5.210-218; Gregory of Tours 2.9; en.wikipedia Battle of Vicus Helena", "note": "The Franks were Salian Franks. Proposed sites include Lens, Hélesmes, Évin and Allaines." }, { "id": 997, "key": "451-catalaunian-plains", "name": "Catalaunian Plains", "year": 451, "month": 6, "day": 20, "date": "20 June 451", "type": "land", "war": "Hunnic invasion of Gaul", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "The Catalaunian Plains (Campus Mauriacus), Champagne; site unknown", "lat": 49.0, "lon": 4.5, "loc": "region", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Huns" ], "allies_a": [ "Goths", "Alans", "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_b": [ "Goths", "Germanic peoples" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Flavius Aetius; Theodoric I (killed); Thorismund; Sangiban", "commanders_b": "Attila", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Huns", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "Aetius's Roman field army of Gaul (modern estimate about 20,000 comitatenses, with limitanei) and federates: the Visigoths under Theodoric I, Sangiban's Alans, Salian and Ripuarian Franks, Burgundians, Saxons, Sarmatians, Armoricans, Liticiani and Olibriones (Jordanes, Getica 191).", "languages": [ "Germanic", "Latin", "Iranian", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Gaul and its federates spoke Latin, Germanic, Iranian (Alan) and Celtic (Armorican) tongues; no eastern units are recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Jordanes, Getica 190-218; Hydatius 150; Prosper s.a. 451; en.wikipedia Battle of the Catalaunian Plains", "note": "Wikipedia's infobox calls it inconclusive; Attila was driven back to his laager and then withdrew from Gaul. Date 20 June after Bury (others: early July or 27 September). Proposed sites: Montgueux near Troyes, Méry-sur-Seine, La Cheppe. Attila's allies included Ostrogoths and Gepids." }, { "id": 998, "key": "451-orleans-siege", "name": "Orléans (siege)", "year": 451, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "May-June 451 (relieved about 14 June)", "type": "land", "war": "Hunnic invasion of Gaul", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Aurelianum (Orléans)", "lat": 47.9, "lon": 1.9, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Huns" ], "allies_a": [ "Goths", "Alans" ], "allies_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Bishop Anianus (in the city); Flavius Aetius and Theodoric I (relief)", "commanders_b": "Attila", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Huns", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "The citizens and the Alans settled there, relieved by Aetius's coalition of the Roman army of Gaul with the Visigoths and other federates (Jordanes, Getica 194-195; Vita Aniani).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Iranian" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Gallic army and Germanic and Alan federates.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Jordanes, Getica 194-195; Gregory of Tours 2.7; Vita Aniani; en.wikipedia Battle of the Catalaunian Plains", "note": "Attila broke off his final assault when the relief army approached; some historians see the defence of Orléans as the real turning point of 451." }, { "id": 999, "key": "452-mediolanum-siege", "name": "Mediolanum (siege)", "year": 452, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 452", "type": "land", "war": "Hunnic invasion of Italy", "theatre": "Northern Italy", "place": "Mediolanum (Milan)", "lat": 45.46, "lon": 9.19, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Huns" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Goths", "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Attila", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A capture with no fighting recorded; included because Wikipedia's list of Roman battles names a siege of Mediolanum (452). Round 1 excluded it with Ticinum and Patavium.", "main_enemy": "Huns", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "Unknown: the garrison and citizens of Mediolanum; Aetius' field army did not defend the cities of the Po valley.", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Latin-speaking city of northern Italy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Jordanes, Getica 222; Prosper s.a. 452; en.wikipedia List of Roman battles", "note": "After Aquileia fell the Huns took the cities of Venetia, then Mediolanum and Ticinum; the sources describe no resistance." }, { "id": 1000, "key": "452-aquileia-siege", "name": "Aquileia (siege)", "year": 452, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "452 (fell after about three months; sack traditionally 18 July)", "type": "land", "war": "Hunnic invasion of Italy", "theatre": "Venetia", "place": "Aquileia", "lat": 45.77, "lon": 13.37, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Huns" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Goths", "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Attila", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Huns", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Aquileia, strongly walled and held without relief by a field army (Jordanes, Getica 219-221; Procopius, Wars 3.4.30-35).", "languages": [ "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Aquileia was a Latin city with an eastern merchant community.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Jordanes, Getica 219-221; Procopius, Wars 3.4.30-35; Prosper s.a. 452; en.wikipedia List of Roman battles", "note": "The city was razed. The Huns then took Mediolanum, Ticinum and Patavium, apparently without battles (excluded)." }, { "id": 1001, "key": "456-placentia", "name": "Placentia", "year": 456, "month": 10, "day": 17, "date": "17 or 18 October 456", "type": "land", "war": "Roman civil war of 456", "theatre": "Italy", "place": "Near Placentia (Piacenza)", "lat": 45.05, "lon": 9.69, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Ricimer and Majorian", "faction_b": "Avitus", "commanders_a": "Ricimer; Majorian", "commanders_b": "Avitus; Messianus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Ricimer and Majorian had most of the comitatenses of Italy with Germanic federates; Avitus had part of the Gallic army, without his Visigothic allies, who were in Spain.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were western, from Italy and Gaul.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Hydatius 183; John of Antioch fr. 202; Fasti Vindobonenses priores s.a. 456; en.wikipedia Battle of Placentia (456)", "note": "Avitus was deposed and made bishop of Piacenza, and died soon after." }, { "id": 1002, "key": "456-agrigentum", "name": "Agrigentum", "year": 456, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring or early summer 456", "type": "land", "war": "Vandal raids on Italy", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Near Agrigentum (Agrigento)", "lat": 37.31, "lon": 13.58, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Vandals" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ricimer", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Vandals", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Ricimer, then comes, with Roman troops, auxiliaries and Germanic federates of the army of Italy (Sidonius, Carm. 2.367; Hydatius 177).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Fought in Sicily, where Greek was still widely spoken, but the army was the Latin- and Germanic-speaking army of Italy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sidonius, Carmen 2.367; Hydatius 176-177; Priscus fr. 31; en.wikipedia Battle of Agrigentum (456)", "note": "The Vandals came with sixty ships; the victory gave only brief relief from their raids." }, { "id": 1003, "key": "456-corsica", "name": "Corsica", "year": 456, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "456", "type": "sea", "war": "Vandal raids on Italy", "theatre": "Tyrrhenian Sea", "place": "Off (or on) Corsica", "lat": 42.15, "lon": 9.4, "loc": "region", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Vandals" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ricimer", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Vandals", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Ricimer's ships and troops of the army of Italy, which 'by a ruse' destroyed a Vandal force of sixty ships bound for Gaul or Italy (Hydatius 176).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A western force; the crews may have included Greek-speaking sailors from southern Italy and Sicily.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Hydatius 176; en.wikipedia Battle of Agrigentum (456)", "note": "Hydatius places the destruction of the Vandals 'in Corsica'; it may have been partly a land action. Ricimer had pursued the Vandal survivors north after Agrigentum." }, { "id": 1004, "key": "457-campi-cannini", "name": "Campi Cannini", "year": 457, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "457", "type": "land", "war": "Alamannic invasion of Italy", "theatre": "Raetia and northern Italy", "place": "Campi Canini, usually placed on the Magadino plain near Bellinzona, north of Lake Maggiore", "lat": 46.16, "lon": 8.9, "loc": "approx", "country": "Switzerland", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Burco (comes)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "A detachment under the comes Burco sent by Majorian, then magister militum, against about 900 Alamannic raiders (Sidonius, Carm. 5.373-385).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A small detachment of the army of Italy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sidonius, Carmen 5.373-385; en.wikipedia Battle of Campi Cannini; en.wikipedia Majorian", "note": "Wikipedia places it 'near Lake Maggiore, Italy'; Gregory of Tours puts the Canini campi near Bellinzona." }, { "id": 1005, "key": "457-garigliano", "name": "Garigliano", "year": 457, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 457 (or 458)", "type": "land", "war": "Vandal raids on Italy", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Mouth of the Liris (Garigliano), near Sinuessa", "lat": 41.22, "lon": 13.77, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Vandals" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Berbers" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Majorian", "commanders_b": "a brother-in-law of Gaiseric (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Vandals", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Majorian led the field army of Italy against a raiding force of Vandals and Moors, many of whom were killed before reaching their ships (Sidonius, Carm. 5.385-440).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Italy; no Greek units recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sidonius, Carmen 5.385-440; en.wikipedia Battle of Garigliano (457); en.wikipedia Majorian", "note": "" }, { "id": 1006, "key": "458-arelate", "name": "Arelate", "year": 458, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 458 (or 459)", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (457-458)", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Arelate (Arles)", "lat": 43.68, "lon": 4.63, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [ "Huns", "Germanic peoples", "Alans" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Majorian; Aegidius; Nepotianus", "commanders_b": "Theodoric II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Majorian's army, a host of federates that Sidonius lists poetically (Huns, Alans, Rugians, Burgundians, Ostrogoths, Suebi, Bastarnae, Sarmatians and others), with Aegidius's army of Gaul, which held Arles (Sidonius, Carm. 5.470-477).", "languages": [ "Germanic", "Latin", "other", "Iranian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "An army of Italy and Gaul largely made up of barbarian federates.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sidonius, Carmen 5; Hydatius 197; Gregory of Tours 2.11; en.wikipedia Battle of Arelate; en.wikipedia Majorian", "note": "Also called the Battle of Arles (458). Theodoric II had been besieging Aegidius in Arles; after the defeat the Visigoths returned to federate status and gave up Septimania." }, { "id": 1007, "key": "458-toulouse", "name": "Toulouse", "year": 458, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "458", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (457-458)", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Tolosa (Toulouse)", "lat": 43.6, "lon": 1.44, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Majorian", "commanders_b": "Theodoric II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Probably a doublet of Arelate (458); the ancient sources describe no battle at Toulouse in that campaign.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Majorian's army of federates and the army of Gaul (as at Arelate).", "languages": [ "Germanic", "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "As at Arelate.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "en.wikipedia Battle of Toulouse (458) (after Jaques, Dictionary of Battles and Sieges)", "note": "" }, { "id": 1008, "key": "458-lugdunum-siege", "name": "Lugdunum (siege)", "year": 458, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 458 (or early 459)", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (457-458)", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Lugdunum (Lyon)", "lat": 45.76, "lon": 4.83, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Majorian", "commanders_b": "unknown (Burgundians)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Little is known of the fighting; some treat it only as an occupation of the city.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Majorian's army of federates with the troops of Gaul (Sidonius, Carm. 5 and 13).", "languages": [ "Germanic", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "As at Arelate.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sidonius, Carmina 5 and 13; en.wikipedia Majorian", "note": "The Burgundians, perhaps with Gallo-Roman supporters of Avitus, held Lyon; the city was heavily fined, and Sidonius pleaded for tax relief." }, { "id": 1009, "key": "460-cartagena", "name": "Cartagena", "year": 460, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "May 460 (some sources 461)", "type": "sea", "war": "Majorian's African expedition", "theatre": "Hispania", "place": "Portus Ilicitanus (Santa Pola), bay of Alicante", "lat": 38.19, "lon": -0.56, "loc": "approx", "country": "Spain", "side_a": [ "Vandals" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Alans" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaiseric", "commanders_b": "unknown (Majorian's fleet)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Vandals", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The invasion fleet of about 300 ships that Majorian had built for Africa, surprised at anchor after some of its captains had been bribed (Hydatius 200; Marius of Avenches s.a. 460).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A western fleet built in Italy and Spain.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Hydatius 200; Marius of Avenches s.a. 460; en.wikipedia Battle of Cartagena (461)", "note": "Despite the name it was fought near Elche (Ilici), not at Cartagena; 13 May 460 is sometimes given. Majorian made peace and was deposed and killed in 461." }, { "id": 1010, "key": "463-orleans", "name": "Orléans", "year": 463, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "463 (Chronica Gallica: c. 461-462)", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of Aegidius", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Near Aurelianum (Orléans), on the Loire", "lat": 47.9, "lon": 1.9, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aegidius (Childeric I perhaps present)", "commanders_b": "Frederic (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Aegidius's army of northern Gaul, the remnant of the Gallic field army, probably with Salian Franks under Childeric (Hydatius 218; Gregory of Tours 2.18).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Gallic army with Frankish allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Hydatius 218; Chronica Gallica 511; Marius of Avenches s.a. 463; Gregory of Tours 2.18; en.wikipedia Battle of Orleans (463)", "note": "Aegidius, magister militum per Gallias, had broken with Ricimer and Libius Severus and held northern Gaul on his own; he is counted here as a Roman commander. Frederic was the brother of Theodoric II." }, { "id": 1011, "key": "464-bergamo", "name": "Bergamo", "year": 464, "month": 2, "day": 6, "date": "6 February 464", "type": "land", "war": "Alan invasion of Italy", "theatre": "Italy", "place": "Near Bergomum (Bergamo)", "lat": 45.7, "lon": 9.67, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Alans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ricimer", "commanders_b": "Beorgor (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Alans", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "Ricimer with the army of Italy, largely Germanic federates (Fasti Vindobonenses priores s.a. 464; Jordanes, Getica 236).", "languages": [ "Germanic", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Italy, by now mostly Germanic federates.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Fasti Vindobonenses priores s.a. 464; Marcellinus Comes s.a. 464; Jordanes, Getica 236; en.wikipedia Battle of Bergamo", "note": "The day is flagged as uncertain on Wikipedia." }, { "id": 1012, "key": "466-serdica", "name": "Serdica", "year": 466, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "winter 466/467 (date uncertain)", "type": "land", "war": "Hunnic raids on the Balkans", "theatre": "Thrace and Dacia", "place": "Near Serdica (Sofia)", "lat": 42.7, "lon": 23.32, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Huns" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (East)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Anthemius (magister militum)", "commanders_b": "Hormidac", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Sidonius's panegyric of Anthemius; rarely named as a battle.", "main_enemy": "Huns", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "Anthemius with an eastern army; its cavalry commander, perhaps a barbarian, deserted to the Huns before the battle, and the infantry won alone (Sidonius, Carm. 2.269-298).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Germanic", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Balkan armies drew on Thrace, Illyricum and Anatolia; Latin and Greek speakers both served.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sidonius, Carmen 2.269-298; en.wikipedia Hormidac", "note": "Hormidac had taken Serdica by surprise after crossing the frozen Danube; the date is uncertain (Wikipedia: winter 466/467)." }, { "id": 1013, "key": "468-cap-bon", "name": "Cap Bon", "year": 468, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "468", "type": "sea", "war": "Expedition against the Vandals (468)", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "Off Promontorium Mercurii (Cap Bon)", "lat": 37.08, "lon": 11.05, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Vandals" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (East)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gaiseric", "commanders_b": "Basiliscus (Marcellinus and Heraclius of Edessa led other columns)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Vandals", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "A joint expedition of Leo I and Anthemius: 1,113 ships (Cedrenus) carrying perhaps 30,000 soldiers, about 50,000 men in all with the crews and the western and Dalmatian forces of Marcellinus and Heraclius's column (Heather).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Coptic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern fleet was crewed from the Aegean, Asia Minor and Egypt and carried eastern field troops; the western contingent was Latin-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 3.6; Priscus fr. 53; Candidus fr. 2; Theophanes AM 5961; en.wikipedia Battle of Cap Bon (468)", "note": "A joint East-West operation; roman_state gives the eastern command. During a truce Gaiseric sent fireships against the anchored fleet; over 100 ships and about 10,000 men were lost." }, { "id": 1014, "key": "471-arles", "name": "Arles", "year": 471, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "471 (or 470)", "type": "land", "war": "Euric's wars against the Empire", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "East of the Rhone near Arelate (Arles)", "lat": 43.68, "lon": 4.63, "loc": "approx", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Goths" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Euric", "commanders_b": "Anthemiolus (killed); Thorisarius, Everdingus, Hermianus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Anthemius's army of Italy under his son Anthemiolus, perhaps 10,000 men or more by modern estimate (Chronica Gallica 511 s.a. 471).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Anthemius had brought eastern officers and some troops from Constantinople in 467; the army was otherwise western.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Chronica Gallica 511 s.a. 471; Gregory of Tours 2.18; en.wikipedia Battle of Arles (471)", "note": "The Goths were Visigoths. The Western Empire lost control of the Rhone corridor; Arles fell to Euric about 476." }, { "id": 1015, "key": "472-rome-siege", "name": "Rome (siege)", "year": 472, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "March - 11 July 472", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of Ricimer and Anthemius", "theatre": "Italy", "place": "Rome", "lat": 41.9, "lon": 12.48, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Ricimer", "faction_b": "Anthemius", "commanders_a": "Ricimer; Gundobad; Odoacer", "commanders_b": "Anthemius (executed); Bilimer (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Ricimer's army of Italy, largely Germanic federates, with Burgundians and Odoacer's men; Anthemius held Rome with the city's people and his own troops, and Bilimer's relief force from Gaul was beaten at the bridge before Hadrian's mausoleum (Paul the Deacon; John of Antioch fr. 209).", "languages": [ "Germanic", "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Anthemius, an easterner, had some eastern followers; both armies were otherwise western.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "John of Antioch fr. 209; Paul the Deacon, Historia Romana 15.3-4; Cassiodorus, Chronicle s.a. 472; en.wikipedia Siege of Rome (472)", "note": "The city fell after five months; Anthemius was beheaded (by Gundobad, per John of Antioch) on 11 July, and Ricimer died on 19 August 472." }, { "id": 1016, "key": "474-clermont-siege", "name": "Clermont (siege)", "year": 474, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "474 (the Goths besieged Clermont each season from 471)", "type": "land", "war": "Euric's wars against the Empire", "theatre": "Gaul", "place": "Clermont (Augustonemetum), Auvergne", "lat": 45.78, "lon": 3.08, "loc": "known", "country": "France", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ecdicius; Bishop Sidonius Apollinaris", "commanders_b": "Euric", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The citizens of Clermont and Ecdicius's private force of horsemen, with 18 of whom (Sidonius, Ep. 3.3; 10 in Gregory of Tours 2.24) he rode through the besiegers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Celtic" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Sidonius (Ep. 3.3) says the Arvernian nobility was only then shedding 'the scurf of Celtic speech'; no Greek speakers are recorded.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sidonius, Epistulae 3.3, 7.7; Gregory of Tours 2.24; en.wikipedia Ecdicius", "note": "The Goths were Visigoths. Clermont never fell; Julius Nepos gave the Auvergne to Euric by treaty in 475." }, { "id": 1017, "key": "476-ravenna", "name": "Ravenna", "year": 476, "month": 9, "day": null, "date": "late August - 4 September 476", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Odoacer", "theatre": "Italy", "place": "Ravenna (Paulus was killed in the pine wood outside Classis)", "lat": 44.38, "lon": 12.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (West)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Odoacer", "commanders_b": "Paulus (killed); Orestes (executed at Placentia)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Odoacer's Heruli, Sciri and Turcilingi were the federate soldiers of the army of Italy in mutiny; the battle could be classed as civil.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The remnant of the army of Italy loyal to Orestes, under his brother Paulus (Anonymus Valesianus 8.37-38).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A western army; no Greek units recorded.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Anonymus Valesianus 8.37-38; Fasti Vindobonenses priores s.a. 476; Jordanes, Getica 242; en.wikipedia Battle of Ravenna (476)", "note": "Orestes was captured and executed at Placentia on 28 August; Paulus fell on 4 September and Romulus Augustulus was deposed." }, { "id": 1018, "key": "479-candavia", "name": "Candavia", "year": 479, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "479", "type": "land", "war": "Wars with Theodoric the Amal", "theatre": "Epirus and Macedonia", "place": "The Candavian mountains, on the Via Egnatia west of Lychnidus", "lat": 41.1, "lon": 20.35, "loc": "approx", "country": "Albania", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Goths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (East)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Sabinianus Magnus (magister militum per Illyricum)", "commanders_b": "Theodimund", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A named ambush known only from Malchus; not usually treated as a battle.", "main_enemy": "Goths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Sabinianus with the Illyrian field army and local troops, who surprised the Gothic rearguard and took 2,000 wagons and 5,000 prisoners (Malchus fr. 20).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Illyricum was recruited mostly in Latin-speaking provinces.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Malchus fr. 20 (Blockley)", "note": "The Goths were Theodoric the Amal's (Ostrogoths); Theodimund was his brother." }, { "id": 1019, "key": "479-constantinople", "name": "Constantinople", "year": 479, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 479", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Marcian", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Constantinople, around the palace", "lat": 41.01, "lon": 28.98, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire (East)", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Zeno", "faction_b": "Marcian", "commanders_a": "Zeno; Illus", "commanders_b": "Marcian; Procopius Anthemius; Romulus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Street fighting in a palace revolt; may count as a riot rather than a battle.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Marcian and his brothers led their followers and the city crowd and beat the palace troops; Illus brought Isaurian soldiers over from Chalcedon by night and bought off the rebels (John of Antioch fr. 211; Malchus).", "languages": [ "Greek", "other", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The capital's guards and crowd were largely Greek-speaking; Zeno's Isaurians spoke Isaurian and Greek.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "John of Antioch fr. 211; Malchus fr. 22; Theophanes AM 5971; en.wikipedia Illus", "note": "Marcian was captured and sent to Cappadocia (or Papurius)." }, { "id": 1020, "key": "484-seleucia", "name": "Seleucia", "year": 484, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "484", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Illus and Leontius", "theatre": "Isauria", "place": "Near Seleucia (Silifke), Isauria", "lat": 36.38, "lon": 33.93, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Zeno", "faction_b": "Illus and Leontius", "commanders_a": "John the Scythian", "commanders_b": "Illus; Leontius", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Zeno's army of 'Macedonians and Scythians' (perhaps including Goths) under John the Scythian, with Theodoric the Amal named as co-commander; Illus and Leontius had Isaurians and troops of the East who had joined them (Theophanes AM 5976; John of Antioch fr. 214).", "languages": [ "Greek", "other", "Germanic", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies came from the eastern provinces, Isauria and the Balkans; Greek was widely spoken in all of them.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 5976-5977; John of Antioch fr. 214; Malalas 15.13-14; en.wikipedia Illus", "note": "Wikipedia's Illus article also mentions an earlier rebel victory near Antioch; Seleucia may be the Isaurian city or Seleucia Pieria. The rebels fled to the fort of Papurius." }, { "id": 1021, "key": "484-papurius-siege", "name": "Papurius (siege)", "year": 484, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "484-488", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Illus and Leontius", "theatre": "Isauria", "place": "The fortress of Papurius (Cherris), Isauria; site unidentified", "lat": 36.8, "lon": 33.3, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Zeno", "faction_b": "Illus and Leontius", "commanders_a": "John the Scythian", "commanders_b": "Illus; Leontius; Trocundes (captured and executed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A four-year blockade ended by treachery; how much fighting took place is not recorded.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "John the Scythian's blockading army; the rebels held the Isaurian fortress with Isaurian followers (John of Antioch fr. 214; Theophanes AM 5977-5980).", "languages": [ "Greek", "other" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Imperial troops of the East and Isaurians, a largely Hellenized people.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "John of Antioch fr. 214; Theophanes AM 5977-5980; Malalas 15.14; en.wikipedia Illus", "note": "Trocundes was caught trying to break out for help; the fort fell in 488 through the treachery of his brother-in-law, and Illus and Leontius were beheaded." }, { "id": 1022, "key": "492-cotyaeum", "name": "Cotyaeum", "year": 492, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "492", "type": "land", "war": "Isaurian War (492-497)", "theatre": "Phrygia", "place": "Cotyaeum (Kutahya), Phrygia", "lat": 39.42, "lon": 29.98, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Huns", "Goths" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Anastasius I", "faction_b": "Isaurian rebels (Longinus)", "commanders_a": "John the Scythian; John the Hunchback; Justin", "commanders_b": "Lilingis (killed); Longinus of Cardala; Conon; Longinus of Selinus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "The field armies under John the Scythian (magister militum per Orientem) and John the Hunchback (praesentalis), with Gothic and Hunnic contingents under officers such as Apsikal and Sigizan (Theophanes AM 5985); sizes are not given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Germanic", "other" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial army drew on Thrace, Illyricum and Anatolia, with Gothic and Hunnic federates; the rebels were Isaurian highlanders, largely Hellenized.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 5985; John of Antioch fr. 214b; Evagrius 3.35; en.wikipedia Battle of Cotyaeum; en.wikipedia Isaurian War", "note": "Counted as civil because the rebels were Roman provincials led by Zeno's brother Longinus and former imperial officers; Wikipedia's infobox treats the Isaurians as a separate belligerent." }, { "id": 1023, "key": "493-claudiopolis-siege", "name": "Claudiopolis (siege)", "year": 493, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "493", "type": "land", "war": "Isaurian War (492-497)", "theatre": "Isauria", "place": "Claudiopolis (Mut), in the Calycadnus valley", "lat": 36.65, "lon": 33.44, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Anastasius I", "faction_b": "Isaurian rebels (Longinus)", "commanders_a": "Diogenianus (besieged); John the Hunchback (relief)", "commanders_b": "Conon (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Diogenianus's force besieged in Claudiopolis and the relief army of John the Hunchback, which forced the Taurus passes; a sortie from the town completed the rout (Theophanes AM 5986).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Germanic", "other" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "As at Cotyaeum.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 5986; en.wikipedia Isaurian War", "note": "A siege with a relief battle. The war ended with the deaths or capture of the rebel leaders in 497-498, without further named battles." }, { "id": 1024, "key": "498-bithrapsa", "name": "Bithrapsa", "year": 498, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "497/498", "type": "land", "war": "Arab raids on the eastern frontier", "theatre": "Euphratensis", "place": "Bithrapsa in Euphratensis; site unidentified", "lat": 36.4, "lon": 38.3, "loc": "region", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Eugenius (dux of Euphratensis)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known from one sentence of Theophanes; the site is unidentified.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The frontier troops of Euphratensis under their dux Eugenius (Theophanes AM 5990).", "languages": [ "Aramaic/Syriac", "Greek", "Arabic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Frontier troops of northern Syria were raised locally among Syriac and Greek speakers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 5990", "note": "The raiders were Arabs from the Persian side (probably Lakhmids)." }, { "id": 1025, "key": "499-tzurta", "name": "Tzurta", "year": 499, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "499", "type": "land", "war": "Bulgar raids on Thrace", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "The river Tzurta in Thrace, probably near Tzurulum (Corlu)", "lat": 41.16, "lon": 27.8, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Bulgars" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "Aristus (magister militum per Illyricum); comites Nicostratus, Innocentius, Tancus, Aquilinus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgars", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "Aristus led 15,000 men of the Illyrian army with 520 wagons of arms; more than 4,000 were killed in flight or over the steep river bank (Marcellinus Comes s.a. 499).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Illyricum was recruited mostly in Latin-speaking provinces.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Marcellinus Comes s.a. 499", "note": "The identification of the Tzurta is uncertain." }, { "id": 1026, "key": "502-amida-siege", "name": "Amida (siege)", "year": 502, "month": 10, "day": null, "date": "October 502 - January 503", "type": "land", "war": "Anastasian War (502-506)", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Amida (Diyarbakir)", "lat": 37.91, "lon": 40.24, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Kavad I", "commanders_b": "the citizens (no military commander recorded)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The citizens of Amida, with monks and no regular garrison, defended the walls for three months (Joshua the Stylite 50-53; Procopius, Wars 1.7; Zacharias 7.3-4).", "languages": [ "Aramaic/Syriac", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Amida's people spoke Syriac; Greek was used by officials and the educated.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Joshua the Stylite 50-53; Procopius, Wars 1.7; Zacharias Rhetor 7.3-4; en.wikipedia Anastasian War", "note": "The city fell by night in January 503 and many of its people were deported to Persia. Martyropolis, which surrendered in 502, is excluded." }, { "id": 1027, "key": "503-edessa-siege", "name": "Edessa (siege)", "year": 503, "month": 9, "day": null, "date": "September 503", "type": "land", "war": "Anastasian War (502-506)", "theatre": "Osroene", "place": "Edessa (Sanliurfa)", "lat": 37.16, "lon": 38.79, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Arabs" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Areobindus", "commanders_b": "Kavad I; al-Mundhir III (Lakhmids)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Areobindus with the garrison and the citizens of Edessa, who repulsed the Persian attacks on the gates and walls (Joshua the Stylite 58-62).", "languages": [ "Aramaic/Syriac", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Edessa was Syriac-speaking, but Areobindus's field troops came largely from Greek-speaking provinces.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Joshua the Stylite 58-62; Procopius, Wars 2.13; en.wikipedia Anastasian War", "note": "Kavad had demanded 10,000 pounds of gold for peace; the Persians and Lakhmids overran much of Osroene but failed before the city." }, { "id": 1028, "key": "503-constantia-siege", "name": "Constantia (siege)", "year": 503, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "503 (before the attack on Edessa in September)", "type": "land", "war": "Anastasian War (502-506)", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Constantia (Constantina, Tella; Viransehir), Osrhoene", "lat": 37.23, "lon": 39.76, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (the garrison and citizens)", "commanders_b": "Kavad I", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Little fighting is recorded: Kavad stayed only a short time, a plot to betray the city was uncovered, and he moved on to Edessa after receiving supplies from the inhabitants.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The garrison and townspeople of Constantia; no commander is recorded.", "languages": [ "Aramaic/Syriac", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Syriac-speaking frontier city whose officials and part of the garrison spoke Greek.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Joshua the Stylite, Chronicle; en.wikipedia Anastasian War", "note": "Wikipedia spells the city Constantia; also called Constantina or Tella." }, { "id": 1029, "key": "503-nisibis", "name": "Nisibis", "year": 503, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 503", "type": "land", "war": "Anastasian War (502-506)", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Before Nisibis (Nusaybin)", "lat": 37.07, "lon": 41.21, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Arabs" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Kavad I", "commanders_b": "Areobindus (magister militum per Orientem); Romanus; Asouades (Arab phylarch)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Areobindus's division of the 52,000-man army sent by Anastasius, with the Arab phylarch Asouades and Gothic officers such as Godidisklus and Bessas (Joshua the Stylite 54-56; Procopius, Wars 1.8).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Latin", "Germanic", "Armenian", "Arabic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of the East was raised in Anatolia, Syria and Armenia, with Goths and Arab allies; Greek and Syriac speakers were numerous.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Joshua the Stylite 54-56; Procopius, Wars 1.8.1-4; en.wikipedia Anastasian War", "note": "Areobindus first beat a Persian force near Nisibis, then fled west when Kavad came up and his camp at Apadna was plundered." }, { "id": 1030, "key": "503-tell-beshme", "name": "Tell Beshme", "year": 503, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 503", "type": "land", "war": "Anastasian War (502-506)", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Between Apadna and Tell Beshme, between Amida and Nisibis", "lat": 37.3, "lon": 40.7, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Kavad I", "commanders_b": "Patricius; Hypatius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The divisions of Patricius and Hypatius, part of the 52,000-man expeditionary army; their cavalry suffered heavily on the retreat to Samosata (Joshua the Stylite 56; Zacharias 7.4; Procopius, Wars 1.8).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Latin", "Germanic", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "As at Nisibis (503).", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Joshua the Stylite 56; Zacharias Rhetor 7.4; Procopius, Wars 1.8.10-19; en.wikipedia Anastasian War", "note": "Name after Wikipedia's 'between Apadna and Tell Beshme'; the sources place the defeat differently, and Procopius tells it as a surprise attack on the Roman camp." }, { "id": 1031, "key": "503-amida-siege", "name": "Amida (siege)", "year": 503, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 503 - early 505", "type": "land", "war": "Anastasian War (502-506)", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Amida (Diyarbakir)", "lat": 37.91, "lon": 40.24, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Patricius; Celer; Pharesmanes", "commanders_b": "Glones (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Patricius and Celer with the army of the East; the Colchian Pharesmanes killed the Persian commander Glones in an ambush, and Patricius beat a relief force; the Persian garrison numbered 3,000 (Procopius, Wars 1.9; Joshua the Stylite 66-80).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Latin", "Germanic", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "As at Nisibis (503), with Colchian and Armenian officers.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 1.9; Joshua the Stylite 66-80; en.wikipedia Anastasian War", "note": "The starving Persian garrison finally gave the city back for a payment in gold (Procopius); the Roman recovery is scored as the besieger's success." }, { "id": 1032, "key": "505-horreum-margi", "name": "Horreum Margi", "year": 505, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "505", "type": "land", "war": "Ostrogothic-Roman war in Illyricum", "theatre": "Moesia", "place": "Horreum Margi (Cuprija), on the Morava", "lat": 43.93, "lon": 21.37, "loc": "approx", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Huns" ], "allies_b": [ "Bulgars" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Pitzia; Mundo", "commanders_b": "Sabinianus (magister militum per Illyricum)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Sabinianus led 10,000 men of the Illyrian army with wagons of arms and supplies (Marcellinus Comes s.a. 505), with a large force of Bulgar allies (Ennodius, Panegyric of Theoderic 12).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Turkic", "Illyrian/Thracian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Illyrian army came from Latin-speaking provinces, and its Bulgar allies spoke a Turkic tongue.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Marcellinus Comes s.a. 505; Ennodius, Panegyricus 12; Jordanes, Getica 300-301; en.wikipedia Battle of Horreum Margi", "note": "Sabinianus fled to the fort of Nato. Mundo was a Hunnic-Gepid chief in Ostrogothic service." }, { "id": 1033, "key": "513-acris", "name": "Acris", "year": 513, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 513", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Vitalian (513-515)", "theatre": "Scythia Minor and Moesia", "place": "Acris (Cape Kaliakra), near Odessus", "lat": 43.36, "lon": 28.47, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Huns", "Bulgars" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Vitalian", "faction_b": "Anastasius I", "commanders_a": "Vitalian", "commanders_b": "Hypatius and Alathar (both captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Hypatius and Alathar led an imperial army put at 80,000; Vitalian had the federate troops of Scythia and Moesia with Huns, Bulgars and Thracian peasants, 50,000-60,000 strong at Constantinople earlier in 513 (John of Antioch fr. 214e; Marcellinus Comes s.a. 514).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Turkic", "Germanic", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial army came from the East and Thrace; the rebels from the Latin-speaking Danube provinces with steppe allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "John of Antioch fr. 214e; Marcellinus Comes s.a. 514; Malalas 16.16; en.wikipedia Vitalian (general)", "note": "After an initial imperial success, Vitalian's men attacked the imperial laager at night and destroyed most of the army; Hypatius was ransomed only a year later." }, { "id": 1034, "key": "515-golden-horn", "name": "Golden Horn", "year": 515, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 515", "type": "sea", "war": "Revolt of Vitalian (513-515)", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "The entrance of the Golden Horn, and the shore of Sycae (Galata) where Marinus then landed", "lat": 41.02, "lon": 28.98, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Huns", "Bulgars" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Anastasius I (Marinus)", "faction_b": "Vitalian", "commanders_a": "Marinus (former praetorian prefect)", "commanders_b": "Vitalian", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Marinus commanded the imperial ships and the troops he then landed at Sycae, against Vitalian's fleet (some 200 vessels from the Black Sea ports in 514) and his army of Danubian federates with Hunnic and Bulgar allies; Malalas says he used a sulphur-based incendiary devised by the philosopher Proclus of Athens (Malalas 16.16).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Turkic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The capital's ships and the Black Sea ports' vessels were crewed largely by Greek speakers; Vitalian's soldiers came from the Danube provinces.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Malalas 16.16; John of Antioch fr. 214e; en.wikipedia Vitalian (general)", "note": "Marinus defeated the rebel fleet at the entrance of the Golden Horn, then landed at Sycae and routed the rebels there; counted as one engagement (type sea, with the landing). Vitalian fled north by night; Anastasius gave thanks at the Michaelion of Sosthenion." }, { "id": 1035, "key": "526-persarmenia", "name": "Persarmenia", "year": 526, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "526 (or 527)", "type": "land", "war": "Iberian War (526-532)", "theatre": "Persarmenia", "place": "Persarmenia; site unknown", "lat": 40.0, "lon": 44.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Armenia", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Narses and Aratius", "commanders_b": "Sittas; Belisarius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An unnamed defeat on a raid, recorded only by Procopius.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Sittas and Belisarius, young officers of Justinian's guard, led a raiding force into Persarmenia; on their second inroad they were beaten by the Armenian brothers Narses and Aratius (Procopius, Wars 1.12.20-22).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The forces of Roman Armenia and the guard were raised in Armenia, Anatolia and the Balkans.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 1.12.20-22; en.wikipedia Iberian War", "note": "Greatrex dates the raids to 526; some put the second in 527." }, { "id": 1036, "key": "527-thebetha-siege", "name": "Thebetha (siege)", "year": 527, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 527", "type": "land", "war": "Iberian War (526-532)", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Nisibis, then the Persian fortress of Thebetha, fifteen parasangs from Dara", "lat": 37.07, "lon": 41.21, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "Libelarius (Procopius); the dux 'Timus' (Zacharias)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No standard name; the site of Thebetha is not securely identified (the coordinates are those of Nisibis).", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The army of the eastern frontier, infantry and cavalry mustered at Dara under the magister militum and dux (Zacharias 9.1); no units or numbers survive.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern field army of the 520s was recruited largely in Anatolia, Thrace and Syria.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Zacharias Rhetor, Chronicle 9.1; Procopius, Wars 1.12; en.wikipedia Iberian War", "note": "Zacharias: the Romans fought at Nisibis but could not take it, then breached the wall of Thebetha but failed to take it in the summer heat; many infantry died of thirst on the march back to Dara. Wikipedia: 'a Roman offensive against Nisibis and Thebetha in that year failed'. Procopius gives the command to Libelarius." }, { "id": 1037, "key": "528-thannuris", "name": "Thannuris", "year": 528, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 528", "type": "land", "war": "Iberian War", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Thannuris (Tell Tuneinir), on the Khabur, south of Dara", "lat": 36.42, "lon": 40.87, "loc": "approx", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Ghassanids" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Peroz Mihran, Xerxes", "commanders_b": "Belisarius, Coutzes, Bouzes, Proclianus, Basil, Sebastian, Vincentius, Jabalah IV", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The duces and comites of the Mesopotamian frontier under Belisarius (dux of Mesopotamia), Coutzes and Bouzes, with Isaurian infantry and the Ghassanid Arabs of Jabalah IV; no reliable total is given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Latin", "Arabic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Isaurian infantry (by then largely Greek-speaking) and frontier troops of Mesopotamia and Syria, beside Latin-speaking Balkan officers and Ghassanid allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 1.13.1-8; Pseudo-Zachariah of Mytilene, Chronicle 9.2; en.wikipedia Battle of Thannuris", "note": "The Persians drew the Roman cavalry into concealed ditches; much of the infantry was killed or captured and the unfinished fort was razed. Procopius may compress Thannuris and the fight at Mindouos into one encounter." }, { "id": 1038, "key": "528-mindouos", "name": "Mindouos", "year": 528, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "528", "type": "land", "war": "Iberian War", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Mindouos (Melebasa, modern Ogunduk), north of Nisibis", "lat": 37.15, "lon": 41.2, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "Belisarius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Possibly the same engagement as Thannuris; English Wikipedia keeps a separate short article.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Belisarius' frontier army of Mesopotamia, guarding the building of a fort at Mindouos; no numbers given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern frontier army was recruited in Anatolia, Isauria, Syria and the Balkans.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 1.13.1-8; en.wikipedia Battle of Mindouos", "note": "The Romans were routed on the hill near the fort site." }, { "id": 1039, "key": "530-dara", "name": "Dara", "year": 530, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 530", "type": "land", "war": "Iberian War", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "before the walls of Dara (Anastasiopolis)", "lat": 37.17, "lon": 40.95, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [ "Huns", "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Belisarius, Hermogenes, John son of Nicetas, Bouzes, Pharas, Sunicas, Aigan, Simmas, Ascan", "commanders_b": "Perozes, Pityaxes, Baresmanas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "About 25,000 of the eastern field army: cavalry on the wings behind a system of ditches, infantry in the centre, Belisarius' bucellarii in reserve, 600 Hun horse under Sunicas and Aigan, 600 more under Simmas and Ascan, and 300 Heruls under Pharas in ambush (Procopius 1.13).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian", "Germanic", "other" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern field army of the 520s-540s drew on Anatolia, Isauria, Thrace, Illyricum and Armenia; Greek speakers were a large part, beside Latin-speaking Balkan soldiers, Armenians and Hun and Herul foederati.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 1.13-14; en.wikipedia Battle of Dara", "note": "The allies are the Hun (Massagete) horse and the Heruls (Germanic peoples) of Pharas. Persian strength about 40,000 plus 10,000 from Nisibis (Procopius)." }, { "id": 1040, "key": "530-satala", "name": "Satala", "year": 530, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 530 (summer 530)", "type": "land", "war": "Iberian War", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "Satala (Sadak), Roman Armenia", "lat": 40.03, "lon": 39.6, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Huns" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Sittas, Dorotheus, Florentius", "commanders_b": "Mihr-Mihroe", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "About 15,000 of the new army of the magister militum per Armeniam: Dorotheus held the main body in Satala while Sittas struck from the hills with 1,000 horse; Florentius the Thracian captured the Persian standard (Procopius 1.15).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Armenia, created in 528, combined regiments transferred from the East and Thrace with Armenian recruits.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 1.15.9-17; en.wikipedia Battle of Satala (530)", "note": "The Persian army of about 30,000 included Persarmenians, Sunitae and Sabir Huns (allies_b)." }, { "id": 1041, "key": "531-callinicum", "name": "Callinicum", "year": 531, "month": 4, "day": 19, "date": "19 April 531 (Easter Saturday)", "type": "land", "war": "Iberian War", "theatre": "Mesopotamia (Euphrates)", "place": "on the Euphrates opposite Callinicum (Raqqa)", "lat": 35.95, "lon": 39.01, "loc": "approx", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Lakhmids" ], "allies_b": [ "Ghassanids" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Azarethes, al-Mundhir III", "commanders_b": "Belisarius, Hermogenes, Ascan, Sunicas, Simmas, Longinus, Stephanacius, Peter, al-Harith ibn Jabalah", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "About 20,000 (Procopius 1.18): the eastern field army reinforced by Hermogenes, cavalry under Belisarius and Ascan, Isaurian and Lycaonian infantry, Hun horse under Sunicas and Simmas, and some 5,000 Ghassanid cavalry under al-Harith on the right.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Arabic", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Procopius names Isaurian and Lycaonian infantry (Anatolian, largely Greek-speaking) beside the Balkan-recruited cavalry and the Ghassanid Arabs.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 1.18; John Malalas 18.60; en.wikipedia Battle of Callinicum", "note": "The Ghassanid wing broke; the Roman infantry held with its back to the river and escaped to Callinicum at night. A costly Persian victory; Malalas gives a different account." }, { "id": 1042, "key": "531-martyropolis-siege", "name": "Martyropolis (siege)", "year": 531, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 531", "type": "land", "war": "Iberian War", "theatre": "Sophanene", "place": "Martyropolis (Silvan)", "lat": 38.14, "lon": 41.0, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Bouzes, Bessas (garrison); Sittas, Hermogenes (relief)", "commanders_b": "Chanaranges, Aspebedes, Mermeroes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The garrison of Martyropolis under Bouzes and Bessas, with a relief army of the East and Armenia under Sittas and Hermogenes gathering nearby (Procopius 1.21).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Garrison and relief army came from the eastern and Armenian field armies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 1.21.4-27; en.wikipedia Iberian War", "note": "The Persians mined the walls but raised the siege on news of Kavadh I's death (13 September 531) and the approach of the relief army." }, { "id": 1043, "key": "533-ad-decimum", "name": "Ad Decimum", "year": 533, "month": 9, "day": 13, "date": "13 September 533", "type": "land", "war": "Vandalic War", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "the tenth milestone south of Carthage, on the coast road", "lat": 36.76, "lon": 10.23, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Vandals" ], "allies_a": [ "Huns", "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Belisarius, John the Armenian", "commanders_b": "Gelimer, Ammatas, Gibamundus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Vandals", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Belisarius' expedition: 10,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry (regulars and foederati), 600 Huns, 400 Heruls and his own bucellarii, carried on 500 transports with 92 dromons (Procopius 3.11).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian", "Germanic", "other" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The expedition combined Thracian and Illyrian (largely Latin-speaking) cavalry, eastern and Isaurian infantry and Hun and Herul foederati; Greek speakers were a large minority.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 3.11, 3.17-19; en.wikipedia Battle of Ad Decimum", "note": "Allies: 600 Hun (Massagete) horse and 400 Heruls (Germanic peoples). Ammatas and Gibamundus were defeated in separate encounters before Belisarius routed Gelimer." }, { "id": 1044, "key": "533-tricamarum", "name": "Tricamarum", "year": 533, "month": 12, "day": 15, "date": "15 December 533", "type": "land", "war": "Vandalic War", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "Tricamarum, west of Carthage", "lat": 36.88, "lon": 10.0, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Vandals" ], "allies_a": [ "Huns" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Belisarius, John the Armenian", "commanders_b": "Gelimer, Tzazon", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Vandals", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "About 8,000 of Belisarius' army: the cavalry, led by John the Armenian with the bucellarii, decided the battle before the infantry came up; the Huns held back until the issue was clear (Procopius 4.2-3).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian", "other" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The same expeditionary army as at Ad Decimum.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 4.2-3; en.wikipedia Battle of Tricamarum", "note": "Site unidentified. Tzazon, Gelimer's brother, was killed and the Vandal camp taken." }, { "id": 1045, "key": "534-mount-papua-siege", "name": "Mount Papua (siege)", "year": 534, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "winter 533-534 (Gelimer surrendered March 534)", "type": "land", "war": "Vandalic War", "theatre": "Numidia", "place": "Mount Papua, on the edge of Numidia, near the town of Medeus", "lat": 36.85, "lon": 7.65, "loc": "region", "country": "Algeria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Vandals" ], "allies_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_b": [ "Berbers" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Pharas", "commanders_b": "Gelimer", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A blockade with one assault, ending in surrender.", "main_enemy": "Vandals", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Pharas with his Heruls and other troops; 110 of them fell in a failed assault on the mountain, after which Pharas blockaded it (Procopius 4.4, 4.6-7).", "languages": [ "Germanic", "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The force was built round Pharas' Herul foederati.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 4.4.26-31, 4.6-7; en.wikipedia Vandalic War", "note": "Gelimer sheltered with the Moors of the mountain (allies_b). Site uncertain (perhaps the Edough massif)." }, { "id": 1046, "key": "534-mammes", "name": "Mammes", "year": 534, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "534 (some date it to spring 535)", "type": "land", "war": "Moorish wars", "theatre": "Africa (Byzacena)", "place": "Mamma, south of Ain Djeloula", "lat": 35.75, "lon": 9.55, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Berbers" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Solomon", "commanders_b": "Cutzinas, Esdilasas, Iourphouthes, Mesidinissas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Berbers", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "About 18,000 after reinforcements: the regiments left in Africa and most of Belisarius' bucellarii, cavalry and infantry (cavalry dismounted to fight); Solomon broke the camel ring with 500 men (Procopius 4.11).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian", "other" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Africa was still the eastern expeditionary army of 533, with Thracian, Illyrian, Isaurian and Anatolian soldiers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 4.11; en.wikipedia Battle of Mammes", "note": "Procopius gives 10,000 Moorish dead." }, { "id": 1047, "key": "535-mount-bourgaon", "name": "Mount Bourgaon", "year": 535, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 535", "type": "land", "war": "Moorish wars", "theatre": "Africa (Byzacena)", "place": "Mount Bourgaon, central Tunisia", "lat": 35.6, "lon": 9.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Berbers" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Solomon, Theodorus", "commanders_b": "Cutzinas, Esdilasas, Iourphouthes, Mesidinissas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Berbers", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Solomon's army of about 18,000; Theodorus led some 1,000 excubitors up the mountain to take the Moors from above (Procopius 4.12).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian", "other" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The same army as at Mammes, recruited in the eastern and Balkan provinces.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 4.12; en.wikipedia Battle of Mount Bourgaon", "note": "Esdilasas was captured; Procopius' 50,000 Moorish dead is not credible." }, { "id": 1048, "key": "535-panormus-siege", "name": "Panormus (siege)", "year": 535, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 535", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Panormus (Palermo)", "lat": 38.12, "lon": 13.36, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Belisarius", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The Gothic garrison surrendered once the fleet's archers commanded the walls; little fighting.", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Belisarius' expedition of 4,000 regulars and foederati, 3,000 Isaurians, 200 Hun foederati and 300 Moors with his bucellarii; archers hoisted in boats to the mastheads shot down into the town (Procopius 5.5).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "other", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Procopius names 3,000 Isaurians (largely Greek-speaking by then) among some 7,500 men.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 5.5.12-16; en.wikipedia Gothic War (535-554)", "note": "The only real resistance in Sicily." }, { "id": 1049, "key": "536-bagradas-river-membresa", "name": "Bagradas River (Membresa)", "year": 536, "month": 4, "day": null, "date": "April 536", "type": "land", "war": "Moorish wars (mutiny of Stotzas)", "theatre": "Africa", "place": "Membresa (Medjez el-Bab), on the Bagradas", "lat": 36.65, "lon": 9.61, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Belisarius (loyalists)", "faction_b": "Stotzas (mutineers)", "commanders_a": "Belisarius", "commanders_b": "Stotzas", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Belisarius, back from Sicily with about 100 guards, rallied some 2,000 loyal troops at Carthage; Stotzas led about 8,000 mutineers of the army of Africa, with Vandal ex-soldiers and runaway slaves (Procopius 4.14-15).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Germanic", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both sides came from the eastern expeditionary army of 533; the Arian Heruls were among the mutineers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 4.14-15; en.wikipedia Battle of the River Bagradas (536)", "note": "Stotzas had lifted the siege of Carthage on Belisarius' arrival; he fled into Numidia after the defeat." }, { "id": 1050, "key": "536-naples-siege", "name": "Naples (siege)", "year": 536, "month": 11, "day": null, "date": "October-November 536", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Neapolis (Naples)", "lat": 40.85, "lon": 14.26, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Belisarius, Magnus, Ennes", "commanders_b": "Gothic garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Belisarius' expeditionary army (about 7,500 with his bucellarii); 400 men under Magnus and the Isaurian Ennes entered through the aqueduct (Procopius 5.8-10).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "other", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Isaurians led the entry by the aqueduct; the army was the eastern expedition of 535.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 5.8-10; en.wikipedia Siege of Naples (536)", "note": "After about twenty days; the city, defended by its Gothic garrison and many citizens, was sacked." }, { "id": 1051, "key": "536-salona", "name": "Salona", "year": 536, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 536", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Dalmatia", "place": "near Salona (Solin)", "lat": 43.54, "lon": 16.48, "loc": "approx", "country": "Croatia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mundus, Mauricius", "commanders_b": "unknown Gothic commanders", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Mundus, magister militum per Illyricum, with the Illyrian field army and his own followers; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Illyricum was recruited in the Latin-speaking Danubian provinces.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 5.7.1-10; en.wikipedia Gothic War (535-554)", "note": "Mauricius, Mundus' son, fell in a skirmish; Mundus routed the Goths but was killed in the pursuit, and the Roman army withdrew." }, { "id": 1052, "key": "537-rome-siege", "name": "Rome (siege)", "year": 537, "month": 3, "day": 2, "date": "2 March 537 - 12 March 538", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Rome", "lat": 41.9, "lon": 12.5, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "allies_a": [ "Huns", "Slavs" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Belisarius, Bessas, Constantinus, Peranius, Martin, Valerian, John nephew of Vitalian", "commanders_b": "Vitiges", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "About 5,000 of Belisarius' army at first, with armed Roman citizens; then 1,600 horse, mostly Huns, Sclaveni and Antae, under Martin and Valerian, and later 3,000 Isaurians, 800 Thracian horse under John and further detachments (Procopius 5.22-6.5).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "other", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Procopius names 3,000 Isaurians among the reinforcements beside Thracian cavalry, Huns and Slavs; the citizen militia spoke Latin.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 5.18-6.10; en.wikipedia Siege of Rome (537-538)", "note": "Vitiges withdrew after one year and nine days, when John took Ariminum; the siege included several pitched fights before the walls." }, { "id": 1053, "key": "537-scardon", "name": "Scardon", "year": 537, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "537 (or late 536)", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Dalmatia (Liburnia)", "place": "Scardon (Skradin), Liburnia", "lat": 43.82, "lon": 15.92, "loc": "approx", "country": "Croatia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Constantianus' troops (commander not named)", "commanders_b": "Uligisalus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A minor engagement known only from Procopius; no standard article.", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Part of the army of Illyricum that Constantianus had brought by sea from Dyrrachium to recover Dalmatia in 536 (Procopius 5.7, 5.16).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Illyricum was raised largely in the Latin-speaking western Balkans, with some men from Epirus.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 5.16.12-13 (LacusCurtius)", "note": "Uligisalus was beaten and fell back to Burnus, where Asinarius joined him before the siege of Salona." }, { "id": 1054, "key": "537-scalas-veteres", "name": "Scalas Veteres", "year": 537, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 537", "type": "land", "war": "Moorish wars (mutiny of Stotzas)", "theatre": "Africa (Numidia)", "place": "Scalas Veteres, Numidia", "lat": 36.2, "lon": 8.7, "loc": "region", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Berbers" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Germanus (loyalists)", "faction_b": "Stotzas (mutineers)", "commanders_a": "Germanus", "commanders_b": "Stotzas", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Germanus' loyal troops, swollen by mutineers he had won back with arrears of pay, against Stotzas' remaining mutineers; Moors under Iaudas and Ortaias waited to join the winner (Procopius 4.17).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies came from the eastern regiments sent to Africa in 533.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 4.17; en.wikipedia Battle of Scalas Veteres", "note": "Site unidentified. Stotzas fled with a few followers to Mauretania." }, { "id": 1055, "key": "537-salona-siege", "name": "Salona (siege)", "year": 537, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "537", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Dalmatia", "place": "Salona (Solin)", "lat": 43.54, "lon": 16.48, "loc": "known", "country": "Croatia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Constantianus", "commanders_b": "Asinarius, Uligisalus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Constantianus' Illyrian troops holding Salona, with a squadron of ships that defeated the Gothic fleet (Procopius 5.16).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Constantianus' army came from Illyricum; the ships' crews may have been eastern.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 5.16.8-18; en.wikipedia, the list of battles of the Roman Empire (East)", "note": "Land and sea siege; the Goths withdrew. Uligisalus had earlier been beaten at Scardon." }, { "id": 1056, "key": "538-urbinum-siege", "name": "Urbinum (siege)", "year": 538, "month": 12, "day": null, "date": "December 538", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Picenum", "place": "Urbinum (Urbino)", "lat": 43.73, "lon": 12.64, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Belisarius", "commanders_b": "Morras", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The garrison surrendered when its spring failed, as the Romans prepared an assault; little fighting.", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Belisarius' own army, after Narses and John had marched off (Procopius 6.19).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Belisarius' eastern expeditionary army, with its Isaurian infantry.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 6.19; en.wikipedia Gothic War (535-554)", "note": "" }, { "id": 1057, "key": "538-petra-pertusa-siege", "name": "Petra Pertusa (siege)", "year": 538, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 538", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Picenum (Via Flaminia)", "place": "Petra (Petra Pertusa), the fort closing the Furlo gorge on the Via Flaminia", "lat": 43.64, "lon": 12.71, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Martin, Ildiger", "commanders_b": "Gothic garrison of 400", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A short assault ending in surrender; no standard article.", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "1,000 horsemen sent by Belisarius under Martin and Ildiger toward Ariminum; after an attack on the gate failed they climbed the cliff and dropped rocks on the fort until the garrison surrendered (Procopius 6.11.4-20).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Belisarius' eastern expeditionary cavalry, with Thracian and Hun horsemen.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 6.11.1-20 (LacusCurtius)", "note": "The Goths surrendered on terms; most were taken along by Martin and Ildiger and a small Roman garrison was left." }, { "id": 1058, "key": "538-ariminum-siege", "name": "Ariminum (siege)", "year": 538, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 538", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Picenum / Aemilia", "place": "Ariminum (Rimini)", "lat": 44.06, "lon": 12.57, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "allies_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John nephew of Vitalian; Belisarius, Narses, Ildiger, Martin (relief)", "commanders_b": "Vitiges", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "John's 2,000 horse in the town; relieved by Belisarius and Narses, who had brought 5,000 regulars and 2,000 Heruls from the East (Procopius 6.13, 6.16-17).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Germanic", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "John's cavalry was Thracian; Narses' reinforcements were eastern regiments and Herul foederati.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 6.11-17; en.wikipedia Gothic War (535-554)", "note": "The Goths stormed with a siege tower and then blockaded; they withdrew as the relief approached." }, { "id": 1059, "key": "538-mediolanum-siege", "name": "Mediolanum (siege)", "year": 538, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "538 - early 539", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Liguria", "place": "Mediolanum (Milan)", "lat": 45.46, "lon": 9.19, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Uraias", "commanders_b": "Mundilas; Martin, Uliaris (relief)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Mundilas with about 300 of Belisarius' guards and the armed citizens; the relief army of Martin and Uliaris stayed on the Po (Procopius 6.12, 6.21).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The defence rested on the Latin-speaking citizens with a small eastern garrison.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 6.12, 6.21; en.wikipedia Gothic War (535-554)", "note": "10,000 Burgundians (allies_a) joined the Goths. The garrison was spared; the city was razed and its men killed (Procopius gives 300,000, an impossible figure)." }, { "id": 1060, "key": "538-urbs-vetus-siege", "name": "Urbs Vetus (siege)", "year": 538, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 538 - early 539", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Tuscia", "place": "Urbs Vetus (Orvieto)", "lat": 42.72, "lon": 12.11, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Belisarius", "commanders_b": "Albilas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The garrison surrendered from hunger; the rock was judged unassailable.", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Belisarius' army (Procopius 6.20).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Belisarius' eastern expeditionary army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 6.20; en.wikipedia, the list of battles of the Roman Empire (East)", "note": "" }, { "id": 1061, "key": "539-babosis", "name": "Babosis", "year": 539, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "539 or 540 (the 13th year of Justinian)", "type": "land", "war": "Moorish wars", "theatre": "Africa (Numidia)", "place": "Babosis, near Bagai at the foot of the Aurasium (Aures)", "lat": 35.45, "lon": 7.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Algeria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Berbers" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Solomon, Gontharis", "commanders_b": "Iaudas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Procopius; the site is unidentified; no standard article.", "main_enemy": "Berbers", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Solomon's army of Africa, re-formed after the mutinies with reinforcements from the East; the vanguard under his guardsman Gontharis had been beaten on the Abigas before Solomon came up (Procopius 4.19.6-17).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Africa still rested on the eastern regiments of 533-536 and the reinforcements sent with Solomon in 539.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 4.19.6-17 (LacusCurtius)", "note": "Solomon 'defeated them decisively'; Iaudas withdrew to Zerboule on the Aurasium (Procopius 4.19.17-19)." }, { "id": 1062, "key": "539-auximus-siege", "name": "Auximus (siege)", "year": 539, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring - October/November 539", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Picenum", "place": "Auximus (Osimo)", "lat": 43.48, "lon": 13.48, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Belisarius", "commanders_b": "Visandus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Belisarius' main army; five Isaurians broke the masonry of the garrison's cistern (Procopius 6.23-27).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "other", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Isaurian infantry named in the siege; the army was the eastern expedition.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 6.23-27; en.wikipedia Gothic War (535-554)", "note": "Many sorties and fights for the grass outside the walls; the garrison capitulated from starvation." }, { "id": 1063, "key": "539-faesulae-siege", "name": "Faesulae (siege)", "year": 539, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "539", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Tuscia", "place": "Faesulae (Fiesole)", "lat": 43.81, "lon": 11.29, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Cyprian, Justin", "commanders_b": "Gothic garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Cyprian and Justin with their own troops, Isaurians and 500 men of Demetrius' infantry (Procopius 6.23).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Isaurians are named among the besiegers.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 6.23-27; en.wikipedia Gothic War (535-554)", "note": "Sorties were beaten back; the garrison capitulated from starvation, about the same time as Auximus." }, { "id": 1064, "key": "539-po", "name": "Po", "year": 539, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 539", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (Frankish invasion of Theudebert I)", "theatre": "Liguria", "place": "the Po crossing at Ticinum (Pavia) and the Roman camp near Dertona", "lat": 45.19, "lon": 9.16, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths", "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Theudebert I", "commanders_b": "Martin, John (Roman); Gothic commanders", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The Roman army of Martin and John posted near Dertona to watch the Goths (Procopius 6.25).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Detachments of the eastern expeditionary army and Thracian cavalry.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 6.25; en.wikipedia Gothic War (535-554)", "note": "Franks under Theudebert I. They routed first the Goths at the bridge of Ticinum and then the Romans, then withdrew when dysentery struck." }, { "id": 1065, "key": "539-ravenna-siege", "name": "Ravenna (siege)", "year": 539, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 539 - May 540", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Aemilia", "place": "Ravenna", "lat": 44.42, "lon": 12.2, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Belisarius, Vitalius, John, Martin", "commanders_b": "Vitiges", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Belisarius' whole army in Italy, with Vitalius' Illyrian troops guarding the Po and a fleet in the Adriatic (Procopius 6.28-29).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian", "other" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern expeditionary army and its reinforcements, with the Latin-speaking Illyrian army of Vitalius.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 6.28-29; en.wikipedia Siege of Ravenna (539-540)", "note": "A blockade; the Gothic granaries were burned and Vitiges surrendered in May 540." }, { "id": 1066, "key": "540-antioch", "name": "Antioch", "year": 540, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 540", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian war of 540-562 (Khosrow I's invasion of Syria)", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "Antioch on the Orontes", "lat": 36.2, "lon": 36.16, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Khosrow I", "commanders_b": "Theoctistus, Molatzes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "6,000 soldiers from Phoenice Libanensis under Theoctistus and Molatzes, who fled when the wall was breached, and the young men of the circus factions, who fought on in the streets (Procopius 2.8).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Most of the fighting was done by the Antiochene faction youths, citizens of a Greek-speaking city.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 2.8; en.wikipedia Lazic War", "note": "The city was sacked and its people deported to Weh Antiok Khusrau near Ctesiphon." }, { "id": 1067, "key": "540-toumar-siege", "name": "Toumar (siege)", "year": 540, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "540 (or 539)", "type": "land", "war": "Moorish wars", "theatre": "Africa (Numidia)", "place": "Toumar, Iaudas' fortified camp on the Aurasium (Aures)", "lat": 35.25, "lon": 6.6, "loc": "region", "country": "Algeria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Berbers" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Solomon", "commanders_b": "Iaudas (wounded)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Procopius; the site is unidentified; no standard article.", "main_enemy": "Berbers", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Solomon's army of Africa, short of water, whose soldiers attacked the Moorish position on the heights and carried it (Procopius 4.20.1-22).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Africa still rested on the eastern regiments of 533-536 and the reinforcements of 539.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 4.20.1-22 (LacusCurtius)", "note": "Iaudas, struck by a javelin in the thigh, escaped to Mauretania; the Romans then took the Rock of Geminianus with his treasure." }, { "id": 1068, "key": "540-sura-siege", "name": "Sura (siege)", "year": 540, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 540", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian war of 540-562 (Khosrow I's invasion of Syria)", "theatre": "Euphratesia", "place": "Sura, on the Euphrates west of Callinicum", "lat": 35.92, "lon": 38.79, "loc": "approx", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Khosrow I", "commanders_b": "Arsaces (killed), bishop Candidus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The small garrison of Sura under the Armenian Arsaces, who fell on the wall, and the citizens (Procopius 2.5).", "languages": [ "Aramaic/Syriac", "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A frontier garrison and a Syrian town; Greek beside Syriac.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 2.5.8-33; en.wikipedia Lazic War", "note": "After a day of fighting the bishop sought terms; the Persians forced the gate during the parley and sacked the town." }, { "id": 1069, "key": "540-dara-siege", "name": "Dara (siege)", "year": 540, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 540", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian war of 540-562 (Khosrow I's invasion of Syria)", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Dara", "lat": 37.17, "lon": 40.95, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Martin", "commanders_b": "Khosrow I", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A short siege on Khosrow's homeward march; he withdrew for 1,000 pounds of silver.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The garrison of Dara under Martin, who countermined the Persian tunnel (Procopius 2.13).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A garrison of the eastern army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 2.13.16-28; en.wikipedia Lazic War", "note": "" }, { "id": 1070, "key": "541-petra-siege", "name": "Petra (siege)", "year": 541, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 541", "type": "land", "war": "Lazic War", "theatre": "Lazica", "place": "Petra (Tsikhisdziri), on the Black Sea coast", "lat": 41.77, "lon": 41.75, "loc": "known", "country": "Georgia", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Lazica" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Khosrow I, Aniabedes", "commanders_b": "John Tzibus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The Roman garrison of Petra under John Tzibus, killed by an arrow during the assaults (Procopius 2.17).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A garrison drawn from the army of Armenia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 2.17; en.wikipedia Lazic War", "note": "The Lazi under Gubazes had called in the Persians (allies_a). A mined tower collapsed and the garrison capitulated." }, { "id": 1071, "key": "541-nisibis", "name": "Nisibis", "year": 541, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 541", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian war of 540-562", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "before Nisibis (Nusaybin)", "lat": 37.07, "lon": 41.21, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [ "Germanic peoples", "Ghassanids" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Belisarius, Peter, John Troglita", "commanders_b": "Nabedes", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Belisarius' army of the East, with Gothic prisoners from Italy enrolled as a unit and al-Harith's Ghassanids; Peter's camp was routed by a sally until Belisarius' Goths drove the Persians back (Procopius 2.18).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Germanic", "Arabic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern field army, with Ostrogothic and Ghassanid contingents.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 2.18; en.wikipedia Battle of Nisibis (541)", "note": "Wikipedia's article calls it a Persian victory, its list of battles a Roman one: the sally was beaten back (about 150 Persian and 50 Roman dead) but Nisibis was not taken." }, { "id": 1072, "key": "541-sisauranon-siege", "name": "Sisauranon (siege)", "year": 541, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 541", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian war of 540-562", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Sisauranon, east of Nisibis", "lat": 37.2, "lon": 41.55, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Belisarius", "commanders_b": "Bleschames", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Belisarius' army of the East; a first assault failed with heavy loss and the fort was blockaded (Procopius 2.19).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern field army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 2.19; en.wikipedia, the list of battles of the Roman Empire (East)", "note": "The garrison of 800 Persian horsemen surrendered and was sent to fight in Italy." }, { "id": 1073, "key": "541-treviso", "name": "Treviso", "year": 541, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "541 (or late 540)", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Venetia", "place": "near Tarbesium (Treviso)", "lat": 45.67, "lon": 12.24, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ildibad", "commanders_b": "Vitalius, Visandus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Vitalius, magister militum of Illyricum, with his Illyrian army and a large body of Heruls under Visandus, most of whom fell (Procopius 7.1).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Illyrian army was recruited in the Latin-speaking Danubian provinces.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 7.1.34-36; en.wikipedia Gothic War (535-554)", "note": "Allies_b are the Herul foederati." }, { "id": 1074, "key": "541-verona", "name": "Verona", "year": 541, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 541 or early 542", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Venetia", "place": "Verona", "lat": 45.44, "lon": 10.99, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gothic garrison", "commanders_b": "Constantianus, Alexander, Artabazes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "About 12,000 under eleven commanders led by Constantianus and Alexander; the Persarmenian Artabazes, sent west with the Persian prisoners of Sisauranon, seized a gate at night with 100 men, but the army hesitated and the Goths retook it (Procopius 7.3).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian", "Iranian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Italy was the eastern expeditionary army with eastern reinforcements.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 7.3; en.wikipedia, the list of battles of the Roman Empire (East)", "note": "A failed surprise attack on the city." }, { "id": 1075, "key": "542-faventia", "name": "Faventia", "year": 542, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 542", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Aemilia", "place": "Faventia (Faenza), on the Lamone", "lat": 44.29, "lon": 11.88, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Totila", "commanders_b": "Constantianus, Alexander, Artabazes (mortally wounded)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The same army of about 12,000 under eleven commanders, against about 5,000 Goths (Procopius 7.4).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian", "Iranian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern regiments of the army of Italy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 7.4; en.wikipedia Battle of Faventia", "note": "300 Goths sent round to the Roman rear caused the rout; the standards were lost." }, { "id": 1076, "key": "542-mucellium", "name": "Mucellium", "year": 542, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "542", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Tuscia", "place": "Mucellium (the Mugello), north of Florence", "lat": 43.98, "lon": 11.4, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Bleda, Roderic, Uliaris", "commanders_b": "John nephew of Vitalian, Bessas, Cyprian", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The armies of John, Bessas and Cyprian, gathered to relieve Justin in Florence (Procopius 7.5).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern regiments of the army of Italy.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 7.5; en.wikipedia Gothic War (535-554)", "note": "The Goths lifted the siege of Florence to meet the relief army, which broke on a false report of John's death." }, { "id": 1077, "key": "542-naples-siege", "name": "Naples (siege)", "year": 542, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "542 - spring 543", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Neapolis (Naples) and the sea off it", "lat": 40.85, "lon": 14.26, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Totila", "commanders_b": "Conon; Demetrius, Maximinus (relief)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Conon's garrison of 1,000 Romans and Isaurians; relief fleets under Demetrius and Maximinus (Thracians, Armenians under Herodian, Phazas the Iberian and Huns) were scattered by storm and Gothic attack (Procopius 7.6-7).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian", "Georgian", "other" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Isaurians in the garrison and eastern troops in the relief fleets.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 7.6-7; en.wikipedia Siege of Naples (542-543)", "note": "The relief expeditions were defeated at sea; Conon surrendered on terms." }, { "id": 1078, "key": "543-anglon", "name": "Anglon", "year": 543, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 543", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian war of 540-562", "theatre": "Persarmenia", "place": "Anglon, about 21 km from Dvin", "lat": 40.1, "lon": 44.75, "loc": "approx", "country": "Armenia", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Nabedes", "commanders_b": "Martin, Peter, Valerian, Narses (killed), Isaac, Adolius (killed), Philemuth, Verus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "About 30,000 of the armies of the East and of Armenia, with a Herul regiment under Philemuth and Verus and Armenian officers under the Persarmenian Narses, against about 4,000 Persians (Procopius 2.24-25).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The armies of the East and Armenia, with many Armenians and Herul foederati.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 2.24-25; en.wikipedia Battle of Anglon", "note": "The Roman columns, without a single commander, attacked the fortified village piecemeal and fled." }, { "id": 1079, "key": "544-edessa-siege", "name": "Edessa (siege)", "year": 544, "month": 3, "day": null, "date": "March - April 544", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian war of 540-562", "theatre": "Osrhoene", "place": "Edessa (Sanliurfa)", "lat": 37.16, "lon": 38.79, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Martin, Peter, Peranius", "commanders_b": "Khosrow I, Azarethes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The garrison under Martin, Peter and Peranius, with the citizens, peasants and even women and children on the walls; the Persian mound was burned (Procopius 2.26-27).", "languages": [ "Aramaic/Syriac", "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A garrison of the eastern army in a Syriac-speaking city.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 2.26-27; en.wikipedia Siege of Edessa (544)", "note": "Khosrow withdrew after a final assault failed; the Edessans paid 500 pounds of gold. A five-year truce followed in 545." }, { "id": 1080, "key": "544-cillium", "name": "Cillium", "year": 544, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "544", "type": "land", "war": "Moorish wars", "theatre": "Africa (Byzacena)", "place": "Cillium (Kasserine)", "lat": 35.17, "lon": 8.83, "loc": "known", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Berbers" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Antalas, the Leuathae", "commanders_b": "Solomon (killed), Guntharis", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Berbers", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Solomon's field army of Africa, with his nephews; part of it under Guntharis gave way (Procopius 4.21).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Africa still rested on the eastern regiments of 533-536.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 4.21.19-28; en.wikipedia Battle of Cillium", "note": "Solomon's horse fell into a ravine and he was killed." }, { "id": 1081, "key": "545-thacia", "name": "Thacia", "year": 545, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 545", "type": "land", "war": "Moorish wars", "theatre": "Africa (Proconsularis)", "place": "Thacia (Bordj Messaoudi)", "lat": 36.25, "lon": 9.15, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Berbers" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Antalas, Stotzas (mortally wounded)", "commanders_b": "John son of Sisiniolus (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Berbers", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The outnumbered field army of Africa under John, with Armenian contingents newly arrived with Areobindus (Procopius 4.22, 4.24).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Eastern regiments of Africa and Armenian reinforcements.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 4.24; en.wikipedia Battle of Thacia", "note": "Stotzas fought with the Moors at the head of Roman deserters; John killed him and was killed in turn. Wikipedia's infobox also names Areobindus and Artabanes." }, { "id": 1082, "key": "546-rome-siege", "name": "Rome (siege)", "year": 546, "month": 12, "day": 17, "date": "blockade from late 545; city taken 17 December 546", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Rome and the Tiber below it (Portus)", "lat": 41.9, "lon": 12.5, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Totila", "commanders_b": "Bessas; Belisarius, Isaac (relief)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Bessas' garrison of 3,000; Belisarius' relief force from Portus (his bucellarii and the 4,000 recruits raised in Thrace and Illyricum) broke the Gothic boom on the Tiber but turned back when Isaac the Armenian was captured (Procopius 7.13-20).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The garrison included Isaurians, who betrayed the Asinarian gate; the new recruits were Balkan and largely Latin-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 7.13-20; en.wikipedia Sack of Rome (546)", "note": "Often called the sack of Rome (546)." }, { "id": 1083, "key": "546-sufetula", "name": "Sufetula", "year": 546, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "winter 546/547", "type": "land", "war": "Moorish wars", "theatre": "Africa (Byzacena)", "place": "south or east of Sufetula (Sbeitla)", "lat": 35.24, "lon": 9.12, "loc": "region", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Berbers" ], "allies_a": [ "Berbers" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John Troglita", "commanders_b": "Antalas, Ierna (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Berbers", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "John Troglita's regiments brought from Constantinople and the army of Africa, with Moorish allies (Corippus, Iohannis 4-5).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Berber", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "John's new regiments came from the eastern armies; the Moorish allies grew larger in later campaigns.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Corippus, Iohannis 4-5; Procopius, Wars 4.28.45-47; en.wikipedia John Troglita", "note": "The standards lost at Cillium were recovered. The site and date are not precise in Corippus." }, { "id": 1084, "key": "547-rome", "name": "Rome", "year": 547, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 547", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Rome", "lat": 41.9, "lon": 12.5, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Belisarius", "commanders_b": "Totila", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Usually treated as an episode of the Gothic War, not a named siege.", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Belisarius' troops, who reoccupied the empty city and beat off Totila's assaults on the half-repaired walls (Procopius 7.24).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Belisarius' bucellarii and Balkan recruits.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 7.24; en.wikipedia Gothic War (535-554)", "note": "Totila's three assaults in a few weeks failed." }, { "id": 1085, "key": "547-marta", "name": "Marta", "year": 547, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 547", "type": "land", "war": "Moorish wars", "theatre": "Africa (Tripolitania border)", "place": "Marta (Mareth)", "lat": 33.63, "lon": 10.3, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Berbers" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Berbers" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Carcasan", "commanders_b": "John Troglita", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Berbers", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "John Troglita's army (three of his regiments had been sent to Italy) with Moorish allies, who panicked first (Corippus, Iohannis 6).", "languages": [ "Berber", "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Moorish allies of Cutzinas and Ifisdaias made up much of the army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Corippus, Iohannis 6; en.wikipedia John Troglita", "note": "Carcasan was king of the Ifuraces of Tripolitania." }, { "id": 1086, "key": "548-fields-of-cato", "name": "Fields of Cato", "year": 548, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 548", "type": "land", "war": "Moorish wars", "theatre": "Africa (Byzacena)", "place": "the Fields of Cato (Campi Catonis), Byzacena", "lat": 35.3, "lon": 10.3, "loc": "region", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Berbers" ], "allies_a": [ "Berbers" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John Troglita, Cutzinas, Ifisdaias", "commanders_b": "Carcasan (killed), Antalas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Berbers", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "John Troglita's regulars, horse archers and cataphracts, with large Moorish allied contingents under Cutzinas and Ifisdaias, who outnumbered the regulars (Corippus, Iohannis 7-8).", "languages": [ "Berber", "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Moorish allies formed most of the army; the regulars were eastern regiments.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Corippus, Iohannis 7-8; Procopius, Wars 4.28.47-52; en.wikipedia John Troglita", "note": "Site unidentified. Ended the Moorish revolt; seventeen chiefs fell." }, { "id": 1087, "key": "548-petra-siege", "name": "Petra (siege)", "year": 548, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "548 - spring 549", "type": "land", "war": "Lazic War", "theatre": "Lazica", "place": "Petra (Tsikhisdziri) and the passes into Lazica", "lat": 41.77, "lon": 41.75, "loc": "known", "country": "Georgia", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Lazica" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mihr-Mihroe", "commanders_b": "Dagisthaeus, Gubazes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "7,000 Romans and 1,000 Tzani under Dagisthaeus, with the Lazi of king Gubazes; the small force guarding the passes was overwhelmed by the Persian relief army (Procopius 2.29-30).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin", "other", "Georgian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Regiments of the army of Armenia with Tzani auxiliaries and Lazic allies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 2.29-30; en.wikipedia Lazic War", "note": "The walls were breached but Dagisthaeus delayed the assault and the relief arrived. Often dated 549." }, { "id": 1088, "key": "549-tzurullum", "name": "Tzurullum", "year": 549, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "549 or 550 (the 15th year of the Gothic War)", "type": "land", "war": "Slavic raids", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "near Tzurullum (Corlu)", "lat": 41.16, "lon": 27.8, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Slavs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Sclaveni chiefs", "commanders_b": "Asbadus (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Procopius; no standard article.", "main_enemy": "Slavs", "opponent_group": "Slavs", "roman_force": "The cavalry stationed in the fortress of Tzurullum under Asbadus, a candidatus of Justinian's guard; most were killed in a disorderly flight (Procopius 7.38.5-6).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Illyrian/Thracian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Cavalry of the Thracian command, recruited in Thrace and Illyricum.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 7.38.1-6 (LacusCurtius)", "note": "Asbadus was captured and later burned alive; the same Sclaveni then stormed Topirus." }, { "id": 1089, "key": "549-phasis-river", "name": "Phasis River", "year": 549, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "549", "type": "land", "war": "Lazic War", "theatre": "Lazica", "place": "on the Phasis (Rioni), Lazica", "lat": 42.2, "lon": 42.2, "loc": "region", "country": "Georgia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [ "Lazica" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Dagisthaeus, Gubazes", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Dagisthaeus' Romans with the Lazi, against 5,000 Persians left by Mihr-Mihroe to supply Petra (Procopius 2.30).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Georgian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Armenia with Lazic allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 2.30.29-48; en.wikipedia Lazic War", "note": "The Persian force was destroyed." }, { "id": 1090, "key": "549-hippis", "name": "Hippis", "year": 549, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "549 or 550", "type": "land", "war": "Lazic War", "theatre": "Lazica", "place": "the river Hippis (Tskhenistskali)", "lat": 42.2, "lon": 42.4, "loc": "approx", "country": "Georgia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [ "Lazica" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Dagisthaeus, Lazic commanders", "commanders_b": "Chorianes (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Dagisthaeus' Romans and the Lazi, who insisted on charging first; the Roman infantry steadied the line (Procopius 8.1).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Georgian", "Armenian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Armenia with Lazic allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 8.1.3-11; en.wikipedia Lazic War", "note": "Chorianes' invasion of Lazica failed." }, { "id": 1091, "key": "549-rome-siege", "name": "Rome (siege)", "year": 549, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 549 - 16 January 550", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Rome", "lat": 41.9, "lon": 12.5, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Totila", "commanders_b": "Diogenes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Diogenes' garrison of 3,000 picked men; Isaurian sentries opened the Gate of St Paul (Procopius 7.36).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Isaurians of the garrison are named; the rest were Belisarius' former troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 7.36; en.wikipedia Gothic War (535-554)", "note": "" }, { "id": 1092, "key": "549-topirus-siege", "name": "Topirus (siege)", "year": 549, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "549 or 550", "type": "land", "war": "Slavic raids", "theatre": "Thrace (Rhodope)", "place": "Topirus, near the Nestos mouth", "lat": 40.98, "lon": 24.8, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Slavs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Sclaveni chiefs", "commanders_b": "garrison commander", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Procopius; no standard article.", "main_enemy": "Slavs", "opponent_group": "Slavs", "roman_force": "The garrison of Topirus, drawn out by a feigned flight and cut down in an ambush, and the citizens who then held the walls (Procopius 7.38).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Greek-speaking coastal town of the Rhodope defended largely by its own citizens.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 7.38.9-18", "note": "The Sclaveni stormed the walls under a cloud of arrows; 15,000 men were killed (Procopius)." }, { "id": 1093, "key": "550-petra-siege", "name": "Petra (siege)", "year": 550, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 550 - spring 551", "type": "land", "war": "Lazic War", "theatre": "Lazica", "place": "Petra (Tsikhisdziri)", "lat": 41.77, "lon": 41.75, "loc": "known", "country": "Georgia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [ "Huns", "Lazica" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Bessas (wounded), John the Armenian (killed; not Belisarius' officer of that name, who died in 533)", "commanders_b": "Persian garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Bessas' army of Armenia, about 6,000; Sabir Hun allies built light rams; the old Bessas led the escalade himself (Procopius 8.11-12).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin", "other" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Regiments of the army of Armenia, with many Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 8.11-12; en.wikipedia Siege of Petra (550-551)", "note": "The garrison of about 2,300 (Procopius) was destroyed or captured and the walls razed." }, { "id": 1094, "key": "551-archaeopolis", "name": "Archaeopolis", "year": 551, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "551", "type": "land", "war": "Lazic War", "theatre": "Lazica", "place": "Archaeopolis (Nokalakevi)", "lat": 42.36, "lon": 42.2, "loc": "known", "country": "Georgia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Odonachus, Babas", "commanders_b": "Mihr-Mihroe", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The Roman garrison of about 3,000 under Odonachus and Babas, which sallied against the Persian assault; the Persian elephants panicked (Procopius 8.13-14).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A garrison of the army of Armenia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 8.13-14; en.wikipedia Lazic War", "note": "" }, { "id": 1095, "key": "551-adrianople", "name": "Adrianople", "year": 551, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "550 or 551", "type": "land", "war": "Slavic raids", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "near Adrianople (Edirne)", "lat": 41.68, "lon": 26.56, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Slavs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Sclaveni chiefs", "commanders_b": "Constantianus, Aratius, Nazares, Justin son of Germanus, John Phagas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Procopius; no standard article.", "main_enemy": "Slavs", "opponent_group": "Slavs", "roman_force": "The army gathered for Germanus' Italian expedition, under Constantianus, Aratius, Nazares, Justin and John (Procopius 7.40).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Troops raised in Thrace and Illyricum with eastern regiments.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 7.40.34-45", "note": "The soldiers forced their generals to attack and were beaten; the Sclaveni took the standard of Constantianus." }, { "id": 1096, "key": "551-sena-gallica", "name": "Sena Gallica", "year": 551, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 551", "type": "sea", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Adriatic", "place": "off Sena Gallica (Senigallia)", "lat": 43.75, "lon": 13.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John nephew of Vitalian, Valerian", "commanders_b": "Indulf, Gibal", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "50 warships from Salona and Ravenna with picked soldiers of John's and Valerian's armies, against 47 Gothic ships (Procopius 8.23).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "John's Illyrian veterans from Salona and Valerian's troops from Ravenna fought aboard; the article on the battle says the crews were mostly Greek sailors.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 8.23; en.wikipedia Battle of Sena Gallica", "note": "36 Gothic ships were lost and the siege of Ancona was raised." }, { "id": 1097, "key": "552-taginae-busta-gallorum", "name": "Taginae (Busta Gallorum)", "year": 552, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "late June or July 552", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Umbria", "place": "Busta Gallorum, near Taginae (Gualdo Tadino)", "lat": 43.25, "lon": 12.78, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "allies_a": [ "Lombards", "Germanic peoples", "Huns" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Narses, John nephew of Vitalian, Valerian, Dagisthaeus, Philemuth, Asbad", "commanders_b": "Totila (mortally wounded), Teia", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Narses' army, perhaps 20,000-30,000: Roman regulars from Thrace, Illyricum and the East, 2,500 Lombard warriors with 3,000 followers, over 3,000 Heruls under Philemuth, 400 Gepids under Asbad, Huns and Persian deserters under Kabades; 8,000 foot archers on the wings and dismounted Germanic foederati in the centre (Procopius 8.26, 8.31).", "languages": [ "Germanic", "Latin", "Greek", "Armenian", "other", "Iranian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Barbarian contingents were a large part; the regulars came from Thrace, Illyricum and the eastern armies, so Greek speakers were perhaps a fifth to a third.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 8.26, 8.29-32; en.wikipedia Battle of Taginae", "note": "Allies: Lombards, Heruls and Gepids (Germanic peoples), Huns." }, { "id": 1098, "key": "552-mons-lactarius", "name": "Mons Lactarius", "year": 552, "month": 10, "day": null, "date": "October 552 or early 553", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "the Sarno valley below Mons Lactarius, near Nuceria", "lat": 40.73, "lon": 14.55, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Narses", "commanders_b": "Teia (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Narses' army, without the Lombards sent home after Taginae, fighting on foot in a two-day battle (Procopius 8.35).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Germanic", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Narses' regulars from Thrace, Illyricum and the East, with Herul foederati.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 8.35; Agathias 1.1; en.wikipedia Battle of Mons Lactarius", "note": "The last stand of the Ostrogothic kingdom." }, { "id": 1099, "key": "552-asfeld", "name": "Asfeld", "year": 552, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "552", "type": "land", "war": "Gepid-Lombard war", "theatre": "Pannonia", "place": "Asfeld, Pannonia (site unknown)", "lat": 45.25, "lon": 19.85, "loc": "region", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Lombards" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [ "Rome" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "ally", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Audoin, Alboin; Amalafrid (Roman contingent)", "commanders_b": "Thorisind, Turismod (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Roman participation was a small allied detachment.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Only Amalafrid's contingent joined the Lombards; the main imperial army was held back by a riot at Ulpiana (Procopius 8.25, 8.27).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Germanic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A small Balkan detachment.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 8.25.10-15, 8.27; Paul the Deacon 1.23-24; en.wikipedia Battle of Asfeld", "note": "Side B are the Gepids." }, { "id": 1100, "key": "552-rome", "name": "Rome", "year": 552, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 552", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Latium", "place": "Rome", "lat": 41.9, "lon": 12.5, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Narses, Dagisthaeus", "commanders_b": "Gothic garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Usually treated as an episode, not a named siege.", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Narses' army after Taginae; Dagisthaeus scaled an unguarded stretch of the wall while the rest attacked at several points (Procopius 8.33).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Germanic", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Narses' regulars and foederati, without the Lombards.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Procopius, Wars 8.33", "note": "The Goths retreated to Hadrian's mausoleum and surrendered." }, { "id": 1101, "key": "552-cumae-siege", "name": "Cumae (siege)", "year": 552, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 552 - late 553", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Cumae", "lat": 40.85, "lon": 14.05, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Narses", "commanders_b": "Aligern", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Narses' army, then a blockading detachment; a mine under the Sibyl's cave brought down part of the wall (Agathias 1.8-10, 1.20).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Narses' regulars.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Agathias 1.8-10, 1.20; en.wikipedia Gothic War (535-554)", "note": "Aligern, Teia's brother, surrendered after about a year." }, { "id": 1102, "key": "553-lucca-siege", "name": "Lucca (siege)", "year": 553, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "553", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Tuscia", "place": "Luca (Lucca)", "lat": 43.84, "lon": 10.5, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Narses", "commanders_b": "Gothic garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known mainly from Agathias.", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Narses' army; the town surrendered after about three months of siege and assaults (Agathias 1.12-18).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Narses' regulars and Herul foederati.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Agathias 1.12-18", "note": "The garrison expected Frankish relief." }, { "id": 1103, "key": "553-parma", "name": "Parma", "year": 553, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "553", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (Frankish-Alamannic invasion)", "theatre": "Aemilia", "place": "near the amphitheatre of Parma", "lat": 44.8, "lon": 10.33, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Butilin", "commanders_b": "Fulcaris (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Agathias; no standard article.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Fulcaris with his Heruls, ambushed by the Franks near the amphitheatre; the other generals fell back to Faventia (Agathias 1.14-15).", "languages": [ "Germanic", "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The force was Fulcaris' Herul foederati.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Agathias 1.14-15", "note": "Franks and Alamanni under Butilin; allies_b are the Heruls." }, { "id": 1104, "key": "554-volturnus-casilinum", "name": "Volturnus (Casilinum)", "year": 554, "month": 10, "day": null, "date": "October 554", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (Frankish-Alamannic invasion)", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "on the Volturnus near Casilinum (Capua)", "lat": 41.11, "lon": 14.21, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Narses, Artabanes, Valerian, Sindual, Charanges", "commanders_b": "Butilin (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "About 18,000: heavy infantry in the centre, cavalry and horse archers on the wings, and Heruls under Sindual who joined late (Agathias 2.4-10).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Germanic", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Narses' regulars from the Balkans and the East, with Herul foederati.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Agathias 2.4-10; en.wikipedia Battle of the Volturnus (554)", "note": "Franks and Alamanni under Butilin, nearly annihilated; allies_a are the Heruls." }, { "id": 1105, "key": "554-telephis-ollaria", "name": "Telephis-Ollaria", "year": 554, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "554 (553 in some accounts)", "type": "land", "war": "Lazic War", "theatre": "Lazica", "place": "Telephis and Ollaria, on the Phasis, Lazica", "lat": 42.2, "lon": 42.6, "loc": "region", "country": "Georgia", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Lazica" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mihr-Mihroe", "commanders_b": "Martin, Bessas, Bouzes, Justin son of Germanus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The large Roman army of Lazica, Martin at Telephis, Bessas and Justin at Ollaria, with the Lazi; it fell back to Nesos (Agathias 2.19-22).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin", "Georgian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Armenia and eastern regiments with Lazic allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Agathias 2.19-22; en.wikipedia Mihr-Mihroe's campaign of 554", "note": "Mihr-Mihroe feigned illness, then stormed Telephis; the Romans abandoned Ollaria." }, { "id": 1106, "key": "554-compsa-siege", "name": "Compsa (siege)", "year": 554, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "winter 554 - spring 555", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War", "theatre": "Samnium", "place": "Compsa (Conza della Campania)", "lat": 40.86, "lon": 15.33, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Narses", "commanders_b": "Ragnaris (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Mostly a blockade.", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Narses' army; the 7,000 Goths surrendered after Ragnaris was shot while treacherously attacking Narses at a parley (Agathias 2.13-14).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Narses' regulars.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Agathias 2.13-14; en.wikipedia Gothic War (535-554)", "note": "" }, { "id": 1107, "key": "555-onoguris-siege", "name": "Onoguris (siege)", "year": 555, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "554 or 555", "type": "land", "war": "Lazic War", "theatre": "Lazica", "place": "Onoguris, near Archaeopolis", "lat": 42.33, "lon": 42.28, "loc": "approx", "country": "Georgia", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Nachoragan's officers, the garrison", "commanders_b": "Martin, Bouzes, Uligagus, Usigardus, Dabragezas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "A large army (Agathias' 50,000 fighting men is surely too high) with Heruls under Uligagus, Usigardus and the Antian Dabragezas; it broke when a 3,000-strong Persian cavalry relief struck (Agathias 3.6-8).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin", "Germanic", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Armenia and eastern regiments with Herul and Slav officers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Agathias 3.5-8; en.wikipedia Siege of Onoguris", "note": "The Romans then lost Archaeopolis for a time." }, { "id": 1108, "key": "555-phasis-siege", "name": "Phasis (siege)", "year": 555, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "555 or 556", "type": "land", "war": "Lazic War", "theatre": "Lazica", "place": "Phasis (Poti), at the mouth of the Rioni", "lat": 42.15, "lon": 41.67, "loc": "known", "country": "Georgia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [ "Lazica" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Martin, Justin son of Germanus, Angilas, Theodore, Philomathius, Gibrus, Valerian, Dabragezas, Elmingir", "commanders_b": "Nachoragan", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Perhaps 20,000: Moorish peltasts and spearmen under Angilas, Tzani heavy infantry under Theodore, Isaurian slingers and javelin men under Philomathius, Heruls and Lombards under Gibrus, eastern troops under Valerian, and the ships guarded by the Antian Dabragezas and the Hun Elmingir (Agathias 3.19-28).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Berber", "Germanic", "other", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Isaurians and eastern regiments are named beside Moors, Tzani, Heruls, Lombards and Slavs.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Agathias 3.19-28; en.wikipedia Siege of Phasis", "note": "A large sally routed the Persian assault; Agathias gives about 10,000 Persian dead." }, { "id": 1109, "key": "559-melantias", "name": "Melantias", "year": 559, "month": 3, "day": null, "date": "March 559 (late winter or spring)", "type": "land", "war": "Kutrigur invasion of 559", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Melantias, about 30 km west of Constantinople", "lat": 41.03, "lon": 28.58, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Huns" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Belisarius", "commanders_b": "Zabergan", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Huns", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "About 300 of Belisarius' veteran bucellarii with a mass of armed peasants and refugees, used to raise dust and noise, against 2,000 Kutrigur horsemen (Agathias 5.15-20).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Most of the force were peasants and townsmen of the Greek-speaking hinterland of Constantinople.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Agathias 5.15-20; en.wikipedia Battle of Melantias", "note": "Kutrigur Huns. Belisarius' last battle." }, { "id": 1110, "key": "559-thracian-chersonese", "name": "Thracian Chersonese", "year": 559, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 559", "type": "land", "war": "Kutrigur invasion of 559", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "the Long Wall across the isthmus of the Thracian Chersonese (near Bolayir) and the sea off it", "lat": 40.51, "lon": 26.76, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Huns" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Germanus son of Dorotheus", "commanders_b": "a Kutrigur division sent by Zabergan", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No standalone article; known from Agathias. Not checked against an online text of Agathias (October 2026).", "main_enemy": "Huns", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "The garrison of the Chersonese wall under the young Germanus, son of Dorotheus, with light boats that sank the Kutrigur reed rafts, and a sortie that routed the attackers (Agathias 5.21-23).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A garrison of the long-Greek Chersonese, raised in Thrace and around the capital.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Agathias, Histories 5.21-23", "note": "Assaults on the wall and an attempt to turn it by sea on rafts of reeds both failed; Germanus was wounded in the sortie." }, { "id": 1111, "key": "562-verona-and-brixia", "name": "Verona and Brixia", "year": 562, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "561-562 (news reached Constantinople in November 562)", "type": "land", "war": "Gothic War (revolt of Widin)", "theatre": "Venetia", "place": "Verona and Brixia (Brescia)", "lat": 45.44, "lon": 10.99, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ostrogoths" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Narses", "commanders_b": "Widin, Amingus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ostrogoths", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Narses' army of Italy, which defeated Widin's Goths and the Frankish duke Amingus and took the last Gothic strongholds (Menander fr. 3; Paul the Deacon 2.2; Malalas 18.140).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Italy still contained many eastern regiments.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Malalas 18.140; Theophanes AM 6055; Paul the Deacon 2.2; en.wikipedia Gothic War (535-554)", "note": "Allies_b are the Franks of Amingus." }, { "id": 1112, "key": "569-pavia-siege", "name": "Pavia (siege)", "year": 569, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "569-572", "type": "land", "war": "Lombard invasion of Italy", "theatre": "Liguria", "place": "Ticinum (Pavia)", "lat": 45.19, "lon": 9.16, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Lombards" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Alboin", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Lombards", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The imperial garrison and the citizens of Ticinum, who held out for three years (Paul the Deacon 2.26-27).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "An Italian city defended largely by its Latin-speaking inhabitants.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Paul the Deacon, Historia Langobardorum 2.26-27; en.wikipedia Alboin", "note": "Also called the siege of Pavia; the city became the Lombard capital." }, { "id": 1113, "key": "572-dvin", "name": "Dvin", "year": 572, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "572", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 572-591", "theatre": "Persarmenia", "place": "Dvin", "lat": 40.0, "lon": 44.58, "loc": "known", "country": "Armenia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [ "Armenia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Vardan II Mamikonian (Armenians); Roman commander unnamed", "commanders_b": "Persian garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The Roman share in the capture is not detailed in the sources.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Roman troops of the army of Armenia with the rebel Armenians of Vardan Mamikonian (Sebeos; John of Ephesus).", "languages": [ "Armenian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Armenian rebels made up most of the force.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sebeos 8; John of Ephesus 2.20-23; en.wikipedia, the article on the Roman-Sasanian war of 572-591", "note": "Vardan first took Dvin after killing the marzban Suren; the Persians retook it and the Armenians with Roman help captured it again." }, { "id": 1114, "key": "573-sargathon", "name": "Sargathon", "year": 573, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 573", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 572-591", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Sargathon, near Nisibis", "lat": 37.1, "lon": 41.1, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Marcian", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Marcian's army of the East, advancing on Nisibis (John of Epiphania; Theophylact 3.10).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern field army of the 570s was recruited in Anatolia, Syria, Armenia and the Balkans.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophylact Simocatta 3.10; en.wikipedia, the article on the Roman-Sasanian war of 572-591", "note": "" }, { "id": 1115, "key": "573-nisibis-siege", "name": "Nisibis (siege)", "year": 573, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring-summer 573", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 572-591", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Nisibis (Nusaybin)", "lat": 37.07, "lon": 41.21, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Persian garrison; Khosrow I (relief)", "commanders_b": "Marcian, Acacius Archelaus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Marcian's army of the East; when Justin II dismissed Marcian and Khosrow approached, the army broke up and fled (Evagrius 5.8-9).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern field army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Evagrius 5.8-9; John of Ephesus 6.2-3; Theophylact 3.10-11; en.wikipedia, the list of battles of the Roman Empire (East)", "note": "The siege was abandoned in disorder." }, { "id": 1116, "key": "573-dara-siege", "name": "Dara (siege)", "year": 573, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "573 (four months; fell in November)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 572-591", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Dara", "lat": 37.17, "lon": 40.95, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Khosrow I, Fariburz, Bahram Chobin", "commanders_b": "Sergius (killed), John son of Timostratus (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The garrison of Dara and its citizens (Evagrius 5.9-10; John of Ephesus 6.5).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A garrison of the eastern army in a Syriac-speaking district.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Evagrius 5.9-10; John of Ephesus 6.5; en.wikipedia Siege of Dara (573)", "note": "After about four to six months; its loss reportedly drove Justin II out of his mind. A Persian force under Adarmahan meanwhile sacked Apamea (not entered: no battle)." }, { "id": 1117, "key": "576-melitene", "name": "Melitene", "year": 576, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "576 (some date it to 575)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 572-591", "theatre": "Armenia Minor / Cappadocia", "place": "near Melitene (Malatya)", "lat": 38.42, "lon": 38.36, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Justinian son of Germanus, Kours", "commanders_b": "Khosrow I", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The armies of the East and Armenia under Justinian, perhaps 30,000, with Kours' wing of perhaps 20,000 (modern estimates), including Tiberius' new recruits from the Balkans, Isauria and beyond the frontiers (Evagrius 5.14; Theophylact 3.14).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Anatolian, Isaurian and Armenian regiments beside Balkan and foreign recruits.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Evagrius 5.14; Theophylact 3.14; John of Ephesus 6.8-9; en.wikipedia Battle of Melitene (576)", "note": "Khosrow's camp was taken and many Persians drowned crossing the Euphrates." }, { "id": 1118, "key": "580-sirmium-siege", "name": "Sirmium (siege)", "year": 580, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "580 - winter 581/582", "type": "land", "war": "Avar-Roman wars", "theatre": "Pannonia", "place": "Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica)", "lat": 44.97, "lon": 19.61, "loc": "known", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Avars" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Slavs" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Bayan", "commanders_b": "Solomon (governor); Theognis (relief)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A blockade ended by a negotiated surrender; little recorded fighting.", "main_enemy": "Avars", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Sirmium, with a small relief force under Theognis on the Save (Menander fr. 25, 27; John of Ephesus 6.30-32).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Latin-speaking city of Pannonia with a small garrison.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Menander Protector fr. 25, 27; John of Ephesus 6.30-32; en.wikipedia Maurice's Balkan campaigns", "note": "" }, { "id": 1119, "key": "582-constantina", "name": "Constantina", "year": 582, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 582 (581 in some accounts)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 572-591", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "near Constantina (Viransehir)", "lat": 37.23, "lon": 39.76, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Maurice, Theoderic, Constantine (killed)", "commanders_b": "Adarmahan, Tamkhosrau (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Maurice's army of the East (Theophylact 3.18; John of Ephesus 6.26-27).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern field army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophylact 3.18; John of Ephesus 6.26-27; en.wikipedia Battle of Constantina", "note": "Also called the battle of Monocarton; four Persian generals fell." }, { "id": 1120, "key": "582-nymphius", "name": "Nymphius", "year": 582, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 582", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 572-591", "theatre": "Arzanene", "place": "on the river Nymphius (Batman Su), near Martyropolis", "lat": 38.1, "lon": 41.1, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Kardarigan", "commanders_b": "John Mystacon, Kours", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "John Mystacon's army of the East; Kours, jealous of John, held his wing back (Theophylact 1.9).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern field army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophylact 1.9.4-11; en.wikipedia, the article on the Roman-Sasanian war of 572-591", "note": "" }, { "id": 1121, "key": "583-singidunum-siege", "name": "Singidunum (siege)", "year": 583, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "583 (or 584)", "type": "land", "war": "Avar-Roman wars", "theatre": "Moesia", "place": "Singidunum (Belgrade)", "lat": 44.82, "lon": 20.46, "loc": "known", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Avars" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Bayan", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Avars", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "The garrison and townspeople, surprised while gathering the harvest outside the walls (Theophylact 1.4).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Latin-speaking Danube town.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophylact 1.4.1-4; en.wikipedia Maurice's Balkan campaigns", "note": "Viminacium and Augustae fell in the same campaign." }, { "id": 1122, "key": "584-adrianople", "name": "Adrianople", "year": 584, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "584 or 585", "type": "land", "war": "Maurice's Balkan campaigns", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "near Adrianople (Edirne), at Ansinon", "lat": 41.68, "lon": 26.56, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Slavs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Comentiolus", "commanders_b": "Ardagast", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Slavs", "opponent_group": "Slavs", "roman_force": "Comentiolus' Thracian army, built round the praesental regiments; it had first beaten a Slav band on the river Erginia (Theophylact 1.7).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Thracian armies of the 580s spoke Latin and Greek; Theophylact records soldiers calling out in Latin in 587.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophylact 1.7; en.wikipedia Maurice's Balkan campaigns", "note": "" }, { "id": 1123, "key": "586-thessalonica-siege", "name": "Thessalonica (siege)", "year": 586, "month": 9, "day": null, "date": "September 586 (some date it to 597)", "type": "land", "war": "Avar-Roman wars", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Thessalonica", "lat": 40.64, "lon": 22.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Avars" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Slavs" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the citizens (St Demetrius in the Miracula)", "commanders_b": "Bayan's army", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Avars", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "The citizens of Thessalonica, with few regular troops, manning the walls for seven days against Avar siege engines (Miracula S. Demetrii 2.1).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The Miracula describe the defence by the Greek-speaking townsmen.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Miracula S. Demetrii 2.1; en.wikipedia Siege of Thessalonica (617)", "note": "The besiegers withdrew after a week." }, { "id": 1124, "key": "586-chlomaron-siege", "name": "Chlomaron (siege)", "year": 586, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 586", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 572-591", "theatre": "Arzanene", "place": "Chlomaron, a fortress in Arzanene", "lat": 38.2, "lon": 41.3, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Kardarigan (relief)", "commanders_b": "Philippicus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege broken off in panic; no standalone article.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Philippicus' army of the East, the victors of Solachon, raiding Arzanene; at the approach of the Persian relief army it broke off the siege and fled in disorder (Theophylact 2.7-9).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern field army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophylact Simocatta 2.7-9; en.wikipedia Philippicus (comes excubitorum)", "note": "Philippicus, possibly ill, then handed the command to Heraclius the Elder." }, { "id": 1125, "key": "586-solachon", "name": "Solachon", "year": 586, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 586", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 572-591", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "the plain of Solachon, south of Dara", "lat": 37.1, "lon": 40.9, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [ "Huns", "Christian Arabs" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Philippicus, Heraclius the Elder, Vitalius, Eiliphredas, Apsich", "commanders_b": "Kardarigan, Mebodes, Aphraates", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Philippicus' army of the East, all cavalry, lancers and horse archers in three divisions, with Hun horse archers under Apsich on the left and Arab foederati as scouts (Theophylact 2.2-4).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian", "other", "Arabic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern field army of the 580s, recruited largely in Anatolia, Armenia and Syria.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Theophylact 2.2-4; en.wikipedia Battle of Solachon", "note": "Theophylact calls the Arab foederati Saracens; the Ghassanid federation had broken up after 584." }, { "id": 1126, "key": "587-adrianople", "name": "Adrianople", "year": 587, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "587", "type": "land", "war": "Maurice's Balkan campaigns", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "before Adrianople (Edirne)", "lat": 41.68, "lon": 26.56, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Avars" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John Mystacon, Drocton (Droctulf)", "commanders_b": "Bayan", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No standalone article; the Wikipedia article on Maurice's Balkan campaigns does not single it out. Not confirmed in an online source when checked (October 2026).", "main_enemy": "Avars", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "A field army under John Mystacon with the Lombard Drocton, a former Lombard duke in imperial service, which relieved the besieged city (Theophylact 2.17).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Thracian and eastern troops, with Lombard volunteers under Drocton.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophylact Simocatta 2.17", "note": "The Avars had overrun towns of Moesia and Thrace in 587 before besieging Adrianople." }, { "id": 1127, "key": "588-tsalkajur", "name": "Tsalkajur", "year": 588, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "588", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 572-591", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "Tsalkajur, Armenia (site uncertain)", "lat": 39.5, "lon": 43.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only in outline; site and commanders uncertain.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Roman troops of the eastern or Armenian command during the army mutiny of 588; no details.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern and Armenian armies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sebeos; en.wikipedia, the article on the Roman-Sasanian war of 572-591", "note": "" }, { "id": 1128, "key": "588-martyropolis", "name": "Martyropolis", "year": 588, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 588", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 572-591", "theatre": "Sophanene", "place": "near Martyropolis (Silvan)", "lat": 38.14, "lon": 41.0, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Germanus", "commanders_b": "Maruzas (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The mutinous army of the East under its elected commander Germanus, who had gathered about 4,000 men for a raid (Theophylact 3.4).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern field army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophylact 3.4; en.wikipedia Battle of Martyropolis (588)", "note": "About 3,000 Persians were captured." }, { "id": 1129, "key": "589-martyropolis-siege", "name": "Martyropolis (siege)", "year": 589, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "589-590", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 572-591", "theatre": "Sophanene", "place": "Martyropolis (Silvan)", "lat": 38.14, "lon": 41.0, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mebodes, Aphraates", "commanders_b": "Philippicus, Comentiolus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The army of the East under Philippicus, then Comentiolus, besieging the city the Persians had taken through the treachery of the officer Sittas; a Persian relief army beat the besiegers (Theophylact 3.5-6).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern field army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophylact 3.5-6, 4.13; Evagrius 6.14; en.wikipedia, the article on the Roman-Sasanian war of 572-591", "note": "The city was returned by Khosrow II in 591." }, { "id": 1130, "key": "589-sisauranon", "name": "Sisauranon", "year": 589, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 589", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 572-591", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Sisauranon (Sisarbanon), near Nisibis", "lat": 37.2, "lon": 41.55, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Comentiolus, Heraclius the Elder", "commanders_b": "Aphraates (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Comentiolus' army of the East; when Comentiolus fled, Heraclius the Elder rallied the troops and won (Theophylact 3.6).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern field army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophylact 3.6.1-4; en.wikipedia, the article on the Roman-Sasanian war of 572-591", "note": "Also called Sisarbanon." }, { "id": 1131, "key": "589-araxes", "name": "Araxes", "year": 589, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 589", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 572-591", "theatre": "Caucasus (Albania)", "place": "on the Araxes, in Caucasian Albania", "lat": 39.8, "lon": 46.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Azerbaijan", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Romanus", "commanders_b": "Bahram Chobin", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Romanus' army of the Caucasus front, raised from the army of Armenia (Theophylact 3.7-8).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Armenia, with many Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophylact 3.7-8; en.wikipedia Battle of the Araxes (589)", "note": "The defeat led Hormizd IV to dismiss Bahram, who rebelled." }, { "id": 1132, "key": "591-blarathon", "name": "Blarathon", "year": 591, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August 591", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 572-591 (restoration of Khosrow II)", "theatre": "Atropatene", "place": "on the Blarathon river near Ganzak", "lat": 37.01, "lon": 46.19, "loc": "approx", "country": "Iran", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Narses, John Mystacon, Musel II Mamikonian; Khosrow II, Bindoe, Bistam", "commanders_b": "Bahram Chobin", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "About 60,000 in all: some 40,000 Roman troops of the armies of the East (Narses) and Armenia (John Mystacon), 12,000 Armenian cavalry under Musel Mamikonian and 8,000 Persians loyal to Khosrow II (modern figures after Sebeos and Theophylact 5.9-11).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin", "Iranian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern field army with a strong Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Theophylact 5.9-11; Sebeos 11; en.wikipedia Battle of Blarathon", "note": "Allies_a are Khosrow II's Persian loyalists; side B is the army of the usurper Bahram VI Chobin. Khosrow was restored and ceded Dara, Martyropolis and much of Armenia." }, { "id": 1133, "key": "594-marcianopolis", "name": "Marcianopolis", "year": 594, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "594", "type": "land", "war": "Maurice's Balkan campaigns", "theatre": "Moesia", "place": "near Marcianopolis (Devnya)", "lat": 43.22, "lon": 27.57, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Slavs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Peter", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An encounter with a returning raiding party.", "main_enemy": "Slavs", "opponent_group": "Slavs", "roman_force": "The vanguard of Peter's Thracian army, which overcame some 600 Slavs behind their wagon laager after a first setback (Theophylact 7.2).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Thracian field army of the 590s, recruited in the Balkans and Anatolia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophylact 7.2.1-10; en.wikipedia Maurice's Balkan campaigns", "note": "" }, { "id": 1134, "key": "594-helibacia", "name": "Helibacia", "year": 594, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late summer 594", "type": "land", "war": "Maurice's Balkan campaigns", "theatre": "north of the lower Danube", "place": "the river Helibacia (probably the Ialomita), Wallachia", "lat": 44.6, "lon": 26.8, "loc": "region", "country": "Romania", "side_a": [ "Slavs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Slav chiefs", "commanders_b": "Peter", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Slavs", "opponent_group": "Slavs", "roman_force": "Peter's army, which had crossed the Danube near Securisca and killed the chief Peiragastus, then, short of water, forced a crossing of the Helibacia on rafts and was beaten back (Theophylact 7.4-5).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Thracian field army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophylact 7.4-5; en.wikipedia Maurice's Balkan campaigns", "note": "The campaign began with a success (Peiragastus' death); the outcome given is that of the fight at the river." }, { "id": 1135, "key": "597-tomis-siege", "name": "Tomis (siege)", "year": 597, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 597 - 30 March 598", "type": "land", "war": "Maurice's Balkan campaigns", "theatre": "Scythia Minor", "place": "Tomis (Constanta)", "lat": 44.18, "lon": 28.65, "loc": "known", "country": "Romania", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Avars" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Priscus", "commanders_b": "Bayan", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Avars", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "Priscus' Thracian field army wintering in Tomis (Theophylact 7.13).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Thracian field army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophylact 7.13.1-8; en.wikipedia Maurice's Balkan campaigns", "note": "The khagan sent food at Easter; the siege was lifted on Comentiolus' approach." }, { "id": 1136, "key": "598-iatrus", "name": "Iatrus", "year": 598, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 598", "type": "land", "war": "Maurice's Balkan campaigns", "theatre": "Moesia", "place": "near Iatrus (Krivina)", "lat": 43.62, "lon": 25.58, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Avars" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Bayan", "commanders_b": "Comentiolus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Avars", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "Comentiolus' army, which broke when its commander fled (Theophylact 7.13-14).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Thracian field army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophylact 7.13.9-7.14; en.wikipedia Maurice's Balkan campaigns", "note": "The Avars later killed some 12,000 Roman prisoners when Maurice refused a ransom." }, { "id": 1137, "key": "599-viminacium", "name": "Viminacium", "year": 599, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 599", "type": "land", "war": "Maurice's Balkan campaigns", "theatre": "Moesia / Danube", "place": "Viminacium (Kostolac) and the north bank of the Danube", "lat": 44.74, "lon": 21.22, "loc": "known", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Avars" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Slavs" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Priscus, Comentiolus", "commanders_b": "Bayan's sons", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Avars", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "The combined armies of Priscus and Comentiolus under Priscus, ferried across the Danube by the river fleet (Theophylact 8.2).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Thracian field army with eastern regiments.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Theophylact 8.2; en.wikipedia Battle of Viminacium", "note": "A series of engagements in which several sons of Bayan fell." }, { "id": 1138, "key": "599-tisza", "name": "Tisza", "year": 599, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "599", "type": "land", "war": "Maurice's Balkan campaigns", "theatre": "Pannonian plain", "place": "on the Tisza", "lat": 45.5, "lon": 20.1, "loc": "region", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Avars" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Germanic peoples", "Slavs" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Priscus", "commanders_b": "Bayan", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Avars", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "Priscus' army; a detachment of 4,000 crossed the Tisza against the Gepid settlements before the battles with the khagan's army (Theophylact 8.3).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Thracian field army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophylact 8.3; en.wikipedia Battle of Viminacium", "note": "Allies_b include the Gepids (Germanic peoples) under Avar rule. A series of battles, grouped here as one entry." }, { "id": 1139, "key": "601-padua-siege", "name": "Padua (siege)", "year": 601, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "601 (602 in some accounts)", "type": "land", "war": "Lombard wars in Italy (Agilulf)", "theatre": "Venetia", "place": "Patavium (Padua)", "lat": 45.41, "lon": 11.88, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Lombards" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Agilulf", "commanders_b": "imperial garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known chiefly from Paul the Deacon; the fighting is not described in detail.", "main_enemy": "Lombards", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The imperial garrison of Padua, long cut off from Ravenna, which had resisted 'very bravely' and was allowed to withdraw to Ravenna when the city was set on fire (Paul the Deacon 4.23).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A garrison of the exarchate of Ravenna, mostly locally raised Latin-speaking soldiers with some eastern troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Paul the Deacon, Historia Langobardorum 4.23; en.wikipedia Agilulf", "note": "The Lombards burned the city and razed it to the ground." }, { "id": 1140, "key": "603-cremona-siege", "name": "Cremona (siege)", "year": 603, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "July - 21 August 603", "type": "land", "war": "Lombard wars in Italy (Agilulf)", "theatre": "Liguria (Transpadana)", "place": "Cremona", "lat": 45.13, "lon": 10.02, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Lombards" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Slavs" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Agilulf", "commanders_b": "imperial garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Paul the Deacon, who records the siege and capture but no details of the fighting.", "main_enemy": "Lombards", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The imperial garrison and citizens of Cremona (Paul the Deacon 4.28); no details.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A garrison of the exarchate of Ravenna, mostly locally raised Latin-speaking soldiers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Paul the Deacon, Historia Langobardorum 4.28", "note": "Agilulf besieged it with Slavs sent by the Avar khagan, took it on 21 August and razed it." }, { "id": 1141, "key": "603-mantua-siege", "name": "Mantua (siege)", "year": 603, "month": 9, "day": 13, "date": "late August - 13 September 603 (fall on the Ides of September)", "type": "land", "war": "Lombard wars in Italy (Agilulf)", "theatre": "Venetia", "place": "Mantua", "lat": 45.16, "lon": 10.79, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Lombards" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Slavs" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Agilulf", "commanders_b": "imperial garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known chiefly from Paul the Deacon; no standard article.", "main_enemy": "Lombards", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The imperial garrison of Mantua, allowed to withdraw to Ravenna after the walls were breached with battering rams (Paul the Deacon 4.28).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A garrison of the exarchate of Ravenna, mostly locally raised Latin-speaking soldiers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Paul the Deacon, Historia Langobardorum 4.28; en.wikipedia Agilulf", "note": "Wikipedia (Agilulf) puts the fall of Mantua in 602; Paul the Deacon gives the day, the Ides of September, after Cremona." }, { "id": 1142, "key": "603-constantina", "name": "Constantina", "year": 603, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "603", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 602-628", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "near Constantina (Viransehir) or Dara", "lat": 37.23, "lon": 39.76, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Khosrow II", "commanders_b": "Germanus (mortally wounded)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No standard name; the site is given as near Dara or Constantina.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Germanus' army of the East, sent by Phocas against the rebel Narses in Edessa and turned against Khosrow's invasion (Theophanes AM 6095).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern field army of c. 600 was recruited largely in Anatolia, Syria and Armenia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6095; Sebeos 31; en.wikipedia, the article on the Roman-Sasanian war of 602-628", "note": "Germanus died of his wounds eleven days later at Constantina." }, { "id": 1143, "key": "603-dara-siege", "name": "Dara (siege)", "year": 603, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "603 - 604 (about nine months)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 602-628", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Dara", "lat": 37.17, "lon": 40.95, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Khosrow II", "commanders_b": "garrison commander", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The garrison of Dara (Theophanes AM 6096; Chronicle of 1234).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A garrison of the eastern army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6096; Sebeos 31-32; en.wikipedia, the article on the Roman-Sasanian war of 602-628", "note": "Dates vary from 604 to 605 for the fall." }, { "id": 1144, "key": "604-arxamoun", "name": "Arxamoun", "year": 604, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "604", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 602-628", "theatre": "Mesopotamia", "place": "Arxamoun, between Dara and Edessa (site uncertain)", "lat": 37.2, "lon": 40.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Khosrow II", "commanders_b": "Leontius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Theophanes; no standard article.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The eunuch Leontius' army of the East; Khosrow used elephants and took many prisoners (Theophanes AM 6096).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern field army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6096", "note": "" }, { "id": 1145, "key": "604-thessalonica", "name": "Thessalonica", "year": 604, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "604", "type": "land", "war": "Slavic raids", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Thessalonica", "lat": 40.64, "lon": 22.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Slavs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the citizens", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A single night attack.", "main_enemy": "Slavs", "opponent_group": "Slavs", "roman_force": "The citizens and garrison of Thessalonica, who beat off a night escalade by about 5,000 Slavs (Miracula S. Demetrii 1.12).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The defence was by the Greek-speaking townsmen.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Miracula S. Demetrii 1.12; en.wikipedia Siege of Thessalonica (617)", "note": "" }, { "id": 1146, "key": "609-alexandria", "name": "Alexandria", "year": 609, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "609 or 610", "type": "land", "war": "Heraclian revolt", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "outside Alexandria", "lat": 31.2, "lon": 29.92, "loc": "approx", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Heraclius (Nicetas)", "faction_b": "Phocas (Bonosus)", "commanders_a": "Nicetas", "commanders_b": "Bonosus", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No standard name; known chiefly from John of Nikiu.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Nicetas' army from Africa, with local supporters (the Greens of Alexandria), against the comes Orientis Bonosus' troops from Syria and the Blues (John of Nikiu 107-109).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin", "Coptic", "Berber" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Bonosus' eastern troops and the Alexandrian factions spoke Greek; Nicetas' African troops largely Latin and Berber.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "John of Nikiu 107-109; en.wikipedia Heraclian revolt; Kaegi, Heraclius (2003) 38-46", "note": "Nicetas then held Egypt for Heraclius." }, { "id": 1147, "key": "611-caesarea-siege", "name": "Caesarea (siege)", "year": 611, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "611-612", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 602-628", "theatre": "Cappadocia", "place": "Caesarea Mazaca (Kayseri)", "lat": 38.72, "lon": 35.49, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Shahin", "commanders_b": "Priscus, Heraclius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Priscus' army blockading Shahin's Persians in the captured city; Heraclius joined briefly (Sebeos 34; Nicephorus 2).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Anatolian and Armenian regiments.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sebeos 34; Nicephorus, Short History 2; en.wikipedia, the article on the Roman-Sasanian war of 602-628", "note": "The Persians broke out after a year and burned the city." }, { "id": 1148, "key": "613-cilician-gates", "name": "Cilician Gates", "year": 613, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "613, after the battle of Antioch", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 602-628", "theatre": "Cilicia", "place": "the Cilician Gates (Gulek pass) in the Taurus", "lat": 37.28, "lon": 34.79, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Persian army (commander not named)", "commanders_b": "Roman army (commanders not named; Heraclius and Theodore had organised the defence)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No standalone article; named only in modern narratives.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "What remained of the army beaten at Antioch, trying to hold the Taurus passes; no details of its make-up survive.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The field armies of the East, recruited in Anatolia and Armenia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "en.wikipedia, the article on the Roman-Sasanian war of 602-628; en.wikipedia Battle of Antioch (613)", "note": "The Persians then took Tarsus and the Cilician plain." }, { "id": 1149, "key": "613-antioch", "name": "Antioch", "year": 613, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "613", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 602-628", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "outside Antioch", "lat": 36.2, "lon": 36.16, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Shahrbaraz, Shahin", "commanders_b": "Heraclius, Theodore, Nicetas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The field armies that Heraclius, his brother Theodore and Nicetas could gather in the East (Sebeos 34; Theophanes AM 6104).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern armies of Heraclius were recruited mainly in Anatolia and Armenia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Sebeos 34; Theophanes AM 6104; en.wikipedia Battle of Antioch (613)", "note": "The retreat was followed by a further defeat near the Cilician Gates; the Persians cut the empire in two." }, { "id": 1150, "key": "613-adhri-at", "name": "Adhri'at", "year": 613, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "613", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 602-628", "theatre": "Arabia / Syria", "place": "Adhri'at (Daraa)", "lat": 32.62, "lon": 36.1, "loc": "approx", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "Nicetas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Named only in modern accounts; the battle is linked to the 'nearest land' of Quran 30:2-3.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Nicetas' army (no details).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern field army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "en.wikipedia, the article on the Roman-Sasanian war of 602-628", "note": "" }, { "id": 1151, "key": "613-emesa", "name": "Emesa", "year": 613, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "613", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 602-628", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "near Emesa (Homs)", "lat": 34.73, "lon": 36.71, "loc": "approx", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Nicetas", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Named only by place in modern accounts.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Nicetas' army; a small victory with heavy losses on both sides, about 20,000 dead in all (Sebeos).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern field army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sebeos 34; en.wikipedia, the article on the Roman-Sasanian war of 602-628", "note": "" }, { "id": 1152, "key": "614-jerusalem-siege", "name": "Jerusalem (siege)", "year": 614, "month": 5, "day": null, "date": "April - May 614 (about three weeks)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 602-628", "theatre": "Palestine", "place": "Jerusalem", "lat": 31.78, "lon": 35.23, "loc": "known", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Jewish rebels" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Shahrbaraz", "commanders_b": "Patriarch Zacharias", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The citizens of Jerusalem, who had expelled the Persian garrison after a first surrender, with a few soldiers; a relief force from Jericho fled (Antiochus Strategos; Sebeos 34).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Christian population of Jerusalem spoke Greek and Palestinian Aramaic.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Antiochus Strategos, Capture of Jerusalem; Sebeos 34; Chronicon Paschale s.a. 614; en.wikipedia Sasanian conquest of Jerusalem", "note": "The city was stormed and the True Cross carried off; the death toll in the sources (57,000 or 66,500) is not reliable." }, { "id": 1153, "key": "615-thessalonica", "name": "Thessalonica", "year": 615, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 615", "type": "land", "war": "Slavic raids", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Thessalonica", "lat": 40.64, "lon": 22.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Slavs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the citizens", "commanders_b": "Chatzon (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Slavs", "opponent_group": "Slavs", "roman_force": "The citizens of Thessalonica, attacked by land and from the sea in monoxyla by a Slav coalition (Drougoubitai, Sagoudatai, Belegezitai, Baiounetai, Berzetai) (Miracula S. Demetrii 2.1).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The defence was by the Greek-speaking townsmen.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Miracula S. Demetrii 2.1; en.wikipedia Siege of Thessalonica (617)", "note": "Dates of the sieges of 615 and 617/618 are approximate." }, { "id": 1154, "key": "617-thessalonica-siege", "name": "Thessalonica (siege)", "year": 617, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "617 or 618 (33 days)", "type": "land", "war": "Avar-Roman wars", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Thessalonica", "lat": 40.64, "lon": 22.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Avars" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Slavs" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the citizens", "commanders_b": "the khagan", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Avars", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "The citizens of Thessalonica without imperial help (Miracula S. Demetrii 2.2).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The defence was by the Greek-speaking townsmen.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Miracula S. Demetrii 2.2; en.wikipedia Siege of Thessalonica (617)", "note": "The khagan withdrew after receiving gold." }, { "id": 1155, "key": "618-alexandria-siege", "name": "Alexandria (siege)", "year": 618, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "618 - 619", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 602-628", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "Alexandria", "lat": 31.2, "lon": 29.92, "loc": "known", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Sasanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Shahrbaraz", "commanders_b": "Nicetas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Nicetas' army of Egypt and the citizens of Alexandria (Chronicle of Khuzistan; Severus ibn al-Muqaffa).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Coptic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Egypt was locally recruited, Greek- and Coptic-speaking; Alexandria was a Greek-speaking city.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Chronicle of Khuzistan; History of the Patriarchs of Alexandria; en.wikipedia Sasanian conquest of Egypt", "note": "The Persians entered by an unused canal shown them by a traitor; Nicetas fled to Cyprus." }, { "id": 1156, "key": "622-cappadocia", "name": "Cappadocia", "year": 622, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 622", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 602-628 (Heraclius' campaign of 622)", "theatre": "Cappadocia / Pontus", "place": "somewhere in Cappadocia or Pontus", "lat": 39.5, "lon": 36.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Heraclius", "commanders_b": "Shahrbaraz", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No agreed battle name.", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Heraclius' army, gathered in Bithynia from the remnants of the eastern armies and troops brought over from Thrace and drilled through the summer; the Optimatoi led the decisive charge (George of Pisidia, Expeditio Persica).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Heraclius' army was raised in Anatolia and Thrace, with many Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "George of Pisidia, Expeditio Persica; Theophanes AM 6113; en.wikipedia Heraclius' campaign of 622", "note": "Wikipedia titles it 'Heraclius' campaign of 622'; it is sometimes wrongly called the battle of Issus, and some lists call it Ophlimus." }, { "id": 1157, "key": "623-heraclea", "name": "Heraclea", "year": 623, "month": 6, "day": 5, "date": "5 June 623 (619 in some accounts)", "type": "land", "war": "Avar-Roman wars", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "near Heraclea Perinthus (Marmara Ereglisi)", "lat": 40.97, "lon": 27.95, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Avars" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the khagan", "commanders_b": "Heraclius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An ambush at a parley ('the Avar surprise'); little organised fighting.", "main_enemy": "Avars", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "Heraclius' court and escort, come to a parley with the khagan; the emperor fled to Constantinople and the Avars ravaged the suburbs (Chronicon Paschale; Nicephorus 10).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The court and the people of the Thracian hinterland of Constantinople spoke Greek.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Chronicon Paschale s.a. 623; Nicephorus, Short History 10; Theophanes AM 6110; en.wikipedia Maurice's Balkan campaigns", "note": "" }, { "id": 1158, "key": "624-ganzak", "name": "Ganzak", "year": 624, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 624", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 602-628", "theatre": "Atropatene", "place": "Ganzak, Atropatene", "lat": 36.95, "lon": 46.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "Iran", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Heraclius", "commanders_b": "Khosrow II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Heraclius' expeditionary army, perhaps 20,000-24,000 (Kaegi), against Khosrow's 40,000; the king's guard was overrun and his army scattered (Theophanes AM 6114).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Heraclius' army was raised in Anatolia and Armenia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6114; Sebeos 38; en.wikipedia, the article on the Roman-Sasanian war of 602-628", "note": "Heraclius then sacked Ganzak and destroyed the fire temple at Takht-i Suleiman. Ganzak is placed at Leylan or Takht-i Suleiman." }, { "id": 1159, "key": "625-sarus", "name": "Sarus", "year": 625, "month": 4, "day": null, "date": "April 625", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 602-628", "theatre": "Cilicia", "place": "the bridge over the Sarus (Seyhan), near Adana", "lat": 37.0, "lon": 35.32, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Heraclius", "commanders_b": "Shahrbaraz", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Heraclius' army; its vanguard was cut up after crossing, and Heraclius' own charge at the bridge restored the fight (Theophanes AM 6115).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Heraclius' Anatolian and Armenian regiments.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6115; en.wikipedia Battle of Sarus", "note": "A nominal Roman victory: Shahrbaraz withdrew in good order and marched on to Chalcedon." }, { "id": 1160, "key": "625-tigranakert", "name": "Tigranakert", "year": 625, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "winter 624/625", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 602-628", "theatre": "Caucasian Albania / Armenia", "place": "near Tigranakert", "lat": 40.0, "lon": 46.93, "loc": "approx", "country": "Azerbaijan", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [ "Lazica", "Georgia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Heraclius", "commanders_b": "Shahraplakan, Shahin", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Heraclius' army with Lazic, Abasgian and Iberian allies, who joined him in Albania and soon after deserted (Theophanes AM 6115; Movses Daskhurantsi 2.10).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Georgian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Heraclius' Anatolian and Armenian regiments with Caucasian allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6115; Movses Daskhurantsi 2.10; en.wikipedia, the article on the Roman-Sasanian war of 602-628", "note": "Heraclius routed Shahraplakan and then Shahin in turn. Which Tigranakert is meant is disputed." }, { "id": 1161, "key": "625-aliovit-archesh", "name": "Aliovit (Archesh)", "year": 625, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "February or March 625", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 602-628", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "Archesh (Ercis), in the district of Aliovit, north of Lake Van", "lat": 39.03, "lon": 43.36, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Heraclius", "commanders_b": "Shahrbaraz", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Heraclius' army, in a night attack on Shahrbaraz's camp (Theophanes AM 6115).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Heraclius' Anatolian and Armenian regiments.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6115; en.wikipedia, the article on the Roman-Sasanian war of 602-628", "note": "Shahrbaraz barely escaped; listed as 'Archesh' in some lists." }, { "id": 1162, "key": "626-constantinople-siege", "name": "Constantinople (siege)", "year": 626, "month": 7, "day": 29, "date": "29 July - 7 August 626 (Avar vanguard from 29 June)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 602-628 / Avar-Roman wars", "theatre": "Thrace / Bosporus", "place": "Constantinople, the Golden Horn and the Bosporus", "lat": 41.01, "lon": 28.96, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Avars" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Slavs", "Sasanians" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Bonus, Patriarch Sergius", "commanders_b": "the khagan; Shahrbaraz (at Chalcedon)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Avars", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "About 12,000 cavalry sent by Heraclius, the citizens on the walls and the fleet, which destroyed the Slav monoxyla in the Golden Horn and kept the Persians on the Asian shore (Chronicon Paschale; Theodore Synkellos; George of Pisidia, Bellum Avaricum).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The defence was carried by the people and garrison of the Greek-speaking capital.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Chronicon Paschale s.a. 626; Theodore Synkellos, Homily; George of Pisidia, Bellum Avaricum; en.wikipedia Siege of Constantinople (626)", "note": "Combined land and sea siege; the naval victory of 7 August decided it. Bulgar and Gepid contingents served with the Avars." }, { "id": 1163, "key": "626-lycus", "name": "Lycus", "year": 626, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August 626", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 602-628", "theatre": "Anatolia", "place": "on the Lycus (Kelkit), Pontus", "lat": 40.15, "lon": 38.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Theodore (Heraclius' brother), or Heraclius himself (Howard-Johnston)", "commanders_b": "Shahin", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "The army detached under Theodore when Heraclius divided his forces in 626 (Theophanes AM 6117 tells of a hailstorm striking the Persians); smaller than Shahin's army, given as over 50,000.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Heraclius' Anatolian and Armenian regiments.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6117; en.wikipedia Battle of the Lycus (626)", "note": "Shahin's army was virtually destroyed; he died soon after. Exact site on the Lycus unknown." }, { "id": 1164, "key": "627-nineveh", "name": "Nineveh", "year": 627, "month": 12, "day": 12, "date": "12 December 627", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 602-628", "theatre": "Assyria", "place": "near the ruins of Nineveh, by the Tigris", "lat": 36.36, "lon": 43.15, "loc": "approx", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Heraclius", "commanders_b": "Rhahzadh (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Heraclius' army, given as 25,000-50,000 by modern estimates; the Turkish allies had gone home before the battle (Theophanes AM 6118).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Heraclius' army was recruited in Anatolia and Armenia; Greek speakers and Armenians made up most of it.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6118; Chronicon Paschale s.a. 628; en.wikipedia Battle of Nineveh (627)", "note": "Fought in fog; Rhahzadh fell in single combat with Heraclius, according to Theophanes." }, { "id": 1165, "key": "627-tiflis-siege", "name": "Tiflis (siege)", "year": 627, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "627 (the city fell in 628)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Persian War of 602-628", "theatre": "Iberia", "place": "Tiflis (Tbilisi)", "lat": 41.69, "lon": 44.8, "loc": "known", "country": "Georgia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [ "Khazars" ], "allies_b": [ "Georgia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Heraclius, Ziebel (Tong Yabghu)", "commanders_b": "Shahraplakan's officers, Stephen I of Iberia", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sasanians", "opponent_group": "Iranians", "roman_force": "Heraclius' army with a Western Turkish (Khazar) host given as 40,000, using traction trebuchets (Movses Daskhurantsi 2.11-14; Theophanes AM 6117).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Turkic", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Heraclius' Anatolian and Armenian regiments; the Turkish allies outnumbered them.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Movses Daskhurantsi 2.11-14; Theophanes AM 6117; en.wikipedia Third Perso-Turkic War", "note": "Allies_a: the Western Turks, called Khazars by Theophanes. Heraclius left in 627; the Turks took the city in 628. The pro-Persian Iberian prince Stephen I held it (allies_b)." }, { "id": 1166, "key": "629-mu-tah", "name": "Mu'tah", "year": 629, "month": 9, "day": null, "date": "September 629", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Muhammad's expeditions)", "theatre": "Palaestina Salutaris (Transjordan)", "place": "Mu'tah, near Karak", "lat": 31.08, "lon": 35.7, "loc": "known", "country": "Jordan", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [ "Ghassanids" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Theodore (vicarius), Malik ibn Zafila (killed)", "commanders_b": "Zayd ibn Haritha, Ja'far ibn Abi Talib, Abd Allah ibn Rawaha (all killed), Khalid ibn al-Walid", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Roman troops under Theodore with Arab allies of the Lakhm, Judham, Bali and Bahra and the Ghassanids, probably not more than 10,000 (Kaegi), against about 3,000 Muslims (Theophanes AM 6123; al-Waqidi).", "languages": [ "Arabic", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Most of the force were Christian Arab tribesmen; the Roman regulars were few.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6123; al-Waqidi, Kitab al-Maghazi; Ibn Ishaq; en.wikipedia Battle of Mu'tah", "note": "Muslim side: the Islamic state of Medina. Later Muslim tradition presents the retreat as a success." }, { "id": 1167, "key": "634-firaz", "name": "Firaz", "year": 634, "month": 1, "day": null, "date": "December 633 or January 634", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of the Levant (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Euphrates frontier", "place": "Firaz, on the Euphrates between al-Qa'im and Abu Kamal", "lat": 34.45, "lon": 40.95, "loc": "approx", "country": "Iraq", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome", "Sasanians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Christian Arabs" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Khalid ibn al-Walid", "commanders_b": "unnamed", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "Roman and Persian participation and even the result are questioned by modern historians.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A Roman frontier garrison on the Euphrates with Christian Arab allies (Taghlib, Iyad, Namir) and Persian remnants, as told by al-Tabari; no reliable numbers.", "languages": [ "Arabic", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A small frontier garrison among Arab allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Tabari, History 11; en.wikipedia Battle of Firaz", "note": "Traditional accounts give 100,000 enemy dead, an impossible figure; some argue Khalid may have been repulsed." }, { "id": 1168, "key": "634-dathin", "name": "Dathin", "year": 634, "month": 2, "day": 4, "date": "4 February 634", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of the Levant (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Palaestina Prima", "place": "Dathin, near Gaza", "lat": 31.45, "lon": 34.5, "loc": "approx", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Amr ibn al-As (or Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan)", "commanders_b": "Sergius (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A small force sent from Caesarea under Sergius, governor of Palestine; about 300 soldiers fell (Thomas the Presbyter; Doctrina Jacobi; Theophanes AM 6124).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Garrison troops of Palestine, Greek- and Aramaic-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Thomas the Presbyter, Chronicle s.a. 945 (Seleucid); Doctrina Jacobi 5.16; Theophanes AM 6124; en.wikipedia Battle of Dathin", "note": "Probably the same as the Arab sources' battle of al-Araba or Dathin; the villagers of the Gaza district also suffered heavy losses." }, { "id": 1169, "key": "634-ajnadayn", "name": "Ajnadayn", "year": 634, "month": 7, "day": 30, "date": "30 July 634", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of the Levant (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Palaestina Prima", "place": "Ajnadayn, near Bayt Jibrin (perhaps the Wadi al-Samt)", "lat": 31.69, "lon": 34.95, "loc": "approx", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Khalid ibn al-Walid, Amr ibn al-As", "commanders_b": "Theodore (Heraclius' brother), Vardan (Wardan, probably killed), Aretion", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Perhaps 10,000-20,000 (modern estimates): the forces of Palestine and Syria under Theodore and the commander the Arab sources call Wardan, probably an Armenian Vardan leading fresh troops from the north (al-Tabari; al-Baladhuri).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of the East in 634-636 combined Greek-speaking regulars from Syria and Anatolia with Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "al-Tabari; al-Baladhuri; en.wikipedia Battle of Ajnadayn", "note": "Some date it to January 635." }, { "id": 1170, "key": "634-damascus-siege", "name": "Damascus (siege)", "year": 634, "month": 8, "day": 21, "date": "21 August - 19 September 634 (others: 635)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of the Levant (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Damascene", "place": "Damascus", "lat": 33.51, "lon": 36.31, "loc": "known", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Khalid ibn al-Walid, Abu Ubayda, Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan, Amr ibn al-As, Shurahbil", "commanders_b": "Thomas, Mansur ibn Sarjun (civil official)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of Damascus under Thomas and the citizens; a relief force from Emesa was turned back (al-Tabari; al-Baladhuri).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Arabic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Syrian regulars and a Greek- and Aramaic-speaking city.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "al-Tabari; al-Baladhuri; en.wikipedia Siege of Damascus (634)", "note": "The city capitulated on terms; many modern historians date the surrender to 635." }, { "id": 1171, "key": "634-marj-al-dibaj", "name": "Marj al-Dibaj", "year": 634, "month": 9, "day": null, "date": "September 634", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of the Levant (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "northern Syria", "place": "Marj al-Dibaj, beyond the Jabal Ansariya, towards Antioch", "lat": 35.75, "lon": 36.1, "loc": "region", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Khalid ibn al-Walid", "commanders_b": "Thomas (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "Known only from the late, largely legendary Futuh al-Sham attributed to al-Waqidi.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of Damascus and refugees marching north under the truce, overtaken by Khalid's cavalry (pseudo-al-Waqidi).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Syrian regulars and townspeople of Damascus.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "pseudo-al-Waqidi, Futuh al-Sham; en.wikipedia Battle of Maraj-al-Debaj", "note": "Thomas is said to have fallen in single combat with Khalid; other sources have him survive." }, { "id": 1172, "key": "634-sanita-al-uqab", "name": "Sanita al-Uqab", "year": 634, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 634", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of the Levant (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Phoenice Libanensis", "place": "the Eagle Pass (Thaniyat al-Uqab), near al-Qutayfah, Qalamoun", "lat": 33.74, "lon": 36.6, "loc": "approx", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Khalid ibn al-Walid", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from later Arab tradition; a minor clash on Khalid's march from Iraq.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Local Roman troops guarding the approach to Damascus; no details.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Arabic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Syrian garrison troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Battle of Sanita-al-Uqab", "note": "" }, { "id": 1173, "key": "634-bosra-siege", "name": "Bosra (siege)", "year": 634, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "June - mid-July 634", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of the Levant (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Arabia (province)", "place": "Bostra (Bosra), Hauran", "lat": 32.52, "lon": 36.48, "loc": "known", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Khalid ibn al-Walid, Shurahbil ibn Hasana, Abu Ubayda, Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan", "commanders_b": "Romanus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of Bostra, given as 4,000, under Romanus, which fought outside the walls before withdrawing into the fort; the city then surrendered on terms (al-Baladhuri; al-Waqidi).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Arabic", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Greek-speaking provincial capital with a large Arab population.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Baladhuri, Futuh al-Buldan; en.wikipedia Battle of Bosra", "note": "" }, { "id": 1174, "key": "634-marj-al-saffar", "name": "Marj al-Saffar", "year": 634, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "August 634 (other dates: January or March 635)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of the Levant (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Damascene", "place": "Marj al-Saffar, south of Damascus", "lat": 33.27, "lon": 36.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Khalid ibn al-Walid", "commanders_b": "Thomas (Heraclius' son-in-law)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The Roman force sent out from Damascus to stop the Arab advance (al-Baladhuri).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Syrian regulars of the army of the East.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Baladhuri, Futuh al-Buldan; en.wikipedia Battle of Marj al-Saffar (634)", "note": "The Muslims also suffered heavy losses. Wikipedia's infobox dates it 23 January 635 (its lead and other articles say 634); distinct from Marj ar-Rum (west of Damascus, March or late 635, against Theodore and Shannash)." }, { "id": 1175, "key": "635-fahl-pella", "name": "Fahl (Pella)", "year": 635, "month": 1, "day": null, "date": "January 635 (or December 634)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of the Levant (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Palaestina Secunda", "place": "Fahl (Pella) and Baysan (Scythopolis), in the Jordan valley", "lat": 32.45, "lon": 35.62, "loc": "known", "country": "Jordan", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Abu Ubayda, Khalid ibn al-Walid, Amr ibn al-As, Shurahbil ibn Hasana", "commanders_b": "Theodore Trithyrius (sakellarios)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The Roman forces of Palestine, with survivors of Ajnadayn, under the sakellarios Theodore; they flooded the fields round Baysan (al-Tabari; al-Baladhuri).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Syrian and Anatolian regulars with Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "al-Tabari; al-Baladhuri; en.wikipedia Battle of Fahl", "note": "Pella fell; Baysan and Tiberias surrendered. The Arab figure of 80,000-100,000 Roman dead is fantasy." }, { "id": 1176, "key": "635-emesa-siege", "name": "Emesa (siege)", "year": 635, "month": 12, "day": null, "date": "December 635 - March 636", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of the Levant (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Phoenice Libanensis", "place": "Emesa (Homs)", "lat": 34.73, "lon": 36.71, "loc": "known", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Abu Ubayda, Khalid ibn al-Walid", "commanders_b": "Harbis (garrison commander)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Emesa, through a winter siege with sorties (al-Baladhuri; al-Tabari).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Arabic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Syrian regulars and a Greek- and Aramaic-speaking city.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Baladhuri; al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Siege of Emesa", "note": "The city surrendered on terms and was abandoned when Heraclius' great army advanced, then retaken after the Yarmouk." }, { "id": 1177, "key": "635-marj-ar-rum", "name": "Marj ar-Rum", "year": 635, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "635 (Wikipedia: March 635; others late 635)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of the Levant (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Damascene", "place": "Marj ar-Rum, the plain west of Damascus", "lat": 33.55, "lon": 36.15, "loc": "approx", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan, Abu Ubayda, Khalid ibn al-Walid", "commanders_b": "Theodore the patrikios (killed), Shannash al-Rumi (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A Roman force with a strong cavalry element sent against Damascus from the north (al-Tabari).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Regulars of the army of the East.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Battle of Marj ar-Rum", "note": "" }, { "id": 1178, "key": "636-yarmouk", "name": "Yarmouk", "year": 636, "month": 8, "day": 15, "date": "15-20 August 636", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of the Levant (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Arabia / Palaestina Secunda", "place": "the plains above the Yarmouk and its tributary the Wadi al-Ruqqad, southeast of the Sea of Galilee", "lat": 32.81, "lon": 35.95, "loc": "approx", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Ghassanids" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Abu Ubayda, Khalid ibn al-Walid, Amr ibn al-As, Shurahbil, Yazid, Dhirar ibn al-Azwar", "commanders_b": "Vahan, Theodore Trithyrius (killed), Qanatir (Buccinator), Jabala ibn al-Ayham, Gregory, Dairjan", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The army Heraclius gathered from Antioch in five corps: Armenians under Vahan, the army of the East under the sakellarios Theodore Trithyrius, a corps under Qanatir (said to be Slavs or Rus), the Christian Arabs of Jabala ibn al-Ayham, and troops under Gregory and Dairjan; perhaps 15,000-50,000 by modern estimates, against Theophanes' 80,000 plus 60,000 Ghassanids.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Arabic", "Slavic", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Armenians and Christian Arabs were large contingents beside the Greek-speaking regulars of the eastern armies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6126; al-Baladhuri; al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Battle of the Yarmuk", "note": "Exact site and dates are debated; Treadgold puts the Roman army at 80,000-100,000." }, { "id": 1179, "key": "636-jerusalem-siege", "name": "Jerusalem (siege)", "year": 636, "month": 11, "day": null, "date": "November 636 - April 637", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of the Levant (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Palaestina Prima", "place": "Jerusalem", "lat": 31.78, "lon": 35.23, "loc": "known", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Abu Ubayda, Amr ibn al-As; Caliph Umar (terms)", "commanders_b": "Patriarch Sophronius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Jerusalem under Patriarch Sophronius (al-Tabari; Theophanes AM 6127).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Christian population of Jerusalem spoke Greek and Palestinian Aramaic.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "al-Tabari; Theophanes AM 6127; en.wikipedia Siege of Jerusalem (636-637)", "note": "The city surrendered to Umar in person." }, { "id": 1180, "key": "637-hazir", "name": "Hazir", "year": 637, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 637", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of the Levant (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Syria Prima", "place": "Hadir (Hazir), about 5 km east of Qinnasrin (Chalcis)", "lat": 35.99, "lon": 37.08, "loc": "approx", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Khalid ibn al-Walid", "commanders_b": "Menas (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Menas' force from Chalcis, perhaps about 7,000 (modern estimate; Arab sources say 70,000) (al-Tabari).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Regulars of the army of the East in northern Syria.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Battle of Hazir", "note": "Qinnasrin surrendered soon after." }, { "id": 1181, "key": "637-iron-bridge", "name": "Iron Bridge", "year": 637, "month": 10, "day": null, "date": "October 637", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of the Levant (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Syria Prima", "place": "the Iron Bridge over the Orontes, about 20 km from Antioch", "lat": 36.26, "lon": 36.37, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Christian Arabs" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Khalid ibn al-Walid, Abu Ubayda", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Roman troops defending Antioch with Christian Arab allies, given as 15,000-20,000 (Arab tradition).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Arabic", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Regulars of the army of the East with Christian Arab allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Waqidi; al-Baladhuri; en.wikipedia Battle of the Iron Bridge", "note": "Antioch surrendered on 30 October 637." }, { "id": 1182, "key": "637-aleppo-siege", "name": "Aleppo (siege)", "year": 637, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 637", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of the Levant (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Syria Prima", "place": "Beroea (Aleppo)", "lat": 36.2, "lon": 37.16, "loc": "known", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Abu Ubayda, Khalid ibn al-Walid", "commanders_b": "Joachim (Yuqinna)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of Aleppo under the commander the Arab sources call Yuqinna (al-Baladhuri).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Syrian regulars.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Baladhuri; en.wikipedia Siege of Aleppo (637)", "note": "The city capitulated after a siege of some months." }, { "id": 1183, "key": "638-emesa-siege", "name": "Emesa (siege)", "year": 638, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 638", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of the Levant (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Phoenice Libanensis", "place": "Emesa (Homs)", "lat": 34.73, "lon": 36.71, "loc": "known", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Christian Arabs" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Abu Ubayda, Khalid ibn al-Walid", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The share of Roman regulars in the attack is uncertain.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A Roman force swollen by Christian Arab levies of the Jazira, besieging the Muslim garrison of Emesa (al-Tabari).", "languages": [ "Arabic", "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The besiegers were mostly Christian Arabs of the Jazira.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of the Levant", "note": "The siege broke up when Muslim forces raided the Jazira and Khalid sallied." }, { "id": 1184, "key": "638-germanicia-siege", "name": "Germanicia (siege)", "year": 638, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 638", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of the Levant (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Euphratesia / Taurus", "place": "Germanicia (Kahramanmaras)", "lat": 37.58, "lon": 36.93, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Khalid ibn al-Walid", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Captured with little bloodshed.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of Germanicia (al-Baladhuri).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A frontier garrison of the army of the East.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Baladhuri; en.wikipedia Siege of Germanicia", "note": "" }, { "id": 1185, "key": "639-pelusium-siege", "name": "Pelusium (siege)", "year": 639, "month": 12, "day": null, "date": "December 639 - February 640", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Egypt (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "Pelusium (Tell el-Farama)", "lat": 31.04, "lon": 32.55, "loc": "known", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Amr ibn al-As", "commanders_b": "Theodore", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of Pelusium, the eastern gate of Egypt, holding out for about two months with heavy losses on both sides (Ibn Abd al-Hakam).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Coptic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Egypt was recruited locally and spoke Greek and Coptic.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn Abd al-Hakam, Futuh Misr; John of Nikiu 111; en.wikipedia Siege of Pelusium (640)", "note": "Amr began with about 4,000 men." }, { "id": 1186, "key": "640-belbeis-siege", "name": "Belbeis (siege)", "year": 640, "month": 3, "day": null, "date": "February - March 640", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Egypt (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "Bilbeis", "lat": 30.42, "lon": 31.56, "loc": "known", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Amr ibn al-As", "commanders_b": "Aretion (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The Roman troops gathered at Belbeis under Aretion, who fell in a battle before the walls (Ibn Abd al-Hakam).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Coptic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Egypt, Greek- and Coptic-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn Abd al-Hakam, Futuh Misr; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of Egypt", "note": "" }, { "id": 1187, "key": "640-heliopolis", "name": "Heliopolis", "year": 640, "month": 7, "day": 6, "date": "6 July 640 (early to mid July)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Egypt (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "Heliopolis, about 15 km northeast of Babylon", "lat": 30.13, "lon": 31.29, "loc": "known", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Amr ibn al-As, al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam", "commanders_b": "Theodore, Anastasius, Theodosius", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The field army of Egypt under Theodore, with cavalry under Anastasius and Theodosius, perhaps over 20,000 (modern estimate), against Amr's army raised by reinforcements to about 12,000-15,000; the fight at Umm Dunayn preceded it (John of Nikiu 111; Ibn Abd al-Hakam).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Coptic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Egypt was locally recruited, Greek- and Coptic-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "John of Nikiu 111; Ibn Abd al-Hakam, Futuh Misr; en.wikipedia Battle of Heliopolis", "note": "The cavalry clash near Abbaseya and the storming of Heliopolis are one battle here; the earlier siege of Umm Dunayn (Tendunias) is now a separate entry." }, { "id": 1188, "key": "640-babylon-fortress-siege", "name": "Babylon Fortress (siege)", "year": 640, "month": 9, "day": null, "date": "September 640 (Arab arrival May 640) - 6 April 641", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Egypt (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "Babylon Fortress (Old Cairo)", "lat": 30.01, "lon": 31.23, "loc": "known", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Amr ibn al-As, al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, Ubada ibn al-Samit", "commanders_b": "Theodore", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of Babylon, about 4,000 men, supplied by river until the Nile fell (John of Nikiu; Ibn Abd al-Hakam).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Coptic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Egypt, Greek- and Coptic-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "John of Nikiu 111-117; Ibn Abd al-Hakam, Futuh Misr; en.wikipedia Siege of Babylon Fortress", "note": "The garrison capitulated after the assault of Good Friday, 6 April 641, and withdrew to Rauda island." }, { "id": 1189, "key": "640-umm-dunayn-siege", "name": "Umm Dunayn (siege)", "year": 640, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "about May - June 640", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Egypt (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Egypt (Augustamnica)", "place": "Umm Dunayn (Tendunias), a fortified river port on the Nile north of Babylon, in today's central Cairo", "lat": 30.05, "lon": 31.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Amr ibn al-As", "commanders_b": "garrison commander (not named)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The identification of John of Nikiu's Tendunias with Umm Dunayn (Butler) and the date are uncertain.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of Tendunias (Umm Dunayn); John of Nikiu says that only 300 of its men escaped to the fortress of Babylon (John of Nikiu 111).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Coptic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Egyptian garrison troops of the army of Egypt.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "John of Nikiu 111; Ibn Abd al-Hakam, Futuh Misr; en.wikipedia Battle of Heliopolis", "note": "Amr took it with difficulty, lacking siege engines, before his reinforcements arrived and before the battle of Heliopolis." }, { "id": 1190, "key": "640-bahnasa", "name": "Bahnasa", "year": 640, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "mid-640", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Egypt (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Egypt (Arcadia)", "place": "Bahnasa (Oxyrhynchus) and the edge of the Fayum", "lat": 28.53, "lon": 30.65, "loc": "approx", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Amr ibn al-As", "commanders_b": "John (dux, killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A raid and a small action, known from John of Nikiu.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A small Roman detachment of about 50 men under the general John, betrayed and killed, and the townspeople of Bahnasa (John of Nikiu 111).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Coptic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Egyptian troops and townsmen.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "John of Nikiu 111; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of Egypt", "note": "The Arabs failed to take the Fayum but sacked Bahnasa." }, { "id": 1191, "key": "640-caesarea-maritima-siege", "name": "Caesarea Maritima (siege)", "year": 640, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "640 (fell 640 or 641; other dates 638-639; blockaded on and off since 634)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of the Levant (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Palaestina Prima", "place": "Caesarea Maritima", "lat": 32.5, "lon": 34.89, "loc": "known", "country": "Israel & Palestine", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of the provincial capital, supplied by sea, and its Greek, Samaritan and Jewish townspeople (al-Baladhuri).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Greek-speaking capital with Samaritan and Jewish communities.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Baladhuri, Futuh al-Buldan; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of the Levant", "note": "Taken by storm according to al-Baladhuri, through a traitor who showed an entrance." }, { "id": 1192, "key": "641-tarnut", "name": "Tarnut", "year": 641, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "641 (February-March in Wikipedia; after Nikiou, May 641, in Butler)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Egypt (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Egypt (Nile Delta)", "place": "Tarnut (Terenuthis), on the western edge of the Nile Delta, on the road to Alexandria", "lat": 30.43, "lon": 30.83, "loc": "approx", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Amr ibn al-As (advance guard)", "commanders_b": "unknown (a detachment of the army of Egypt)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A delaying action against the Arab vanguard, known mainly from Arabic accounts.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A detachment of the Roman army of Egypt falling back on Alexandria; the sources give no numbers.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Coptic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Egypt in 641 joined Greek-speaking imperial troops with locally raised Coptic-speaking soldiers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn Abd al-Hakam; Butler, The Arab Conquest of Egypt; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of Egypt; en.wikipedia Siege of Alexandria (641)", "note": "The Romans failed to inflict heavy losses but held up the advance for a full day, then fell back and joined the force that fought at Kom Sharik (Wikipedia)." }, { "id": 1193, "key": "641-kom-sharik", "name": "Kom Sharik", "year": 641, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "641 (spring or early summer)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Egypt (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "Kom Sharik, western Nile Delta, on the road from Nikiou to Alexandria", "lat": 30.8, "lon": 30.6, "loc": "approx", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (detachments of the army of Egypt)", "commanders_b": "Arab cavalry vanguard of Amr ibn al-As (the place is named after Sharik ibn Sumayy)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A minor clash on the march to Alexandria, known mainly from Arabic accounts.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Two Roman detachments of the army of Egypt falling back on Alexandria; the sources give no numbers.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Coptic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial army in Egypt combined Greek-speaking officers and eastern units with locally raised, largely Coptic-speaking garrison troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "John of Nikiu 118-120 (in part); Ibn Abd al-Hakam; Butler, The Arab Conquest of Egypt; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of Egypt; en.wikipedia Siege of Alexandria (641)", "note": "The Romans routed the Arab cavalry vanguard, then withdrew when Amr's main army came up. Wikipedia dates the clashes at Tarnut, Kom Sharik, Sultais and Kiryun to Feb-Mar 641; Butler puts them after the fall of Babylon (April) and Nikiou (May 641)." }, { "id": 1194, "key": "641-sultais", "name": "Sultais", "year": 641, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "641 (spring or early summer)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Egypt (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "Sultais (Sulteis), western Nile Delta, on the road to Alexandria", "lat": 30.95, "lon": 30.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Amr ibn al-As", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A minor clash on the march to Alexandria, known mainly from Arabic accounts.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A Roman detachment of the army of Egypt retreating on Alexandria; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Coptic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial army in Egypt combined Greek-speaking officers and eastern units with locally raised, largely Coptic-speaking garrison troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn Abd al-Hakam; Butler, The Arab Conquest of Egypt; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of Egypt; en.wikipedia Siege of Alexandria (641)", "note": "After hard fighting the Romans withdrew to Alexandria. Site not identified; dating as for Kom Sharik." }, { "id": 1195, "key": "641-kiryun", "name": "Kiryun", "year": 641, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "641 (spring or summer)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Egypt (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "Kiryun (Kariun, Kirayun), on the canal about 20 km south-east of Alexandria", "lat": 31.12, "lon": 30.13, "loc": "approx", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Amr ibn al-As", "commanders_b": "unknown (the commanders of the Alexandrian army)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known mainly from Arabic accounts; sometimes treated as part of the siege of Alexandria.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "About 20,000 men of the Roman army of Egypt (Arab accounts) blocking the road to Alexandria.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Coptic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The field force covering Alexandria was drawn from the Greek-speaking city and garrison and from Coptic-speaking Egypt.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn Abd al-Hakam; al-Baladhuri; Butler, The Arab Conquest of Egypt; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of Egypt; en.wikipedia Siege of Alexandria (641)", "note": "Ten days of indecisive fighting; on the tenth day the Arabs attacked and drove the Romans back into Alexandria." }, { "id": 1196, "key": "641-alexandria-siege", "name": "Alexandria (siege)", "year": 641, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "641 (from about March or June; treaty November 641; Arab entry 29 September 642)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Egypt (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "Alexandria", "lat": 31.2, "lon": 29.92, "loc": "known", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Amr ibn al-As, Ubada ibn al-Samit", "commanders_b": "Cyrus (patriarch and prefect), Theodore, Menas, Domentianus, Constantine", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Most fighting was in the field before the walls; the city was surrendered by treaty rather than stormed.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of Alexandria and the remnants of the field army of Egypt under Theodore, with circus-faction militias (Blues and Greens) enlisted by Domentianus and Menas; the city was supplied by sea.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Coptic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Alexandria was a Greek-speaking city; its garrison and faction militias were largely Greek-speaking, with Coptic-speaking Egyptians from the countryside.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "John of Nikiu 119-121; Ibn Abd al-Hakam; Butler, The Arab Conquest of Egypt; en.wikipedia Siege of Alexandria (641)", "note": "Cyrus agreed the capitulation with Amr at Babylon (November 641); the last Roman troops sailed on 17 September 642 and Amr entered on 29 September 642." }, { "id": 1197, "key": "643-scultenna", "name": "Scultenna", "year": 643, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "643 (Wikipedia's article on Rothari: 645)", "type": "land", "war": "Lombard wars (Rothari)", "theatre": "Northern Italy (Aemilia)", "place": "on the river Scultenna (Panaro), in Aemilia, between Modena and Bologna (site unknown)", "lat": 44.6, "lon": 11.05, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Lombards" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Rothari", "commanders_b": "Isaac (exarch of Ravenna, perhaps killed); Wikipedia's article on Rothari names the exarch Plato", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Lombards", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The army of the exarchate of Ravenna ('the Romans of Ravenna' in Paul the Deacon), of whom 8,000 fell; no units are named.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The exarchate's army was raised by now mostly from Latin-speaking Italians, under eastern (Greek and Armenian) officers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Paul the Deacon, Historia Langobardorum 4.45; Bury, A History of the Later Roman Empire; en.wikipedia Rothari; en.wikipedia Isaac (exarch)", "note": "Paul says 8,000 Romans fell and the rest fled. Bury thinks Isaac died fighting the Lombards, while the Liber Pontificalis says he died of a stroke; the battle followed Rothari's conquest of Liguria and of Oderzo." }, { "id": 1198, "key": "643-tripoli-siege", "name": "Tripoli (siege)", "year": 643, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "643 (642/643)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of North Africa (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Tripolitania", "place": "Tripoli (Oea), Tripolitania", "lat": 32.9, "lon": 13.18, "loc": "known", "country": "Libya", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Berbers" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Amr ibn al-As", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The Roman garrison of Tripoli, supported by Christian Berbers of the Nafusa (Arab accounts); no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Berber", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Tripolitania belonged to the Latin-speaking African command; Greek speakers were mostly officers and officials.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Baladhuri; Ibn Abd al-Hakam; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of the Maghreb", "note": "The city held out about a month; the Arabs got in along the shore where the wall did not reach the sea (Arab tradition). Sabratha and Leptis fell about the same time." }, { "id": 1199, "key": "645-alexandria", "name": "Alexandria", "year": 645, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 645", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Egypt (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "Alexandria", "lat": 31.2, "lon": 29.92, "loc": "known", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Manuel", "commanders_b": "unknown (the small Arab garrison)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A surprise amphibious recapture with little fighting.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "An expeditionary army sent by Constans II under Manuel, carried by a fleet of about 300 ships.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A fleet and army sent from Constantinople, raised mainly in the Greek-speaking provinces of the empire.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn Abd al-Hakam; al-Baladhuri; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of Egypt; en.wikipedia Battle of Nikiou", "note": "The small Arab garrison was overwhelmed; the Alexandrians welcomed the imperial troops." }, { "id": 1200, "key": "646-nikiou", "name": "Nikiou", "year": 646, "month": 5, "day": null, "date": "May 646", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Egypt (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "Nikiou (Zawyat Razin, Monufia), on the Nile between Alexandria and Fustat", "lat": 30.43, "lon": 30.86, "loc": "approx", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Amr ibn al-As", "commanders_b": "Manuel", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Manuel's expeditionary army from Constantinople, perhaps 20,000 men (modern estimate), joined by some Alexandrians.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Coptic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army was shipped from Constantinople and raised in the Greek-speaking East, with local Alexandrian support.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn Abd al-Hakam; al-Baladhuri; en.wikipedia Battle of Nikiou", "note": "The Romans retreated in disorder to Alexandria." }, { "id": 1201, "key": "646-alexandria-siege", "name": "Alexandria (siege)", "year": 646, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 646", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Egypt (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "Alexandria", "lat": 31.2, "lon": 29.92, "loc": "known", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Amr ibn al-As", "commanders_b": "Manuel", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The remains of Manuel's expeditionary army and the Alexandrians who had joined it.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Coptic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Manuel's army came from the Greek-speaking East; the city itself was Greek-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn Abd al-Hakam; al-Baladhuri; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of Egypt; en.wikipedia Battle of Nikiou", "note": "The Arabs stormed the city; Wikipedia says Manuel was killed (some accounts have him escape by sea). The last imperial attempt on Egypt for about 500 years." }, { "id": 1202, "key": "647-sufetula", "name": "Sufetula", "year": 647, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "647 (some accounts 648)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of North Africa (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Africa (Byzacena)", "place": "Sufetula (Sbeitla), Byzacena", "lat": 35.23, "lon": 9.13, "loc": "known", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Berbers" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Abdallah ibn Sa'd ibn Abi Sarh, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr", "commanders_b": "Gregory the Patrician (exarch of Africa, killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Gregory had proclaimed himself emperor against Constans II; his army is counted as Roman.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The army of the exarchate of Africa under the exarch Gregory, with Berber allies (Zenata, Maghrawa); the Arab figure of 120,000 is impossible.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Berber", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The African army was raised in Latin-speaking Africa with Berber allies; Greek speakers were mostly among the officers and eastern units.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Ibn Abd al-Hakam; al-Baladhuri; Theophanes AM 6139; en.wikipedia Battle of Sufetula (647)", "note": "Gregory was killed; the Arabs sacked Sufetula and withdrew after the Africans paid a large tribute." }, { "id": 1203, "key": "649-arwad-siege", "name": "Arwad (siege)", "year": 649, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "winter 649 - spring 650", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Syria (coast)", "place": "the island city of Arwad (Aradus), off the Syrian coast", "lat": 34.86, "lon": 35.86, "loc": "known", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The fighting is known only in outline; the city surrendered at the second attempt.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison and townspeople of the fortified island city; the sources give no numbers or units.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Aradus was a Hellenized Phoenician island city with an imperial garrison; its people spoke Greek and Aramaic.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes (the envoy Thomarichos); PBE Thomarichos 1; en.wikipedia Conquest of Arwad (649-650)", "note": "A first attack by Mu'awiya's fleet with siege engines in winter 649 failed, and the defenders held his envoy, the bishop Thomarichos; in spring 650 he returned for a long siege and the defenders surrendered for safe passage. The fortifications were razed. Wikipedia's title calls it a conquest." }, { "id": 1204, "key": "655-the-masts-phoenix", "name": "The Masts (Phoenix)", "year": 655, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "655 (or 654)", "type": "sea", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Rashidun Caliphate)", "theatre": "Lycia", "place": "off Phoenix (Finike), Lycia", "lat": 36.28, "lon": 30.26, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Abdallah ibn Sa'd ibn Abi Sarh (fleet of Egypt), Abu al-A'war; for Mu'awiya", "commanders_b": "Constans II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The imperial fleet led by Constans II in person, about 500 ships (Theophanes says 1,000), against about 200 Arab ships.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The fleet was manned from the Aegean and southern Anatolian coasts, the later Karabisianoi, which were Greek-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6146; Sebeos 50; al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Battle of the Masts", "note": "Dated 654 or 655. Constans escaped by changing clothes with one of his men; heavy losses on both sides." }, { "id": 1205, "key": "663-benevento-siege", "name": "Benevento (siege)", "year": 663, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "663 (spring-summer)", "type": "land", "war": "Constans II's war with the Lombards", "theatre": "Southern Italy", "place": "Benevento", "lat": 41.13, "lon": 14.78, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Lombards" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Romuald I of Benevento; Grimoald I (relief)", "commanders_b": "Constans II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Lombards", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The expeditionary army Constans II brought from the East (landed at Taranto), with Italian garrison troops; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army Constans brought from Constantinople was raised in the Greek-speaking East, with Armenians; Latin-speaking Italian troops joined it.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Paul the Deacon, Historia Langobardorum 5.6-10; Liber Pontificalis (Vitalian); en.wikipedia Constans II", "note": "Constans raised the siege on news of Grimoald's approach and withdrew to Naples." }, { "id": 1206, "key": "663-luceria", "name": "Luceria", "year": 663, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "663", "type": "land", "war": "Constans II's war with the Lombards", "theatre": "Southern Italy", "place": "Luceria (Lucera), Apulia", "lat": 41.51, "lon": 15.34, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Lombards" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Constans II", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A storming of a town mentioned briefly by Paul the Deacon.", "main_enemy": "Lombards", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Constans II's expeditionary army from the East; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The expeditionary army was raised in the Greek-speaking East.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Paul the Deacon, Historia Langobardorum 5.7; en.wikipedia Constans II", "note": "Paul says Constans took Luceria by force and destroyed it; Acerenza resisted him." }, { "id": 1207, "key": "663-pugna-calore", "name": "Pugna (Calore)", "year": 663, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "663", "type": "land", "war": "Constans II's war with the Lombards", "theatre": "Southern Italy", "place": "on the river Calore, at the place called Pugna, between Benevento and Naples", "lat": 41.1, "lon": 14.65, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Lombards" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mitolas, count of Capua", "commanders_b": "Constans II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A rearguard action known only from Paul the Deacon.", "main_enemy": "Lombards", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "Constans II's army retreating from Benevento to Naples; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The expeditionary army was raised in the Greek-speaking East.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Paul the Deacon, Historia Langobardorum 5.9; en.wikipedia Constans II", "note": "Paul says the place was still called Pugna ('battle') in his day." }, { "id": 1208, "key": "663-forino", "name": "Forino", "year": 663, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "663", "type": "land", "war": "Constans II's war with the Lombards", "theatre": "Southern Italy", "place": "Forino, between Avellino and Salerno", "lat": 40.86, "lon": 14.74, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Lombards" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Romuald I of Benevento", "commanders_b": "Saburrus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Lombards", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "About 20,000 men of Constans II's army given to Saburrus (Paul the Deacon).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The force came from the army Constans brought from the Greek-speaking East.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Paul the Deacon, Historia Langobardorum 5.10; en.wikipedia Constans II", "note": "Saburrus, who had promised to beat the Lombards, was routed; Constans then went to Rome and Sicily." }, { "id": 1209, "key": "665-hadrumetum", "name": "Hadrumetum", "year": 665, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "665 (or 666/667)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of North Africa (Umayyad Caliphate)", "theatre": "Africa (Byzacena)", "place": "near Hadrumetum (Sousse)", "lat": 35.83, "lon": 10.64, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mu'awiya ibn Hudayj, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr", "commanders_b": "Nikephoros (patrikios)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Arab accounts.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "An imperial force under the patrikios Nikephoros, landed by sea to defend Byzacena (Arab accounts); no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A force sent by sea from the East would have been largely Greek-speaking, joined by Latin-speaking African troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Baladhuri; Ibn Abd al-Hakam; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of the Maghreb", "note": "Ibn al-Zubayr defeated Nikephoros and took Hadrumetum; in the same campaign Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan besieged Cululis (Jalula)." }, { "id": 1210, "key": "669-amorion", "name": "Amorion", "year": 669, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "winter 668/669", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Umayyad Caliphate)", "theatre": "Anatolia (Anatolikon)", "place": "Amorion, Phrygia", "lat": 39.02, "lon": 31.29, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Andrew (koubikoularios)", "commanders_b": "unknown (Arab garrison left by Fadala ibn Ubayd and Yazid)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A night recapture of a town, known from Theophanes.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Troops sent by Constantine IV under the chamberlain Andrew, who scaled the walls in the snow (Theophanes); no numbers are given for the Romans.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The troops came from the Anatolian themes, Greek-speaking with Armenian elements.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6160; en.wikipedia Siege of Constantinople (674-678)", "note": "Theophanes says the Arab garrison of 5,000 was slaughtered. Part of the campaign that Jankowiak dates as the first Arab siege of Constantinople (667-669)." }, { "id": 1211, "key": "674-constantinople-siege", "name": "Constantinople (siege)", "year": 674, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "674-678 (Jankowiak: 667-669)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Umayyad Caliphate)", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Constantinople and the Sea of Marmara (Arab base at Cyzicus)", "lat": 41.01, "lon": 28.98, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Constantine IV; Phloros, Petron and Cyprian (land army in Anatolia)", "commanders_b": "Mu'awiya I; Yazid ibn Mu'awiya, Fadala ibn Ubayd, Junada ibn Abi Umayya, Sufyan ibn Awf (land army)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of the capital and the imperial fleet with siphon-ships using Greek fire (attributed to Kallinikos, a refugee from Heliopolis in Syria); in Anatolia a field army under Phloros, Petron and Cyprian defeated the Arab land army.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The capital's garrison, the fleet and the Anatolian field army were drawn from the Greek-speaking core of the empire.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6164-6170; Nikephoros 34; en.wikipedia Siege of Constantinople (674-678)", "note": "A series of blockades from a base at Cyzicus rather than a close siege. The Arab fleet was routed (late 677/early 678) and the retreating fleet wrecked by a storm off Syllaion; Theophanes gives 30,000 Arab dead in the Anatolian defeat. Jankowiak redates the main attack to 667-669." }, { "id": 1212, "key": "676-thessalonica-siege", "name": "Thessalonica (siege)", "year": 676, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "676-678 (dates vary)", "type": "land", "war": "Slav wars", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Thessalonica", "lat": 40.64, "lon": 22.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Slavs" ], "allies_a": [ "Slavs" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (the city's officials)", "commanders_b": "unknown (the Rhynchinoi, Strymonitai and Sagoudatai, joined by the Drougoubitai)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Slavs", "opponent_group": "Slavs", "roman_force": "The citizens, council and garrison of Thessalonica; the emperor, at war with the Arabs, could spare only ten armed transports, later a grain fleet under escort, and in 678 an expedition against the Strymonitai (Miracles of St Demetrius).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Thessalonica was a Greek-speaking city defended chiefly by its own militia and garrison.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Miracles of St Demetrius II.4; Lemerle, Les plus anciens recueils des Miracles de saint Demetrius; en.wikipedia Siege of Thessalonica (676-678)", "note": "The decisive assault of 25 July 677 failed and the Slavs left their siege engines; the siege was lifted in 678 (Lemerle's chronology). The Belegezitai stayed loyal and supplied grain (in allies_a as Slavs). The rising followed the execution of Perbundos, king of the Rhynchinoi." }, { "id": 1213, "key": "680-ongal", "name": "Ongal", "year": 680, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 680", "type": "land", "war": "Bulgarian wars", "theatre": "Lower Danube", "place": "the Onglos, near the Danube delta (exact site unknown)", "lat": 45.18, "lon": 28.8, "loc": "region", "country": "Romania", "side_a": [ "Bulgars" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Slavs" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Asparukh", "commanders_b": "Constantine IV", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgars", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "All the themes brought over from Anatolia to Thrace (Theophanes), with a fleet sent to the Danube mouths (Nikephoros); modern estimates 15,000-25,000.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Theophanes says the emperor brought 'all the themes' across to Thrace; the Anatolian thematic armies were largely Greek-speaking, with Armenian elements.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6171; Nikephoros 36; en.wikipedia Battle of Ongal", "note": "The army panicked after Constantine IV left for medical treatment and was cut down in the retreat; the defeat led to the Bulgar state south of the Danube (treaty of 681)." }, { "id": 1214, "key": "682-vescera", "name": "Vescera", "year": 682, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "682 or 683", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of North Africa (Umayyad Caliphate)", "theatre": "Africa (Numidia)", "place": "Thabudeos (Tahuda), south of Vescera (Biskra)", "lat": 34.75, "lon": 5.9, "loc": "approx", "country": "Algeria", "side_a": [ "Berbers", "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Kusaila (Caecilius), king of Altava", "commanders_b": "Uqba ibn Nafi (killed), Abu al-Muhajir Dinar (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The Roman contingent is known only from Arab accounts; Kusaila's Berbers were the main force.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Roman troops of the exarchate of Africa allied with the Romano-Berber army of Kusaila (Arab accounts speak of the Rum with the Berbers); no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Berber", "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The coalition was Berber and Latin-speaking African; any Greek speakers would have been among the imperial officers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn Abd al-Hakam; Ibn al-Athir; en.wikipedia Battle of Vescera", "note": "Uqba was ambushed on his return from his march to the Atlantic and killed with his army; Kusaila then took Kairouan." }, { "id": 1215, "key": "690-barca", "name": "Barca", "year": 690, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "690 (688-690 in different accounts)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of North Africa (Umayyad Caliphate)", "theatre": "Cyrenaica", "place": "coast of Cyrenaica near Barca (Zuhayr's tomb is at Derna)", "lat": 32.76, "lon": 22.64, "loc": "approx", "country": "Libya", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "Zuhayr ibn Qays (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Arab accounts; site uncertain.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A Roman fleet and landing force that raided Cyrenaica (Arab accounts); no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A seaborne force from the imperial fleet, manned mainly from the Greek-speaking coasts.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn Abd al-Hakam; al-Baladhuri; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of the Maghreb", "note": "Zuhayr, returning east after his victory at Mamma, met the landing party with a small escort and was killed with his men." }, { "id": 1216, "key": "692-sebastopolis", "name": "Sebastopolis", "year": 692, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "692 (summer)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Umayyad Caliphate)", "theatre": "Anatolia (Armeniakon)", "place": "Sebastopolis in Pontus (Sulusaray)", "lat": 39.99, "lon": 36.08, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Muhammad ibn Marwan", "commanders_b": "Justinian II; Leontios (strategos of the Anatolikon); Neboulos (archon of the Slavs, defected)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The field army under Leontios with the 'chosen people' (laos periousios), a corps of 30,000 Slavs settled in the Opsikion in 688/689, of whom about 20,000 deserted to the Arabs under Neboulos.", "languages": [ "Slavic", "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Theophanes and Nikephoros name a Slavic corps of 30,000 beside the Greek-speaking thematic troops, so the Slavs may have been the largest single part.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6184; Nikephoros 38; en.wikipedia Battle of Sebastopolis", "note": "The Romans were winning until the Slavs deserted, allegedly bribed; Justinian later had the remaining Slavs' families massacred (Theophanes)." }, { "id": 1217, "key": "694-marash", "name": "Marash", "year": 694, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August/September 694", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Umayyad Caliphate)", "theatre": "Syrian frontier", "place": "environs of Marash (Germanikeia)", "lat": 37.58, "lon": 36.93, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aban ibn al-Walid ibn Uqba (governor of Qinnasrin), Dinar ibn Dinar", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "An imperial army operating on the Syrian frontier; the sources give no units or numbers (Arab claims of 40,000 Roman dead are exaggerated).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern field forces of the 690s were the Anatolian themes, mostly Greek-speaking, with Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Baladhuri; al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Battle of Marash (694)", "note": "The Romans were pursued with heavy losses and abandoned Marash." }, { "id": 1218, "key": "697-carthage", "name": "Carthage", "year": 697, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 697", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of North Africa (Umayyad Caliphate)", "theatre": "Africa (Zeugitana)", "place": "Carthage", "lat": 36.85, "lon": 10.32, "loc": "known", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John the Patrician", "commanders_b": "unknown (garrison left by Hassan ibn al-Nu'man)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The whole imperial fleet sent by Leontios (Theophanes), including the Kibyrrhaiot squadron whose droungarios Apsimar was later proclaimed emperor, with troops from Sicily.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The fleet, with the Kibyrrhaiot sailors of the southern Anatolian coast named by Theophanes, was Greek-speaking; Sicilian troops were partly Latin-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6190; Nikephoros 41; en.wikipedia Battle of Carthage (698)", "note": "An amphibious assault: the fleet broke the chain across the harbour, landed and defeated the Arab garrison; John then retook nearby towns." }, { "id": 1219, "key": "698-constantinople-siege", "name": "Constantinople (siege)", "year": 698, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "698 (several months)", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of Tiberios III (Apsimar)", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Constantinople (the rebels landed at Sykai on the Golden Horn)", "lat": 41.01, "lon": 28.98, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Tiberios III (Apsimar; the fleet from Africa)", "faction_b": "Leontios", "commanders_a": "Apsimar (Tiberios III), droungarios of the Kibyrrhaiots", "commanders_b": "Leontios", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A civil siege known only in outline; no assaults are described and the city fell by treachery.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Tiberios: the fleet back from Carthage, including the Kibyrrhaiot squadron, which had mutinied on Crete; Leontios: the garrison and citizens of a capital struck by plague.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The Kibyrrhaiot fleet was raised on the Greek-speaking southern coasts of Anatolia and the islands, and the capital's garrison was Greek-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6190; Nikephoros 41; en.wikipedia Tiberios III", "note": "After several months members of the Green faction opened the gates; the troops plundered the city. Leontios' nose was slit and he was confined to a monastery." }, { "id": 1220, "key": "698-carthage", "name": "Carthage", "year": 698, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "698", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of North Africa (Umayyad Caliphate)", "theatre": "Africa (Zeugitana)", "place": "Carthage", "lat": 36.85, "lon": 10.32, "loc": "known", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hassan ibn al-Nu'man", "commanders_b": "John the Patrician", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "John the Patrician's expeditionary force from the imperial fleet (with the Kibyrrhaiots) and troops from Sicily; the Arabs are said to have had about 40,000.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The expedition was carried and largely manned by the Greek-speaking imperial fleet, including the Kibyrrhaiots named by Theophanes.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6190; Nikephoros 41; en.wikipedia Battle of Carthage (698)", "note": "Hassan besieged the city; the sorties failed and, as an Arab fleet arrived, John evacuated by sea. Hassan razed Carthage. The fleet then mutinied on Crete and proclaimed Apsimar (Tiberios III)." }, { "id": 1221, "key": "698-utica", "name": "Utica", "year": 698, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "698", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of North Africa (Umayyad Caliphate)", "theatre": "Africa (Zeugitana)", "place": "Utica", "lat": 37.06, "lon": 10.06, "loc": "approx", "country": "Tunisia", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hassan ibn al-Nu'man", "commanders_b": "John the Patrician", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A last engagement mentioned only briefly; details unknown.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "John the Patrician's force after the evacuation of Carthage; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The force was the Greek-speaking expeditionary army and fleet sent from Constantinople.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "en.wikipedia Battle of Carthage (698)", "note": "After it John withdrew by sea to Crete." }, { "id": 1222, "key": "704-sisium", "name": "Sisium", "year": 704, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "704", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Umayyad Caliphate)", "theatre": "Cilicia", "place": "Sisium (Sis, Kozan), Cilicia", "lat": 37.45, "lon": 35.82, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Heraclius (brother of Tiberios III, monostrategos of the cavalry themes)", "commanders_b": "Yazid ibn Hunain", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The army of the cavalry themes of Anatolia under Heraclius, the emperor's brother; no numbers are given for the Romans.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Heraclius commanded the Anatolian cavalry themes (Theophanes), recruited mainly among Greek speakers.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6196; en.wikipedia Heraclius (brother of Tiberius III)", "note": "Most of the Arab army of 10,000-12,000 was killed and the rest taken in chains to Constantinople." }, { "id": 1223, "key": "708-anchialus", "name": "Anchialus", "year": 708, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "708", "type": "land", "war": "Bulgarian wars", "theatre": "Thrace (Black Sea coast)", "place": "near Anchialus (Pomorie)", "lat": 42.55, "lon": 27.65, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tervel", "commanders_b": "Justinian II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The cavalry themes sent to Thrace and a fleet that carried Justinian II to Anchialus (Theophanes); no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Theophanes names the cavalry themes, i.e. the largely Greek-speaking thematic armies of Anatolia, brought across to Thrace.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6200; Nikephoros 44; en.wikipedia Battle of Anchialus (708)", "note": "The troops scattered to forage were surprised by the Bulgars; Justinian shut himself in Anchialus for three days and escaped by sea." }, { "id": 1224, "key": "708-tyana-siege", "name": "Tyana (siege)", "year": 708, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "707-708 or 708-709 (about nine months)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Umayyad Caliphate)", "theatre": "Anatolia (Cappadocia)", "place": "Tyana (Kemerhisar), Cappadocia", "lat": 37.83, "lon": 34.62, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik, al-Abbas ibn al-Walid", "commanders_b": "Theodore Karteroukas, Theophylact Salibas (relief army)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of Tyana and a relief army sent by Justinian II under two quarrelling generals, made up of regular troops and a large levy of untrained armed peasants (Theophanes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Garrison and relief army were raised in Cappadocia and the Anatolian themes, Greek-speaking with Armenian elements.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6201; Nikephoros 44; al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Siege of Tyana", "note": "The relief army was routed in a disorderly attack and the city surrendered; it was then sacked. Arab sources date the siege 706/707-707/708, Theophanes 708/709." }, { "id": 1225, "key": "711-cherson-siege", "name": "Cherson (siege)", "year": 711, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "711", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Philippikos Bardanes", "theatre": "Crimea", "place": "Cherson (Chersonesos), Crimea", "lat": 44.61, "lon": 33.49, "loc": "known", "country": "Ukraine", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Khazars" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Philippikos Bardanes (the rebels of Cherson)", "faction_b": "Justinian II", "commanders_a": "Bardanes (Philippikos), with a Khazar relief force", "commanders_b": "Maurus (patrikios)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A civil siege ended by the arrival of the Khazars, after which the besiegers joined the rebels.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Justinian II's second expedition, a fleet with siege engines under the patrikios Maurus; against the Chersonites, the exiled Bardanes and a Khazar relief army.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Cherson was a Greek city, and the expedition was raised from the Greek-speaking capital and fleet.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6203; Nikephoros 45; en.wikipedia Justinian II", "note": "The siege engines brought down two towers before the Khazars arrived; the expedition then went over to Bardanes, proclaimed him emperor as Philippikos and sailed for Constantinople. Justinian II was killed in November 711." }, { "id": 1226, "key": "715-constantinople-siege", "name": "Constantinople (siege)", "year": 715, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer - November 715 (about six months)", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of Theodosios III", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Constantinople", "lat": 41.01, "lon": 28.98, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Theodosios III (Opsikion army and fleet)", "faction_b": "Anastasios II", "commanders_a": "Theodosios III", "commanders_b": "Anastasios II (in Nicaea)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A civil siege known only in outline; no assaults are described in detail.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "The Opsikion troops and the fleet that had mutinied on their way to Rhodes and Phoenix (killing their commander John the Deacon) and proclaimed Theodosios at Adramyttion, besieging the capital from Chrysopolis; against the garrison and citizens loyal to Anastasios II, who held Nicaea with his army.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The Opsikion and the fleet, named by Theophanes, were raised in Greek-speaking north-western Anatolia and the coasts, with settled Slavs and Gothograeci in the Opsikion.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6207; Nikephoros 50; en.wikipedia Theodosios III; en.wikipedia Anastasios II", "note": "Supporters inside the city opened the gates in November 715; Anastasios stayed in Nicaea for some months before abdicating and becoming a monk. Theophanes speaks of six months of fighting." }, { "id": 1227, "key": "717-constantinople-siege", "name": "Constantinople (siege)", "year": 717, "month": 8, "day": 15, "date": "15 August 717 (or mid-July) - 15 August 718", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Umayyad Caliphate)", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Constantinople, the Bosporus and the Sea of Marmara", "lat": 41.01, "lon": 28.98, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Leo III; Tervel of Bulgaria", "commanders_b": "Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik, Umar ibn Hubayra, Sulayman (fleet)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of the capital (probably no more than 15,000) on the repaired Theodosian walls and the imperial fleet with Greek fire, which destroyed the Egyptian and African reinforcement fleets; Tervel's Bulgars attacked the Arab camp in Thrace.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The defenders were the capital's garrison and the fleet, raised in the Greek-speaking core of the empire; the Bulgars were separate allies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6209-6210; Nikephoros 54-56; al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Siege of Constantinople (717-718)", "note": "Christian Egyptian crews of the Arab fleet deserted in spring 718; Theophanes says the Bulgars killed 22,000 Arabs; storms destroyed much of the retreating fleet." }, { "id": 1228, "key": "717-cumae", "name": "Cumae", "year": 717, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "717 (or 718)", "type": "land", "war": "Wars with the Lombards (Duchy of Naples)", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "the fortress of Cumae, west of Naples", "lat": 40.85, "lon": 14.05, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Lombards" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John I, duke of Naples; Theodimus (subdeacon, rector of the papal patrimony)", "commanders_b": "the Lombard commander of Cumae (killed), for Romuald II of Benevento", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A night recapture of a fortress by the ducal army of Naples, known from the Liber Pontificalis.", "main_enemy": "Lombards", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The forces of the duchy of Naples under its duke John, an imperial officer, raised at the call of Pope Gregory II, who gave 70 pounds of gold to the undertaking; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Naples was a bilingual city under an imperial duke, but its militia was mostly local and Latin-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Liber Pontificalis 91.7 (Gregory II); Paul the Deacon, Historia Langobardorum 6.40; PBE Ioannes 231; en.wikipedia John I of Naples", "note": "The Lombards of Benevento had seized Cumae by stealth; the Neapolitans entered the fortress by night, killed the Lombard commander and about 300 of his men and took about 500 prisoners (Liber Pontificalis; Paul the Deacon mentions the night attack). The fort had been occupied in 716." }, { "id": 1229, "key": "718-sophon", "name": "Sophon", "year": 718, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 718", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Umayyad Caliphate)", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "the hills of Sophon, south-east of Nicomedia", "lat": 40.7, "lon": 30.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "Mardasan", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A named ambush within the siege of 717-718.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A Roman force sent across to Bithynia from the besieged capital, which laid an ambush (Theophanes); no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Troops from the capital's garrison and Bithynia, both Greek-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6209; en.wikipedia Siege of Constantinople (717-718)", "note": "The Arab foraging army under Mardasan was destroyed." }, { "id": 1230, "key": "727-constantinople-sea", "name": "Constantinople (sea)", "year": 727, "month": 4, "day": 18, "date": "18 April 727", "type": "sea", "war": "Revolt of the Helladikoi (iconoclast revolt)", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "off Constantinople", "lat": 40.99, "lon": 28.97, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Leo III", "faction_b": "Helladikoi (Kosmas)", "commanders_a": "Leo III", "commanders_b": "Agallianos Kontoskeles (tourmarches of the Helladikoi), Stephen; Kosmas (proclaimed emperor)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Leo III's imperial fleet with Greek fire against the fleet of the Helladikoi and the Cyclades.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Both sides were Greek-speaking: the rebels were the men of the theme of Hellas and the islands (Theophanes), the loyalists the capital's fleet.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6218; Nikephoros 60; en.wikipedia Leo III the Isaurian", "note": "Theophanes links the revolt to Leo's first moves against images. The rebel fleet was burned; Agallianos threw himself into the sea and Kosmas and Stephen were beheaded." }, { "id": 1231, "key": "727-nicaea-siege", "name": "Nicaea (siege)", "year": 727, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "July-August 727 (about 40 days)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Umayyad Caliphate)", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "Nicaea (Iznik)", "lat": 40.43, "lon": 29.72, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "probably Artabasdos (komes of the Opsikion)", "commanders_b": "Mu'awiya ibn Hisham; Abdallah al-Battal (vanguard)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of Nicaea, capital of the Opsikion theme; the sources do not describe it, and the Romans did not meet the Arabs in the field.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Nicaea was a Greek-speaking city and the seat of the Opsikion, recruited in north-western Anatolia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6218; al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Siege of Nicaea (727)", "note": "Theophanes' figures (15,000 vanguard, 100,000 in all) are much inflated; the Arabs withdrew with captives and booty." }, { "id": 1232, "key": "740-akroinon", "name": "Akroinon", "year": 740, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "740", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Umayyad Caliphate)", "theatre": "Anatolia (Phrygia)", "place": "Akroinon (Afyonkarahisar), Phrygia", "lat": 38.76, "lon": 30.54, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Leo III, Constantine V", "commanders_b": "Abdallah al-Battal (killed), Malik ibn Shu'ayb (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The field army led by Leo III and Constantine V in person; the sources do not name the units, which were presumably the thematic armies of western and central Anatolia (Opsikion, Anatolikon).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Anatolian thematic armies of the 8th century were recruited mainly among Greek-speaking peasants, with Armenian elements.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6231; Michael the Syrian; en.wikipedia Battle of Akroinon", "note": "Of 20,000 Arabs about 6,800 escaped to Synnada (Theophanes)." }, { "id": 1233, "key": "741-krasos", "name": "Krasos", "year": 741, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 741 (some date it 742)", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of Artabasdos", "theatre": "Anatolia (Phrygia)", "place": "the plain of Krasos, Phrygia (Nikephoros; Theophanes puts the attack near Dorylaion)", "lat": 39.0, "lon": 30.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Artabasdos", "faction_b": "Constantine V", "commanders_a": "Artabasdos (komes of the Opsikion)", "commanders_b": "Constantine V; Beser (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An attack at a meeting rather than a pitched battle; the only named casualty is Beser.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Artabasdos: the army of the Opsikion; Constantine V: his retinue and the troops marching with him against the Arabs, who fled to Amorion and the Anatolikon.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The Opsikion and Anatolikon armies were raised in Greek-speaking north-western and central Anatolia; Artabasdos was an Armenian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Nikephoros, Short History 64; Theophanes AM 6233; PBE Artabasdos 1; en.wikipedia Constantine V; en.wikipedia Artabasdos", "note": "Constantine had called Artabasdos to a meeting in the plain of Krasos before a campaign against the Arabs; Artabasdos killed Beser and attacked, Constantine fled to Amorion, and Artabasdos took Constantinople. Wikipedia (after Treadgold) dates the start of the revolt to June 741, the PBE to June 742." }, { "id": 1234, "key": "743-sardis", "name": "Sardis", "year": 743, "month": 5, "day": null, "date": "May 743 (some date it 742)", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of Artabasdos", "theatre": "Anatolia (Lydia)", "place": "near Sardis, Lydia", "lat": 38.49, "lon": 28.04, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantine V", "faction_b": "Artabasdos", "commanders_a": "Constantine V", "commanders_b": "Artabasdos", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Constantine V had the Anatolikon and Thrakesion themes; Artabasdos the Opsikion and troops from Thrace.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The themes named by Theophanes (Anatolikon, Thrakesion, Opsikion) were recruited mainly in Greek-speaking western and central Anatolia.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6235; Nikephoros 64; en.wikipedia Artabasdos; en.wikipedia Constantine V", "note": "Artabasdos had seized the throne after attacking Constantine on the march against the Arabs (June 741 or 742); the dating of the whole revolt (741-743 or 742-743) is disputed. Artabasdos supported the icons." }, { "id": 1235, "key": "743-modrine", "name": "Modrine", "year": 743, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August 743", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of Artabasdos", "theatre": "Anatolia (Bithynia)", "place": "Modrine (Mudurnu), Bithynia", "lat": 40.47, "lon": 31.21, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantine V", "faction_b": "Artabasdos", "commanders_a": "Constantine V", "commanders_b": "Niketas (son of Artabasdos, strategos of the Armeniakon)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Constantine V's Anatolikon and Thrakesion troops against Niketas and the Armeniakon army.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The themes named are Anatolian; the Armeniakon had a strong Armenian element beside its Greek-speaking majority.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6235; Nikephoros 64; en.wikipedia Constantine V", "note": "About three months after Sardis; Constantine then marched on Constantinople." }, { "id": 1236, "key": "743-constantinople-siege", "name": "Constantinople (siege)", "year": 743, "month": 9, "day": null, "date": "September - 2 November 743", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of Artabasdos", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Constantinople", "lat": 41.01, "lon": 28.98, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantine V", "faction_b": "Artabasdos", "commanders_a": "Constantine V", "commanders_b": "Artabasdos", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Constantine V's Anatolian themes with the Kibyrrhaiot fleet blockading by sea, against Artabasdos' garrison of the capital and his remaining Opsikion and Thracian troops.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The Anatolikon, Thrakesion and Kibyrrhaiot forces were Greek-speaking, as was the capital.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6235; Nikephoros 66; en.wikipedia Constantine V; en.wikipedia Artabasdos", "note": "A blockade with famine in the city and a failed sortie; Constantine entered on 2 November 743, and Artabasdos fled to Pouzanes, was captured and blinded." }, { "id": 1237, "key": "746-keramaia", "name": "Keramaia", "year": 746, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "746 (or 747)", "type": "sea", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Umayyad Caliphate)", "theatre": "Cyprus", "place": "the harbour of Keramaia, Cyprus (site unknown)", "lat": 35.0, "lon": 33.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Cyprus", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the strategos of the Kibyrrhaiots (not named)", "commanders_b": "unknown (fleet of Egypt)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The fleet of the Kibyrrhaiot theme under its strategos (Theophanes); no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The Kibyrrhaiot fleet, named by Theophanes, was manned from the Greek-speaking southern coast of Anatolia and the Aegean islands.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6238; en.wikipedia Battle of Keramaia", "note": "Theophanes' 1,000 Arab dromons is an exaggeration (perhaps about 30 ships); he says only three escaped." }, { "id": 1238, "key": "756-marcellae", "name": "Marcellae", "year": 756, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "756", "type": "land", "war": "Bulgarian wars", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Marcellae (Markeli), near Karnobat", "lat": 42.64, "lon": 26.9, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Constantine V", "commanders_b": "Vinekh (or Kormisosh)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Constantine V's field army marching into Thrace while a fleet of 500 ships raided the Danube delta (Theophanes); the units are not named.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Constantine V's armies were the tagmata and thematic forces of Anatolia and Thrace, mostly Greek-speaking, with Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6247; Nikephoros 73; en.wikipedia Battle of Marcellae (756)", "note": "The first of Constantine V's Bulgarian campaigns; the Bulgars sued for peace and gave hostages." }, { "id": 1239, "key": "759-rishki-pass", "name": "Rishki Pass", "year": 759, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "759", "type": "land", "war": "Bulgarian wars", "theatre": "Haemus (Balkan Mountains)", "place": "the Rishki Pass (Veregava), Balkan Mountains (identification tentative)", "lat": 42.97, "lon": 26.95, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Vinekh", "commanders_b": "Constantine V; Leo, strategos of Thrace (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Constantine V's invading army, including the Thracian theme under its strategos Leo, who was killed with the logothete Leo (Theophanes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The theme of Thrace, named by Theophanes, was mostly Greek-speaking, with Syrians and Armenians that Constantine V had settled in Thrace.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6251; en.wikipedia Battle of the Rishki Pass", "note": "The army was ambushed in the pass; the Bulgars did not follow up the victory." }, { "id": 1240, "key": "763-anchialus", "name": "Anchialus", "year": 763, "month": 6, "day": 30, "date": "30 June 763", "type": "land", "war": "Bulgarian wars", "theatre": "Thrace (Black Sea coast)", "place": "near Anchialus (Pomorie)", "lat": 42.55, "lon": 27.65, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Constantine V", "commanders_b": "Telets", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "A fleet of 800 chelandia carrying 9,600 cavalry (twelve horses a ship) and the emperor's army marching by land (Theophanes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The cavalry and the fleet came from the tagmata, the themes and the naval themes, mostly Greek-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6254; Nikephoros 79; en.wikipedia Battle of Anchialus (763)", "note": "A hard-fought battle from morning to evening; Constantine held a triumph and executed the prisoners. Telets was murdered soon after." }, { "id": 1241, "key": "766-kamacha-siege", "name": "Kamacha (siege)", "year": 766, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 766", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasid Caliphate)", "theatre": "Armenian frontier (upper Euphrates)", "place": "Kamacha (Kemah), on the upper Euphrates", "lat": 39.6, "lon": 39.03, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "al-Abbas ibn Muhammad, al-Hasan ibn Qahtaba", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The fortress garrison of Kamacha, and a Roman force of about 12,000 that, reinforced, routed an Arab raiding force by night (Chronicle of Zuqnin).", "languages": [ "Armenian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Kamacha lay in the Armenian borderland and its garrison was Armenian when it surrendered in 793; the field force came from the eastern themes.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Chronicle of Zuqnin; al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Siege of Kamacha", "note": "The siege was given up as winter came on." }, { "id": 1242, "key": "774-berzitia-lithosoria", "name": "Berzitia (Lithosoria)", "year": 774, "month": 10, "day": null, "date": "October 774", "type": "land", "war": "Bulgarian wars", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Lithosoria, in the border region of Zagora (site unknown)", "lat": 41.9, "lon": 27.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Constantine V", "commanders_b": "unknown (sent by Telerig)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "A large army hastily gathered by Constantine V (Theophanes gives a round 80,000), against a Bulgar raiding force of 12,000 sent to carry off the Slavic Berzitai.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Constantine V's army was drawn from the tagmata and the themes of Thrace and Anatolia, mostly Greek-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6265; en.wikipedia Battle of Berzitia", "note": "The Bulgars were surprised and beaten after a long fight; the site is put north of the line Kirklareli-Vize, but may lie in Bulgaria." }, { "id": 1243, "key": "778-germanikeia", "name": "Germanikeia", "year": 778, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "778", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasid Caliphate)", "theatre": "Syrian frontier", "place": "near Germanikeia (Marash)", "lat": 37.58, "lon": 36.93, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Michael Lachanodrakon (Thrakesion), with the strategoi Artabasdos (Anatolikon), Tatzates (Boukellarion), Karisterotzes (Armeniakon), Gregory (Opsikion)", "commanders_b": "Thumama ibn al-Walid", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Wikipedia treats it as a campaign; the battle with Thumama's relief army has no separate name.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The armies of five themes, Thrakesion, Anatolikon, Boukellarion, Armeniakon and Opsikion, under their strategoi (Theophanes gives an inflated 100,000).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Theophanes names the five Anatolian themes, recruited mainly among Greek speakers, with Armenians prominent among the officers (Artabasdos, Tatzates).", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6270; Lewond; al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Germanikeia Campaign (778)", "note": "The city was nearly taken and ransomed itself with a large tribute; the army ravaged Cilicia, and Theophanes records a rout of Thumama's relief forces with 2,000 Arabs and five emirs lost. Syrian Jacobite captives were settled in Thrace." }, { "id": 1244, "key": "779-dorylaion-siege", "name": "Dorylaion (siege)", "year": 779, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 779 (15 days)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasid Caliphate)", "theatre": "Anatolia (Opsikion)", "place": "Dorylaion (Eskisehir)", "lat": 39.78, "lon": 30.52, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (for Leo IV)", "commanders_b": "al-Hasan ibn Qahtaba", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of Dorylaion, reinforced with men and supplies, while Leo IV's thematic troops (about 15,000, in detachments of some 3,000) shadowed the invaders and the countryside was evacuated.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The thematic troops named in the sources belonged to the Opsikion and neighbouring Anatolian themes, recruited mainly among Greek speakers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6271; al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor (779)", "note": "Hasan raised the siege when supplies ran out; on the way back an Arab attack on Amorion was also repulsed. The Romans had taken and demolished Hadath the same year." }, { "id": 1245, "key": "780-semaluos-siege", "name": "Semaluos (siege)", "year": 780, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "780", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasid Caliphate)", "theatre": "Anatolia (Armeniakon)", "place": "the fortress of Semaluos, Armeniakon theme (site unknown)", "lat": 40.0, "lon": 34.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Harun (the future caliph Harun al-Rashid)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A minor fortress siege; site unknown.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The fortress garrison; no units or numbers are recorded.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Garrisons of the Armeniakon were drawn from a theme with a Greek-speaking majority and a strong Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Tabari; Theophanes AM 6272; en.wikipedia Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor (779)", "note": "Arab sources say the fortress fell after a siege of 38 days. The same year Michael Lachanodrakon heavily defeated Thumama's raid into the Thrakesion." }, { "id": 1246, "key": "781-caesarea", "name": "Caesarea", "year": 781, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 781", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasid Caliphate)", "theatre": "Anatolia (Cappadocia)", "place": "Melon, near Caesarea (Kayseri)", "lat": 38.72, "lon": 35.49, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Michael Lachanodrakon (Thrakesion); Tatzates (Boukellarion); John the sakellarios", "commanders_b": "Abd al-Kabir", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The armies of all the Asian themes assembled at Caesarea, among them the Thrakesion under Michael Lachanodrakon and the Boukellarion under Tatzates (modern estimates 40,000-50,000; al-Tabari's 90,000 is inflated).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The sources name the Asian themes, including Thrakesion and Boukellarion, recruited mainly among Greek speakers; Tatzates and other officers were Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6273; al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Battle of Caesarea (781)", "note": "The Abbasids withdrew with heavy losses and the caliph al-Mahdi imprisoned Abd al-Kabir." }, { "id": 1247, "key": "782-nakoleia-siege", "name": "Nakoleia (siege)", "year": 782, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "782", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasid Caliphate)", "theatre": "Anatolia (Phrygia)", "place": "Nakoleia (Seyitgazi), Phrygia", "lat": 39.44, "lon": 30.69, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "al-Rabi ibn Yunus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Sources disagree whether the town fell.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of Nakoleia in the Opsikion; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Nakoleia lay in Greek-speaking Phrygia; its garrison came from the Opsikion.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6274; Michael the Syrian; en.wikipedia Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor (782)", "note": "Michael the Syrian and hagiographic sources say the Arabs failed with heavy losses; Theophanes may imply the town fell. Treadgold thinks al-Rabi was beaten." }, { "id": 1248, "key": "782-darenos", "name": "Darenos", "year": 782, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "782", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasid Caliphate)", "theatre": "Anatolia (Thrakesion)", "place": "Darenos (site unknown), western Asia Minor", "lat": 38.8, "lon": 29.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "al-Barmaki (probably Yahya ibn Khalid)", "commanders_b": "Michael Lachanodrakon (strategos of the Thrakesion)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The army of the Thrakesion theme under Michael Lachanodrakon (Theophanes), facing about 30,000 Arabs; no Roman numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The Thrakesion, named by Theophanes, was recruited in Greek-speaking western Asia Minor.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6274; Michael the Syrian; en.wikipedia Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor (782)", "note": "Theophanes gives 15,000 Roman dead, Michael the Syrian 10,000. In the same campaign Yazid ibn Mazyad worsted Niketas, count of the Opsikion, near Nicaea, and Harun, trapped on the Sangarios, escaped through Tatzates' defection." }, { "id": 1249, "key": "788-kopidnadon", "name": "Kopidnadon", "year": 788, "month": 9, "day": null, "date": "September 788", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasid Caliphate)", "theatre": "Anatolia (Cilician Gates)", "place": "Kopidnadon (Podandos, Pozanti), at the northern exit of the Cilician Gates", "lat": 37.42, "lon": 34.87, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (Abbasid expeditionary force)", "commanders_b": "unknown; Diogenes, tourmarches of the Anatolikon (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The Anatolikon and Opsikion thematic armies, with men of the Scholai tagma whom Irene had banished to the provinces (Theophanes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Theophanes names the Anatolikon and Opsikion, the two largest Anatolian themes, recruited mainly among Greek speakers.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6281; en.wikipedia Battle of Kopidnadon", "note": "A bloody defeat with many officers killed; it reopened large-scale frontier warfare." }, { "id": 1250, "key": "788-calabria", "name": "Calabria", "year": 788, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 788", "type": "land", "war": "War with the Franks and Lombards in southern Italy", "theatre": "Southern Italy", "place": "Calabria (site not recorded)", "lat": 38.9, "lon": 16.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Lombards" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Grimoald III of Benevento, Hildeprand of Spoleto; Winigis (Franks)", "commanders_b": "John (sakellarios and logothete of the army, killed); Theodore (patrikios of Sicily); the Lombard pretender Adelchis", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No battle name or site is recorded.", "main_enemy": "Lombards", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "An expedition sent by Irene with troops of the theme of Sicily under its strategos Theodore and the Lombard pretender Adelchis (Theophanes; Frankish annals); no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of the theme of Sicily and Calabria was largely Greek-speaking by the late 8th century, with Latin-speaking Italians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6281; Royal Frankish Annals 788; en.wikipedia Constantine VI", "note": "Sent after Irene broke off the betrothal of Constantine VI to Charlemagne's daughter; the Franks are in allies (as Germanic peoples)." }, { "id": 1251, "key": "790-attaleia", "name": "Attaleia", "year": 790, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "790", "type": "sea", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasid Caliphate)", "theatre": "Pamphylia", "place": "the Gulf of Attaleia", "lat": 36.75, "lon": 30.8, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (Abbasid fleet from Egypt and Syria)", "commanders_b": "Theophilos, strategos of the Kibyrrhaiots (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A naval defeat recorded briefly by Theophanes.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The imperial fleet with the Kibyrrhaiot squadron under its strategos Theophilos (Theophanes).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The Kibyrrhaiot fleet named by Theophanes was manned from the Greek-speaking southern Anatolian coast and islands.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6282; Pryor and Jeffreys, The Age of the Dromon", "note": "Theophilos was taken to Harun al-Rashid and executed when he refused to convert." }, { "id": 1252, "key": "791-probaton", "name": "Probaton", "year": 791, "month": 4, "day": null, "date": "April 791", "type": "land", "war": "Bulgarian wars", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "near the fortress of Probaton, about 20 km east of Adrianople", "lat": 41.68, "lon": 26.78, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Kardam", "commanders_b": "Constantine VI", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An indecisive skirmish rather than a battle.", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Constantine VI's field army, the tagmata and the Thracian themes; the sources give no detail.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The emperor's army in Thrace was made up of the tagmata and the European themes, mostly Greek-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6283; en.wikipedia Battle of Marcellae (792)", "note": "After a skirmish both armies withdrew by night (Theophanes); some accounts treat it as a minor Roman defeat." }, { "id": 1253, "key": "792-marcellae", "name": "Marcellae", "year": 792, "month": 7, "day": 20, "date": "20 July 792", "type": "land", "war": "Bulgarian wars", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Marcellae (Markeli), near Karnobat", "lat": 42.64, "lon": 26.9, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Kardam", "commanders_b": "Constantine VI; Michael Lachanodrakon (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Constantine VI's field army with the tagmata and thematic contingents; many senior officers fell, among them Michael Lachanodrakon (Theophanes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army was the tagmata and the themes of Thrace and Anatolia, mostly Greek-speaking, with many Armenian officers.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6284; en.wikipedia Battle of Marcellae (792)", "note": "The Bulgars took the baggage, the treasury and the emperor's tent; a peace with tribute followed." }, { "id": 1254, "key": "804-krasos", "name": "Krasos", "year": 804, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August 804", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasid Caliphate)", "theatre": "Anatolia (Phrygia)", "place": "Krasos, Phrygia (site unknown)", "lat": 39.0, "lon": 30.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ibrahim ibn Jibril (for Harun al-Rashid)", "commanders_b": "Nikephoros I (wounded)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The imperial field army led by Nikephoros I; the sources give no units.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The field army of 804 consisted of the tagmata and Anatolian themes, mostly Greek-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6297; al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Battle of Krasos", "note": "Al-Tabari's 40,700 Roman dead is not credible; Nikephoros was saved by his officers. A truce and exchange of prisoners followed." }, { "id": 1255, "key": "805-patras-siege", "name": "Patras (siege)", "year": 805, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "805 (or 807)", "type": "land", "war": "Slav wars", "theatre": "Peloponnese", "place": "Patras", "lat": 38.25, "lon": 21.73, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Slavs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Arabs" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (the citizens; the strategos of the Peloponnese at Corinth arrived afterwards)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Slavs", "opponent_group": "Slavs", "roman_force": "The citizens and garrison of Patras, who broke the siege with a sortie before the strategos arrived from Corinth (De administrando imperio 49).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The defence was made by the citizens of a Greek-speaking city, as Constantine VII tells it.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Constantine VII, De administrando imperio 49; Chronicle of Monemvasia; en.wikipedia Patras", "note": "Constantine VII says African Saracens helped the Slavs and that the victory was credited to St Andrew; the Slavs were made dependants of the church of Patras." }, { "id": 1256, "key": "806-herakleia-siege", "name": "Herakleia (siege)", "year": 806, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August-September 806 (about a month)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasid Caliphate)", "theatre": "Anatolia (Cappadocia)", "place": "Herakleia Kybistra (Eregli)", "lat": 37.51, "lon": 34.05, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Harun al-Rashid", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of Herakleia; Nikephoros I did not risk a field battle against Harun's very large army.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Frontier garrisons in Cappadocia came from the Anatolian themes, mostly Greek-speaking with Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6298; al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor (806)", "note": "The city fell after about a month and was sacked; Tyana, Thebasa and other forts were also taken. Nikephoros bought peace with tribute." }, { "id": 1257, "key": "809-comacchio", "name": "Comacchio", "year": 809, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "809", "type": "sea", "war": "War with the Franks over Venice and Dalmatia", "theatre": "Northern Adriatic", "place": "Comacchio, in the Po delta", "lat": 44.69, "lon": 12.19, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Germanic peoples" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (Frankish garrison of Comacchio)", "commanders_b": "Paul, prefect of Kephalonia", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A small attack on a garrison.", "main_enemy": "Germanic peoples", "opponent_group": "Germanic peoples", "roman_force": "The imperial fleet sent to the Adriatic under Paul, commander of Kephalonia (Royal Frankish Annals).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The squadron of Kephalonia, named in the Frankish annals, was manned from the Greek-speaking Ionian islands and western Greece.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Royal Frankish Annals 809; en.wikipedia Pepin of Italy", "note": "The Franks of the garrison drove the landing off; the opponents were the Franks of Pepin of Italy." }, { "id": 1258, "key": "809-strymon", "name": "Strymon", "year": 809, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "809 (808/809; some date it 807)", "type": "land", "war": "Bulgarian wars", "theatre": "Macedonia (Strymon valley)", "place": "on the river Strymon (Struma)", "lat": 41.45, "lon": 23.35, "loc": "region", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Krum", "commanders_b": "the strategos (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The army stationed on the Strymon while it was being paid; the Bulgars killed the strategos and many officers and took 1,100 pounds of gold (Theophanes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The European themes were mostly Greek-speaking, with Slavs and settlers from Anatolia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6301; en.wikipedia, the article on the Bulgarian wars of the empire", "note": "The site is unknown and may lie in Bulgaria; Theophanes puts it in AM 6301 (808/809)." }, { "id": 1259, "key": "809-serdica-siege", "name": "Serdica (siege)", "year": 809, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 809 (before Easter)", "type": "land", "war": "Bulgarian wars", "theatre": "Thrace (Serdica)", "place": "Serdica (Sofia)", "lat": 42.7, "lon": 23.32, "loc": "known", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Krum", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The garrison of Serdica, 6,000 men, killed with many civilians after surrendering (Theophanes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The garrison came from the themes, mostly Greek-speaking; the city's own population was mixed.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6301; en.wikipedia Siege of Serdica (809)", "note": "Krum took the city by a ruse and massacred the garrison despite a promise of safe conduct." }, { "id": 1260, "key": "811-pliska", "name": "Pliska", "year": 811, "month": 7, "day": 26, "date": "26 July 811", "type": "land", "war": "Bulgarian wars", "theatre": "Moesia (Haemus passes)", "place": "a pass of the Balkan Mountains (probably the Varbitsa pass), after the sack of Pliska", "lat": 42.97, "lon": 26.7, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Krum", "commanders_b": "Nikephoros I (killed), Staurakios (wounded)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The armies of the themes of Asia and of Thrace and the tagmata, with poorly armed levies of the poor (Theophanes); perhaps 25,000-30,000 men (Wikipedia gives 22,000).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Theophanes names the themes of the East (Anatolia) and of Thrace and the tagmata, recruited mainly among Greek speakers.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6303; Chronicle of 811 (Scriptor incertus); en.wikipedia Battle of Pliska", "note": "Nikephoros had beaten two Bulgar forces and sacked Pliska on 20 July; on the way back the army was trapped behind palisades in a pass and destroyed. Krum made a drinking cup of the emperor's skull." }, { "id": 1261, "key": "812-mesembria-siege", "name": "Mesembria (siege)", "year": 812, "month": 10, "day": null, "date": "October - early November 812", "type": "land", "war": "Bulgarian wars", "theatre": "Thrace (Black Sea coast)", "place": "Mesembria (Nesebar)", "lat": 42.66, "lon": 27.73, "loc": "known", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Krum", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Mesembria; Michael I's relief army did not arrive in time.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Mesembria was an old Greek city; its garrison came from the theme of Thrace.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6305; en.wikipedia, the article on the Bulgarian wars of the empire", "note": "Krum took the city with siege engines, said to have been built for him by an Arab engineer, and seized a stock of Greek fire; Develtos had fallen earlier in 812." }, { "id": 1262, "key": "813-versinikia", "name": "Versinikia", "year": 813, "month": 6, "day": 22, "date": "22 June 813", "type": "land", "war": "Bulgarian wars", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "near the fortress of Versinikia, north of Adrianople (near Malomirovo)", "lat": 42.06, "lon": 26.64, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Krum", "commanders_b": "Michael I; Leo the Armenian (strategos of the Anatolikon); John Aplakes (strategos of Macedonia, killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "An army summoned from all the themes, even the guards of the Syrian passes, with the tagmata; the Anatolikon under Leo the Armenian fled first, while the Macedonians under John Aplakes attacked on the right (Theophanes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Theophanes names the Anatolikon and the Macedonian theme and the eastern themes, recruited mainly among Greek speakers, with many Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6305; Scriptor incertus; en.wikipedia Battle of Versinikia", "note": "Wikipedia's figures: Romans 20,000-36,000, Bulgars 6,000-12,000. Leo's flight was seen as treachery; Michael abdicated and Leo V took the throne on 11 July 813." }, { "id": 1263, "key": "813-constantinople-siege", "name": "Constantinople (siege)", "year": 813, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "July 813", "type": "land", "war": "Bulgarian wars", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Constantinople (land walls and Blachernae)", "lat": 41.03, "lon": 28.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Leo V", "commanders_b": "Krum", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A blockade and ravaging of the suburbs with little fighting at the walls.", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The garrison of the capital and the tagmata under Leo V; an ambush laid for Krum at a parley wounded him but failed.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The capital's garrison and the tagmata were recruited mainly in the Greek-speaking provinces.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6305; Scriptor incertus; en.wikipedia, the article on the Bulgarian wars of the empire", "note": "Krum ravaged the suburbs and withdrew to besiege Adrianople." }, { "id": 1264, "key": "813-adrianople-siege", "name": "Adrianople (siege)", "year": 813, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer-autumn 813", "type": "land", "war": "Bulgarian wars", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Adrianople (Edirne)", "lat": 41.68, "lon": 26.56, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Krum and his brother", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Adrianople, the seat of the theme of Macedonia.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Adrianople and its theme were mostly Greek-speaking, with Armenian settlers (the family of the future Basil I was among the captives).", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes AM 6305; Scriptor incertus; en.wikipedia, the article on the Bulgarian wars of the empire", "note": "The city surrendered from hunger after a siege with engines; its people were deported beyond the Danube." }, { "id": 1265, "key": "814-mesembria", "name": "Mesembria", "year": 814, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "813/814 (the article on Leo V dates it spring 816)", "type": "land", "war": "Bulgarian wars", "theatre": "Thrace (Black Sea coast)", "place": "near Mesembria (Nesebar)", "lat": 42.66, "lon": 27.7, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Leo V", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Reported only by the later chronicles (Genesios, Theophanes Continuatus); some modern historians doubt the story or its date.", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Leo V's field army of the tagmata and themes, which surprised the Bulgars in a night attack; the sources give no units or numbers.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Leo V's army was drawn from the tagmata and the themes of Thrace and Anatolia, mostly Greek-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Genesios 1; Theophanes Continuatus 1.14; en.wikipedia Battle of Mesembria", "note": "According to the later tradition Leo feigned flight, then fell on the pursuing Bulgars by night and almost destroyed them before raiding Bulgaria; the 30-year peace with Omurtag followed (815 or 816)." }, { "id": 1266, "key": "821-constantinople-siege", "name": "Constantinople (siege)", "year": 821, "month": 12, "day": null, "date": "December 821 - spring 822 (blockade continued into late 822)", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Thomas the Slav", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Constantinople (land walls, Blachernae, the sea walls and the Golden Horn)", "lat": 41.03, "lon": 28.95, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Michael II", "faction_b": "Thomas the Slav", "commanders_a": "Michael II", "commanders_b": "Thomas the Slav; Anastasios; Gregory Pterotos", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Michael II: the tagmata, reinforced by the Opsikion and Armeniakon themes, and the imperial fleet with Greek fire (about 35,000, Treadgold). Thomas: most of the Asian themes, the Kibyrrhaiot and Aegean fleets, many Slavs of Thrace and Macedonia, with Arab, Armenian, Iberian and Abasgian recruits (a claimed 80,000).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Slavic", "Georgian", "Arabic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The themes named on both sides (Opsikion, Armeniakon, the Asian and naval themes) were mostly Greek-speaking; the chroniclers stress the many foreign peoples with Thomas, but Lemerle thinks their list exaggerated.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Genesios 2; Theophanes Continuatus 2.11-19; Michael II's letter to Louis the Pious; Lemerle, Thomas le Slave; en.wikipedia Thomas the Slav", "note": "All assaults failed; in spring 822 a sortie at Blachernae and the imperial fleet beat Thomas by land and sea. Earlier in 821 Thomas had defeated the Armeniakon army, and Olbianos ambushed his adopted son Constantius." }, { "id": 1267, "key": "822-byrida", "name": "Byrida", "year": 822, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "mid- to late 822", "type": "sea", "war": "Revolt of Thomas the Slav", "theatre": "Sea of Marmara", "place": "the anchorage of Byrida, near Constantinople (site unknown)", "lat": 40.97, "lon": 28.7, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Michael II", "faction_b": "Thomas the Slav", "commanders_a": "unknown (imperial fleet)", "commanders_b": "unknown (fleet of the themes of Greece)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "The imperial fleet with Greek fire against rebel squadrons from the themes of Greece, allegedly 350 ships.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Both fleets were manned from the Greek-speaking capital, islands and coasts; the rebel ships came from the themes of Greece (Theophanes Continuatus).", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Genesios 2; Theophanes Continuatus 2.16; en.wikipedia Thomas the Slav", "note": "Most of the rebel ships were burned or captured, giving Michael command of the sea." }, { "id": 1268, "key": "822-kedouktos", "name": "Kedouktos", "year": 822, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 822 or spring 823", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Thomas the Slav", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "plain of Kedouktos, near Herakleia (Perinthos, Marmara Ereglisi)", "lat": 41.0, "lon": 27.9, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Thomas the Slav", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Thomas the Slav", "commanders_b": "Omurtag (invited by Michael II)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The Roman side here is Thomas' rebel army; the Bulgars fought as Michael II's allies.", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Thomas the Slav's rebel field army, drawn mainly from the Asian themes, with Slavic and other volunteers, as it came back from the siege of Constantinople.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Thomas' army was built on the Asian themes, Greek-speaking for the most part, with Slavs, Armenians and Caucasians.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Genesios 2; Theophanes Continuatus 2.17; George the Monk; en.wikipedia Thomas the Slav", "note": "Disputed result: the later chronicles say Thomas was routed, George the Monk that he killed many Bulgars; most modern scholars (Bury excepted) think Thomas won at heavy cost. His fleet in the Golden Horn surrendered to Michael meanwhile." }, { "id": 1269, "key": "823-diabasis", "name": "Diabasis", "year": 823, "month": 5, "day": null, "date": "late April or May 823", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Thomas the Slav", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "plain of Diabasis, about 40 km west of Constantinople", "lat": 41.08, "lon": 28.45, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Michael II", "faction_b": "Thomas the Slav", "commanders_a": "Michael II; Olbianos, Katakylas", "commanders_b": "Thomas the Slav", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Little or no fighting: when Michael II advanced, most of Thomas' men surrendered or fled.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Michael II's tagmata with the Opsikion and Armeniakon troops under Katakylas and Olbianos and fresh troops from Asia Minor, against Thomas' remaining army.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The named units on both sides were themes of Asia Minor, mostly Greek-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Genesios 2; Theophanes Continuatus 2.18; en.wikipedia Thomas the Slav", "note": "Thomas' feigned retreat turned into a real one as his men surrendered or fled to Arkadiopolis and other towns." }, { "id": 1270, "key": "823-arkadiopolis-siege", "name": "Arkadiopolis (siege)", "year": 823, "month": 5, "day": null, "date": "May - about October 823", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Thomas the Slav", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Arkadiopolis (Luleburgaz)", "lat": 41.4, "lon": 27.36, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Michael II", "faction_b": "Thomas the Slav", "commanders_a": "Michael II", "commanders_b": "Thomas the Slav", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A blockade without assaults.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Michael II's army blockading the town behind a ditch, against Thomas and his last loyal troops.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were drawn mainly from the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Genesios 2; Theophanes Continuatus 2.19; en.wikipedia Thomas the Slav", "note": "After five months the starving defenders handed Thomas over for a pardon; he was executed in October 823. Bizye, Panion and Herakleia submitted later." }, { "id": 1271, "key": "827-mazara", "name": "Mazara", "year": 827, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "June or July 827", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Sicily (Aghlabids)", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "the plain south-east of Mazara", "lat": 37.62, "lon": 12.7, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Asad ibn al-Furat", "commanders_b": "Balata (Plato?), acting as strategos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The loyal army of the theme of Sicily under Balata; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of the theme of Sicily was recruited on an island that was largely Greek-speaking by the 9th century.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn al-Athir; al-Nuwayri; Vasiliev (1935), vol. I; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of Sicily", "note": "The Aghlabids landed in support of the rebel Euphemius, whose followers were kept apart from the battle; Balata fled to Enna and then Calabria." }, { "id": 1272, "key": "827-syracuse-siege", "name": "Syracuse (siege)", "year": 827, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 827 - summer 828", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Sicily (Aghlabids)", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Syracuse", "lat": 37.07, "lon": 15.29, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [ "Venice" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (garrison); Giustiniano Participazio, doge of Venice", "commanders_b": "Asad ibn al-Furat (died), Muhammad ibn Abi'l-Jawari", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Syracuse, relieved in 828 by an imperial fleet from the East; a Venetian squadron under the doge also came to help.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Syracuse, the capital of the theme, was a Greek-speaking city, and the relief fleet came from the Greek-speaking East.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn al-Athir; John the Deacon (Venice); en.wikipedia Siege of Syracuse (827-828); en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of Sicily", "note": "Disease killed Asad and many of his men; the Arabs lifted the siege, burned their ships when the imperial fleet blocked their retreat, and marched to Mineo." }, { "id": 1273, "key": "827-crete", "name": "Crete", "year": 827, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "827 or 828", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Emirate of Crete)", "theatre": "Crete", "place": "Crete (site not recorded)", "lat": 35.25, "lon": 24.9, "loc": "region", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Abu Hafs Umar al-Iqritishi", "commanders_b": "Photeinos (strategos of the Anatolikon), Damianos (komes tou staulou, killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A defeat of an expedition, not a separately named battle.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "An expedition under Photeinos, strategos of the Anatolikon, and Damianos, count of the imperial stable; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The expedition was led by the strategos of the Anatolikon and drawn from Greek-speaking Anatolia and the fleet.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Genesios 2; Theophanes Continuatus 2.21-22; en.wikipedia Emirate of Crete", "note": "The first attempt to recover Crete from the Andalusian exiles who had landed in 824 or 827/828." }, { "id": 1274, "key": "828-crete", "name": "Crete", "year": 828, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "828 or 829", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Emirate of Crete)", "theatre": "Crete", "place": "Crete (site not recorded)", "lat": 35.25, "lon": 24.9, "loc": "region", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Abu Hafs Umar al-Iqritishi", "commanders_b": "Krateros (strategos of the Kibyrrhaiots)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An expedition, not a separately named battle.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A fleet of 70 ships under Krateros, strategos of the Kibyrrhaiots, with its marines.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The Kibyrrhaiot fleet, named in the sources, was manned from the Greek-speaking southern Anatolian coast.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Genesios 2; Theophanes Continuatus 2.22; en.wikipedia Emirate of Crete", "note": "Krateros won a first battle but his camp was routed in a night attack; he fled to Kos, was caught and crucified." }, { "id": 1275, "key": "829-thasos", "name": "Thasos", "year": 829, "month": 10, "day": null, "date": "October 829", "type": "sea", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Emirate of Crete)", "theatre": "Northern Aegean", "place": "off Thasos", "lat": 40.7, "lon": 24.7, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (fleet of the Emirate of Crete)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The imperial fleet, rebuilt after the revolt of Thomas, including the new marines (tessarakontarioi) raised by Ooryphas; numbers not given.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial fleet was manned from the Greek-speaking capital, islands and coasts.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus 2.21-26; en.wikipedia Battle of Thasos", "note": "Almost the whole fleet was lost, opening the Aegean to Cretan raids (Mount Athos was deserted)." }, { "id": 1276, "key": "829-enna", "name": "Enna", "year": 829, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 829", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Sicily (Aghlabids)", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "near Enna (Castrogiovanni)", "lat": 37.57, "lon": 14.28, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Muhammad ibn Abi'l-Jawari", "commanders_b": "Theodotos (strategos)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A field battle described in the Arab chronicles, without a standard name.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A fresh army and fleet sent by Michael II under Theodotos, with the Sicilian troops; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The reinforcements came from the Greek-speaking East and joined the largely Greek-speaking army of Sicily.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn al-Athir; Vasiliev (1935), vol. I; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of Sicily", "note": "Theodotos lost the battle but saved most of his men in Enna; soon after Muhammad's death he routed the Arabs (about 1,000 killed) and blockaded them in Mineo." }, { "id": 1277, "key": "830-mineo", "name": "Mineo", "year": 830, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "July or August 830", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Sicily (Aghlabids)", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Mineo", "lat": 37.27, "lon": 14.69, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Asbagh ibn Wakil (Andalusian fleet) and the Aghlabid commanders", "commanders_b": "Theodotos (strategos)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The relief of a blockade; no pitched battle is described.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Theodotos' army blockading the Arab remnant in Mineo; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Sicily with reinforcements from the East, mostly Greek-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn al-Athir; Vasiliev (1935), vol. I; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of Sicily", "note": "Andalusian and Ifriqiyan reinforcements broke Theodotos' blockade; Theodotos was killed later in 830 while pursuing the Arabs after the siege of Calloniana." }, { "id": 1278, "key": "830-palermo-siege", "name": "Palermo (siege)", "year": 830, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 830 - September 831", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Sicily (Aghlabids)", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Palermo (Panormos)", "lat": 38.12, "lon": 13.36, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (Aghlabid and Andalusian commanders)", "commanders_b": "Symeon (spatharios)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of Palermo under the spatharios Symeon; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The garrison belonged to the army of the theme of Sicily, largely Greek-speaking by this time.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn al-Athir; Cambridge Chronicle; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of Sicily", "note": "After about a year Symeon surrendered for safe conduct; the Arab chroniclers say the population had fallen from 70,000 to 3,000. Palermo became the Arab capital of Sicily." }, { "id": 1279, "key": "831-charsianon", "name": "Charsianon", "year": 831, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 831", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasid Caliphate)", "theatre": "Anatolia (Charsianon)", "place": "Charsianon, Cappadocia", "lat": 39.6, "lon": 35.6, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Theophilos (or Eudokimos); Manuel the Armenian", "commanders_b": "unknown (raiders from Tarsus and Cilicia)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The thematic troops of the kleisoura of Charsianon reinforced with detachments of the tagmata, perhaps under Theophilos in person.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Charsianon and the tagmata, named in the sources, were mostly Greek-speaking, with a strong Armenian element in Charsianon.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus 3.23; al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Battle of Charsianon (831); en.wikipedia Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor (831)", "note": "The raiders were crushed (25,000 captured, an exaggeration) and the prisoners paraded in the Hippodrome; later in 831 al-Abbas ibn al-Ma'mun defeated Theophilos after taking Tyana." }, { "id": 1280, "key": "832-loulon-siege", "name": "Loulon (siege)", "year": 832, "month": 5, "day": null, "date": "May - September 832", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasid Caliphate)", "theatre": "Anatolia (Cilician Gates)", "place": "Loulon, north of the Cilician Gates (near Hasangazi)", "lat": 37.5, "lon": 34.65, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "al-Ma'mun; Ujayf ibn Anbasa", "commanders_b": "Theophilos (relief army)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of Loulon, which held out about 100 days and captured Ujayf by a ruse, and the relief army led by Theophilos, which was defeated.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The garrison and the field army came from the Anatolian themes, mostly Greek-speaking with Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Capture of Loulon", "note": "After the relief army was beaten and its camp plundered, the garrison surrendered for safe departure and the release of Ujayf." }, { "id": 1281, "key": "837-enna-siege", "name": "Enna (siege)", "year": 837, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "winter 837-838", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Sicily (Aghlabids)", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Enna (Castrogiovanni)", "lat": 37.57, "lon": 14.28, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (the Aghlabid commanders of Palermo)", "commanders_b": "unknown (the garrison)", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The lower town was taken but the citadel held, and the siege ended with a ransom.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison and townspeople of Enna, the main Roman stronghold of central Sicily after the fall of Palermo; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Latin" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The troops of the theme of Sicily and the towns of central and eastern Sicily were largely Greek-speaking by the 9th century.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn al-Athir; Vasiliev, vol. I (the Amorian dynasty); en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of Sicily", "note": "The Arabs found an unguarded path and took the lower town; the citadel held out and paid a large ransom for their withdrawal. Earlier in 837 an Arab attack on Enna had been beaten and its commander Abd al-Salam ibn Abd al-Wahhab captured." }, { "id": 1282, "key": "837-sozopetra-siege", "name": "Sozopetra (siege)", "year": 837, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 837", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasid Caliphate)", "theatre": "Mesopotamian frontier (Melitene)", "place": "Sozopetra (Zapetra), near Dogansehir, Malatya", "lat": 38.09, "lon": 37.88, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Theophilos; Theophobos; Manuel (domestikos); Alexios Mousele", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Theophilos' great expedition from the eastern themes and the tagmata (under Manuel), with the Khurramite auxiliaries under Theophobos; al-Tabari's 70,000 soldiers and 30,000 servants is probably inflated.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Iranian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The themes and tagmata named in the sources were mostly Greek-speaking; the Khurramite Persians and Armenians were large minorities.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus 3.29; al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Siege of Sozopetra (837)", "note": "The garrison refused terms and the town was stormed with ladders and burned; its sack provoked al-Mu'tasim's Amorion campaign of 838." }, { "id": 1283, "key": "837-arsamosata-siege", "name": "Arsamosata (siege)", "year": 837, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 837", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasid Caliphate)", "theatre": "Mesopotamian frontier (Melitene)", "place": "Arsamosata, near Elazig", "lat": 38.7, "lon": 39.55, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Theophilos; Theophobos; Manuel", "commanders_b": "Umar al-Aqta (perhaps); Ujayf ibn Anbasa (relief)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The same expeditionary army of thematic and tagmatic troops with Khurramite auxiliaries; detachments beat two relief forces.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Iranian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Thematic and tagmatic troops, mostly Greek-speaking, with Khurramite Persians and Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus 3.29; al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Siege of Arsamosata (837)", "note": "The town was stormed and burned; a relief force from Melitene with Tayy tribesmen was routed (4,000 killed) and Ujayf's force from Baghdad was crushed near Melitene. Melitene then bought peace." }, { "id": 1284, "key": "838-anzen", "name": "Anzen", "year": 838, "month": 7, "day": 22, "date": "22 July 838", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasid Caliphate)", "theatre": "Anatolia (Armeniakon)", "place": "plain of Dazimon (Anzen), near Tokat", "lat": 40.33, "lon": 36.35, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Afshin Khaydhar ibn Kawus; Umar al-Aqta (emir of Melitene)", "commanders_b": "Theophilos; Theophobos; Manuel the Armenian (wounded)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Theophilos' field army: the tagmata, the Anatolian (and perhaps some European) themes, and the 'Persian' corps of Khurramite refugees under Theophobos; 25,000 (Haldon) to 40,000 (Treadgold).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Iranian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The tagmata and Anatolian themes named in the sources were mostly Greek-speaking, but the Khurramite Persians and many Armenians formed a large minority.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Genesios 3; Theophanes Continuatus 3.31-33; al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Battle of Anzen", "note": "The Romans had the better of the morning until Afshin's Turkish horse-archers and a rain storm turned the battle; the emperor's guard was surrounded and barely escaped." }, { "id": 1285, "key": "838-amorion-siege", "name": "Amorion (siege)", "year": 838, "month": 8, "day": 1, "date": "1 August - 12/15 August 838", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasid Caliphate)", "theatre": "Anatolia (Anatolikon)", "place": "Amorion, Phrygia", "lat": 39.02, "lon": 31.29, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "al-Mu'tasim; Afshin, Ashinas, Itakh, Ja'far ibn Dinar", "commanders_b": "Aetios (strategos of the Anatolikon); Theodore Krateros, Constantine Baboutzikos; Boiditzes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of Amorion, capital of the Anatolikon, under its strategos Aetios, reinforced from the tagmata of the Exkoubitoi and the Vigla (the 30,000 sometimes given is doubted).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The Anatolikon theme and the tagmata, named in the sources, were recruited mainly among Greek speakers.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Genesios 3; Theophanes Continuatus 3.30-35; al-Tabari; Michael the Syrian; en.wikipedia Sack of Amorium", "note": "The wall was breached at a weak point betrayed to the caliph, and Boiditzes let the Arabs in; the city was razed. The captured officers became the 42 martyrs of Amorion." }, { "id": 1286, "key": "838-cefalu", "name": "Cefalù", "year": 838, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 838", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Sicily (Aghlabids)", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Cefalù", "lat": 38.04, "lon": 14.02, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Alexios Mousele", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The relief of a besieged town.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A large army sent from the East by Theophilos under Alexios Mousele; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army came from the Greek-speaking East under an Armenian commander and joined the Sicilian troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn al-Athir; Theophanes Continuatus 3; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of Sicily", "note": "Mousele forced the Arabs to raise the siege and won several skirmishes with raiding parties before being recalled." }, { "id": 1287, "key": "842-messina", "name": "Messina", "year": 842, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 842 or 843", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Sicily (Aghlabids)", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Messina", "lat": 38.19, "lon": 15.55, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Naples" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "al-Fadl ibn Ja'far", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of Messina; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "North-eastern Sicily was the most Greek-speaking part of the island.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn al-Athir; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of Sicily", "note": "The Arabs took the city with the help of the duchy of Naples (nominally imperial, here allied to the Arabs), opening the way to Calabria." }, { "id": 1288, "key": "843-crete", "name": "Crete", "year": 843, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "843", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Emirate of Crete)", "theatre": "Crete", "place": "Crete (site not recorded)", "lat": 35.25, "lon": 24.9, "loc": "region", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (emir of Crete)", "commanders_b": "Theoktistos (logothete of the dromos)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An expedition, not a separately named battle.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A large expedition under the regent Theoktistos; the new theme of the Aegean Sea was created the same year; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The fleet and landing army came from the Greek-speaking capital, islands and coasts.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus 4.1; Genesios 4; en.wikipedia Emirate of Crete", "note": "Theoktistos occupied much of the island but hurried home on a false rumour; the troops he left behind were destroyed." }, { "id": 1289, "key": "844-mauropotamos", "name": "Mauropotamos", "year": 844, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "844", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasid Caliphate)", "theatre": "Anatolia", "place": "the Mauropotamos ('Black River'), probably a tributary of the Sangarios in Bithynia (or of the Halys in Cappadocia)", "lat": 40.3, "lon": 30.6, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Abu Sa'id Muhammad ibn Yusuf; probably Umar al-Aqta (emir of Melitene)", "commanders_b": "Theoktistos (logothete, for the regent Theodora)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "An army led by the logothete Theoktistos; many senior officers went over to the Arabs (Theophanes Continuatus). The units are not named.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The field army of the 840s was made up of the tagmata and Anatolian themes, mostly Greek-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus 4.16; al-Tabari; Vasiliev (1935), vol. I; en.wikipedia Battle of Mauropotamos", "note": "Arab troops from Qaliqala and Tarsus and from Melitene took part; a truce and exchange of prisoners followed in 845." }, { "id": 1290, "key": "845-butera", "name": "Butera", "year": 845, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 845 or early 846", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Sicily (Aghlabids)", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "near Butera", "lat": 37.19, "lon": 14.18, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "al-Abbas ibn al-Fadl (under the governor al-Fadl ibn Ja'far)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The army of Sicily reinforced by troops of the kleisoura of Charsianon sent from the East; it was crushed, losing about 10,000 men.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The Arab chroniclers name the men of Charsianon, an eastern Anatolian command, beside the Greek-speaking Sicilian army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn al-Athir; Vasiliev (1935), vol. I; en.wikipedia Battle of Butera; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of Sicily", "note": "One of the heaviest Roman defeats in Sicily; Modica had fallen earlier that year." }, { "id": 1291, "key": "853-damietta", "name": "Damietta", "year": 853, "month": 5, "day": 22, "date": "22 May 853", "type": "sea", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasid Caliphate)", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "Damietta, in the Nile delta", "lat": 31.42, "lon": 31.81, "loc": "known", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "unknown (the governor's garrison was absent)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A raid and sack with little fighting, since the garrison was away.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "One of three imperial squadrons, 85 ships with about 5,000 men (al-Tabari).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The fleet was manned from the Greek-speaking capital and naval themes.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Tabari; Theophanes Continuatus 4.34; en.wikipedia Emirate of Crete", "note": "The port was a supply base for the Emirate of Crete; the Romans burned it, carried off captives and weapons and withdrew." }, { "id": 1292, "key": "859-enna", "name": "Enna", "year": 859, "month": 1, "day": 24, "date": "24 January 859", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Sicily (Aghlabids)", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Enna (Castrogiovanni)", "lat": 37.57, "lon": 14.28, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "al-Abbas ibn al-Fadl", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A surprise night capture through a culvert shown by a prisoner.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of Enna, the main Roman stronghold of inner Sicily; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The garrison belonged to the largely Greek-speaking army of the theme of Sicily.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn al-Athir; al-Nuwayri; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of Sicily", "note": "The garrison was massacred; the fall of Enna left Syracuse and Taormina as the main Roman strongholds." }, { "id": 1293, "key": "859-samosata-siege", "name": "Samosata (siege)", "year": 859, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "859", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Emirate of Melitene)", "theatre": "Mesopotamian frontier", "place": "Samosata (Samsat), on the Euphrates", "lat": 37.53, "lon": 38.48, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Michael III; Bardas", "commanders_b": "unknown; Karbeas (Paulicians of Tephrike)", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Disputed result.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Michael III's field army; the sources do not describe it.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The field army of the 850s was made up of the tagmata and Anatolian themes, mostly Greek-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus 4.24; al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Siege of Samosata (859)", "note": "Greek sources tell of a sortie on the third day (a Sunday) that routed the army and captured the camp, with 100 officers taken by Karbeas; al-Tabari reports only a Roman raid with 500 prisoners, and Vasiliev thinks the Greek story exaggerated or invented to blacken Michael III." }, { "id": 1294, "key": "859-syracuse-sea", "name": "Syracuse (sea)", "year": 859, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 859", "type": "sea", "war": "Arab conquest of Sicily (Aghlabids)", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "off Syracuse", "lat": 37.05, "lon": 15.32, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "al-Abbas ibn al-Fadl", "commanders_b": "Constantine Kontomytes (commander of the expedition)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The fleet of the expedition sent by Michael III under Constantine Kontomytes, reported at 300 ships; about a third were lost.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The fleet came from the capital and the naval themes, manned by Greek speakers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn al-Athir; Vasiliev (1935), vol. I; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of Sicily", "note": "Fought soon after the fleet arrived at Syracuse." }, { "id": 1295, "key": "859-cefalu", "name": "Cefalù", "year": 859, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 859", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Sicily (Aghlabids)", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "near Cefalù", "lat": 38.03, "lon": 14.02, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "al-Abbas ibn al-Fadl", "commanders_b": "Constantine Kontomytes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The large army brought from the East by Constantine Kontomytes, with Sicilian troops; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The expeditionary army came from the Greek-speaking themes of the East.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn al-Athir; Vasiliev (1935), vol. I; en.wikipedia Muslim conquest of Sicily", "note": "After the defeat the Romans withdrew to Syracuse." }, { "id": 1296, "key": "860-constantinople-siege", "name": "Constantinople (siege)", "year": 860, "month": 6, "day": 18, "date": "18 June - 4 August 860", "type": "land", "war": "Rus' attack on Constantinople", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Constantinople, the Bosporus and the Princes' Islands", "lat": 41.01, "lon": 28.98, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rus'" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ooryphas (eparch of the city); Michael III (returning from the east)", "commanders_b": "unknown (Askold and Dir in the Russian Primary Chronicle)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No pitched battle is recorded; the Rus' (about 200 ships) ravaged the suburbs and islands and withdrew undefeated.", "main_enemy": "Rus'", "opponent_group": "Slavs", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of the capital under the eparch Ooryphas; Michael III and the field army were away against the Arabs and the fleet was absent.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The defenders were the garrison and people of the Greek-speaking capital.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Photios, Homilies 3-4; Brussels Chronicle; Russian Primary Chronicle; en.wikipedia Siege of Constantinople (860)", "note": "Scored for Rome by the siege rule because the city was not taken; Wikipedia's infobox calls it a Rus' victory, since the Rus' (about 200 ships) plundered the suburbs and the Princes' Islands and left undefeated. The Rus' were led by Scandinavians and are grouped here with the Slavs." }, { "id": 1297, "key": "862-faruriyyah", "name": "Faruriyyah", "year": 862, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 862", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasid Caliphate)", "theatre": "Cilician frontier (Taurus)", "place": "the fortress of Faruriyyah, in the Taurus frontier zone near Tarsus (site uncertain)", "lat": 37.3, "lon": 34.9, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Wasif al-Turki", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A minor fortress capture; the fighting is not described in detail.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of a frontier fortress; the sources give no units or numbers.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The garrisons of the Taurus frontier were drawn from the Anatolian themes and kleisourai, mostly Greek-speaking with Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Capture of Faruriyyah", "note": "Wasif's campaign, planned by al-Muntasir as a large offensive, went ahead after the caliph's death (June 862) but was cut short; Wasif was back in Samarra by 863. Wikipedia lists it among the empire's battles." }, { "id": 1298, "key": "863-lalakaon", "name": "Lalakaon", "year": 863, "month": 9, "day": 3, "date": "3 September 863", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Emirate of Melitene)", "theatre": "Anatolia (Paphlagonia-Armeniakon border)", "place": "on the Lalakaon river, at the place called Poson (Porson), near the Halys", "lat": 40.95, "lon": 35.05, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Petronas (domestic of the Schools); Nasar (strategos of the Boukellarion)", "commanders_b": "Umar al-Aqta (emir of Melitene, killed); perhaps Karbeas (Paulicians)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Three converging armies: the Armeniakon, Boukellarion, Koloneia and Paphlagonia themes from the north; the Anatolikon, Opsikion and Cappadocia themes with the kleisourai of Seleukeia and Charsianon from the south; and the Macedonian, Thracian and Thrakesion themes with the imperial tagmata from the west under Petronas.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The sources name nearly every Anatolian and Thracian theme and the tagmata, recruited mainly among Greek speakers, with strong Armenian elements in the eastern themes.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Genesios 4; Theophanes Continuatus 4.25; al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Battle of Lalakaon", "note": "Umar's army was surrounded and destroyed, his son captured. The site is uncertain (most put it about 130 km south-east of Amisos). Later in 863 another Roman army killed Ali ibn Yahya al-Armani in Armenia." }, { "id": 1299, "key": "863-bishop-s-meadow", "name": "Bishop's Meadow", "year": 863, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 863", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Emirate of Melitene)", "theatre": "Anatolia (Cappadocia)", "place": "Marj al-Usquf, a highland near Malakopeia, north of Nazianzos", "lat": 38.37, "lon": 34.73, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Michael III", "commanders_b": "Umar al-Aqta (emir of Melitene)", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Michael III's army, probably the southern group of themes (Anatolikon, Opsikion, Cappadocia, and the kleisourai of Seleukeia and Charsianon) that later shadowed the Arabs.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The central Anatolian themes were mostly Greek-speaking, with Armenians strong in Cappadocia and Charsianon.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Battle of Lalakaon", "note": "A bloody battle with heavy losses on both sides (al-Tabari says only 1,000 of Umar's men survived); Umar broke away north and sacked Amisos." }, { "id": 1300, "key": "866-ragusa-siege", "name": "Ragusa (siege)", "year": 866, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "866 (or 867) - 868 (fifteen months)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Emirate of Bari)", "theatre": "Dalmatia", "place": "Ragusa (Dubrovnik)", "lat": 42.64, "lon": 18.11, "loc": "known", "country": "Croatia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Niketas Ooryphas (droungarios of the fleet)", "commanders_b": "Sawdan of Bari, Saba of Taranto, Kalfun the Berber", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The citizens of Ragusa, who held out for fifteen months, relieved by an imperial fleet of 100 ships under Niketas Ooryphas sent by Basil I (De administrando imperio 29).", "languages": [ "Latin", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The defenders were the Romance-speaking Ragusans; the relief fleet named by Constantine VII was Greek-manned.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Constantine VII, De administrando imperio 29; Theophanes Continuatus 5.53; en.wikipedia Siege of Ragusa (866-868)", "note": "The Aghlabid fleet of 36 ships first plundered Budva, Risan and Kotor; the besiegers withdrew when deserters reported the approach of the imperial fleet, so there was no battle with the relief. The Ragusans' Romance speech is entered as 'Latin'." }, { "id": 1301, "key": "870-melite-siege", "name": "Melite (siege)", "year": 870, "month": 8, "day": 29, "date": "870; the city fell on 29 August 870 (28 August in the Kitab al-'Uyun)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Sicily (Aghlabids)", "theatre": "Malta", "place": "Melite (Mdina), Malta", "lat": 35.89, "lon": 14.4, "loc": "known", "country": "Malta", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Halaf al-Hadim, an engineer (killed); then Sawada ibn Muhammad, sent by Muhammad ibn Khafaja, governor of Sicily", "commanders_b": "Amros (perhaps Ambrosios), governor of Malta (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The course of the siege is known only from late Arabic sources; some say the Roman relief fleet withdrew without a fight.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison and people of Melite, who at first held out with the help of reinforcements whose origin and numbers are not given (al-Himyari; Ibn al-Athir).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Malta belonged to the theme of Sicily, whose imperial troops were mainly Greek-speaking; the language of the island's own people at this time is uncertain.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Himyari, Kitab al-Rawd al-Mi'tar; Ibn al-Athir; the Greek chronicle of Cassano; en.wikipedia Siege of Melite (870)", "note": "An Aghlabid fleet under Ahmad ibn Umar had attacked the island in 869. Other dates in the sources: 868 (Ibn Khaldun), 875 (Ibn al-Khatib). The town was plundered and its walls razed." }, { "id": 1302, "key": "871-bari", "name": "Bari", "year": 871, "month": 2, "day": null, "date": "February 871 (the end of a blockade begun in 867-869)", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of Louis II against the Emirate of Bari", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Bari, Apulia", "lat": 41.13, "lon": 16.87, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Carolingian Empire" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [ "Rome" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "ally", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Louis II, emperor in Italy; Niketas Ooryphas commanded the Roman fleet sent in 869", "commanders_b": "Sawdan, emir of Bari (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The Roman part was naval and indirect; en.wikipedia calls the De Administrando Imperio's claim of a major imperial role 'probably a concoction'. The victory belonged to Louis II.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A Roman fleet of about 400 ships (Annales Bertiniani) under Niketas Ooryphas came in 869, but the joint attack failed; a Ragusan fleet carrying Croats and other Slavs of imperial Dalmatia served in the siege (Constantine VII), and Louis II's final assault used a Slavic fleet.", "languages": [ "Slavic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman contribution that stayed to the end was mainly the Slavic and Dalmatian squadrons of imperial Dalmatia; the Greek-manned imperial fleet had gone home.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Annales Bertiniani; Constantine VII, De Administrando Imperio 29; letter of Louis II to Basil I; en.wikipedia Emirate of Bari", "note": "Bari passed to imperial rule in 876, when the strategos Gregory occupied it." }, { "id": 1303, "key": "871-tephrike", "name": "Tephrike", "year": 871, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 871", "type": "land", "war": "Paulician war of Basil I", "theatre": "Anatolia (upper Euphrates)", "place": "before Tephrike (Divrigi), the Paulician capital", "lat": 39.37, "lon": 38.12, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Paulicians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Chrysocheir", "commanders_b": "Basil I", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A failed campaign against Tephrike that ended in the defeat of the emperor's army; not usually listed as a named battle.", "main_enemy": "Paulicians", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "The emperor's field army, the tagmata with the eastern themes, led by Basil I in person (Theophanes Continuatus; Genesios).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus; Genesios; en.wikipedia Battle of Bathys Ryax (background)", "note": "Basil I narrowly escaped. Tephrike was taken and razed in 878 (Treadgold: 879)." }, { "id": 1304, "key": "872-bathys-ryax", "name": "Bathys Ryax", "year": 872, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "872 (or 878)", "type": "land", "war": "Paulician war of Basil I", "theatre": "Anatolia", "place": "Bathys Ryax (the 'Deep Stream'), the Kalinirmak pass west of Sivas", "lat": 39.84, "lon": 36.7, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Paulicians" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Christopher, Domestic of the Schools; the strategoi of Armeniakon and Charsianon", "commanders_b": "Chrysocheir (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Paulicians", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "The Domestic Christopher's field army; its advance force of 4,000-5,000 men from the themes of Armeniakon and Charsianon, of whom 600 picked men made the dawn attack (Theophanes Continuatus; Genesios).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The sources name the themes of Armeniakon and Charsianon, Greek-speaking provinces of northern and central Anatolia with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus; Genesios; Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Battle of Bathys Ryax", "note": "Dated 872 (Vasiliev, Lemerle, Whittow, Treadgold) or 878 (Garsoian, Haldon). Chrysocheir was struck down by Poulades, a former captive, and beheaded; the battle ended the Paulicians as a military power." }, { "id": 1305, "key": "872-kardia-sea", "name": "Kardia (sea)", "year": 872, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 872/873", "type": "sea", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Emirate of Crete)", "theatre": "Aegean", "place": "off Kardia, in the Gulf of Saros (Thrace)", "lat": 40.55, "lon": 26.75, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Niketas Ooryphas, droungarios of the Fleet", "commanders_b": "Photios, a renegade, sent by Shu'ayb, emir of Crete", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The Imperial Fleet of Constantinople under its droungarios, armed with Greek fire; the Cretan fleet of over 50 ships (27 koumbaria) lost 20 ships (Theophanes Continuatus; Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial and thematic fleets were manned mainly from Constantinople and the Greek-speaking coasts and islands of the Aegean.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus; Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Battle of Kardia", "note": "Dated 872 (Eickhoff, Tsougarakis) or c. 873 (Treadgold; Pryor and Jeffreys). The Cretan raiders had reached the Propontis." }, { "id": 1306, "key": "873-gulf-of-corinth-sea", "name": "Gulf of Corinth (sea)", "year": 873, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 873 (perhaps as late as 879)", "type": "sea", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Emirate of Crete)", "theatre": "Greece", "place": "the Gulf of Corinth, near Corinth", "lat": 38.1, "lon": 22.75, "loc": "region", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Niketas Ooryphas, droungarios of the Fleet", "commanders_b": "Photios (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The Imperial Fleet under Niketas Ooryphas; the sources say he had his ships hauled across the Isthmus of Corinth to surprise the raiders.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial and thematic fleets were manned mainly from Constantinople and the Greek-speaking coasts and islands of the Aegean.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus; Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Battle of the Gulf of Corinth", "note": "The portage across the Isthmus is doubted by Pettegrew as a literary echo of Philip V in 217 BCE." }, { "id": 1307, "key": "877-syracuse", "name": "Syracuse", "year": 877, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August 877 - 21 May 878", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Sicily (Aghlabids)", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Syracuse, Sicily", "lat": 37.07, "lon": 15.29, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ja'far ibn Muhammad, governor of Sicily; his son Abu Ishaq", "commanders_b": "an unnamed patrikios (executed); John Patrianos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Syracuse, with Mardaites from the Peloponnese; the relief fleet under Adrianos was held at Monemvasia by contrary winds (Theodosios the Monk; Theophanes Continuatus).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Syracuse was a Greek-speaking city, defended by its own citizens and imperial troops from the Peloponnese.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Theodosios the Monk, letter on the fall of Syracuse; Theophanes Continuatus; Ibn al-Athir; en.wikipedia Siege of Syracuse (877-878)", "note": "The Aghlabids breached the seaward wall and stormed the city on 21 May 878; Theodosios says over 4,000 notables were killed." }, { "id": 1308, "key": "880-cephalonia-sea", "name": "Cephalonia (sea)", "year": 880, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "880", "type": "sea", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Aghlabids)", "theatre": "Ionian Sea", "place": "at Cephalonia, off western Greece", "lat": 38.2, "lon": 20.5, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Nasar, droungarios of the Fleet", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The Imperial Fleet under Nasar, refilled at Methone with troops of the theme of the Peloponnese after many oarsmen deserted (Theophanes Continuatus; Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The sources name the imperial fleet and the troops of the Peloponnese, a mainly Greek-speaking theme with Slavic settlers.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus; Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Battle of Cephalonia", "note": "A night attack on an Aghlabid fleet of about 60 ships (Skylitzes) whose crews were raiding ashore." }, { "id": 1309, "key": "880-stelai-sea", "name": "Stelai (sea)", "year": 880, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "880", "type": "sea", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Aghlabids)", "theatre": "Calabria", "place": "off southern Calabria (Punta Stilo, or Stylis near Rhegion)", "lat": 38.46, "lon": 16.58, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Nasar, droungarios of the Fleet", "commanders_b": "al-Husayn ibn Rabah, Aghlabid governor of Sicily (Ibn Idhari)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The Imperial Fleet under Nasar, 140 ships according to Ibn Idhari, against 45 Aghlabid ships (Vita Eliae iunioris).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial and thematic fleets were manned mainly from Constantinople and the Greek-speaking coasts and islands of the Aegean.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus; Ibn Idhari; Vita Eliae iunioris; en.wikipedia Battle of Stelai", "note": "Site disputed: Punta Stilo ('Stelai', Theophanes Continuatus), Stylis on the toe of Italy (Kislinger), or Milazzo ('Mylas', Cambridge Chronicle); also called the First Battle of Milazzo." }, { "id": 1310, "key": "880-taranto", "name": "Taranto", "year": 880, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "880", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars in southern Italy", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Taranto, Apulia", "lat": 40.47, "lon": 17.24, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Leo Apostyppes", "commanders_b": "the Arab garrison of Taranto", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The recovery of Taranto is recorded briefly; the fighting is not described.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The expeditionary army of the protovestiarios Prokopios and Leo Apostyppes, with the troops of the themes of Thrace and Macedonia (Theophanes Continuatus).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The western themes of Thrace and Macedonia were mainly Greek-speaking, with Armenian and Slavic settlers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus; Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Battle of Stelai (aftermath)", "note": "Taranto had been in Arab hands since the 840s; its recovery restored the land link between Calabria and Bari. Prokopios fell in a battle in Calabria shortly before." }, { "id": 1311, "key": "883-chrysoboullon", "name": "Chrysoboullon", "year": 883, "month": 9, "day": 11, "date": "11 September 883 (al-Tabari)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Emirate of Tarsus)", "theatre": "Cilicia", "place": "Chrysoboullon, near Tarsus (site unidentified)", "lat": 37.0, "lon": 34.9, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Yazaman al-Khadim, emir of Tarsus", "commanders_b": "Kesta Styppiotes, Domestic of the Schools (killed); the strategoi of Anatolikon and Cappadocia (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The field army of the East with the themes of Anatolikon, Cappadocia and Koron, said to be about 100,000 strong (an exaggeration), surprised in its camp at night (al-Tabari; Theophanes Continuatus).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The sources name the themes of Anatolikon and Cappadocia, Greek-speaking provinces of central Anatolia with an Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Tabari; Theophanes Continuatus; en.wikipedia Kesta Styppiotes", "note": "The name comes from en.wikipedia's link 'Battle of Chrysoboullon (883)'. Arab chroniclers claim 70,000 dead. Andrew the Scythian was reappointed Domestic." }, { "id": 1312, "key": "883-euripos-siege", "name": "Euripos (siege)", "year": 883, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "shortly after 883 (mid-880s)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Emirate of Tarsus)", "theatre": "Greece (Euboea)", "place": "Euripos (Chalcis), Euboea", "lat": 38.46, "lon": 23.6, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Oineiates, strategos of Hellas", "commanders_b": "Yazaman al-Khadim, emir of Tarsus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The troops of the theme of Hellas gathered by its strategos, with stone-throwers on the walls and ships that sallied with Greek fire against a fleet of 30 koumbaria (Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The defenders were the levies of the theme of Hellas in central Greece.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes; Theophanes Continuatus; en.wikipedia Siege of Euripos", "note": "Land assault and naval fighting; a final sortie routed the besiegers. Skylitzes' claim that Yazaman fell there is an error (he died in 891)." }, { "id": 1313, "key": "888-milazzo", "name": "Milazzo", "year": 888, "month": 10, "day": null, "date": "October 888", "type": "sea", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Aghlabids)", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "off Milazzo, north-eastern Sicily", "lat": 38.25, "lon": 15.24, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A squadron of the Imperial Fleet of Constantinople; Arabic sources say 5,000 drowned and 7,000 were killed.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial and thematic fleets were manned mainly from Constantinople and the Greek-speaking coasts and islands of the Aegean.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Cambridge Chronicle; Ibn al-Athir; en.wikipedia Battle of Milazzo (888)", "note": "Known only from Arabic sources; it ended large imperial naval operations off Italy for decades." }, { "id": 1314, "key": "896-boulgarophygon", "name": "Boulgarophygon", "year": 896, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 896", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Bulgarian war of 894-896", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "near Boulgarophygon (Babaeski), eastern Thrace", "lat": 41.43, "lon": 27.09, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Simeon I", "commanders_b": "Leo Katakalon, Domestic of the Schools; the protovestiarios Theodosios (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The whole field army: the themes and tagmata of Asia Minor, brought to Europe after a truce with the Arabs (Theophanes Continuatus; Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The sources name the Anatolian themes and the tagmata, raised mainly in Greek-speaking Asia Minor with an Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus; Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Battle of Boulgarophygon", "note": "Almost the whole army was lost; peace followed with an annual tribute to Bulgaria." }, { "id": 1315, "key": "902-taormina", "name": "Taormina", "year": 902, "month": 8, "day": 1, "date": "July 902; the town surrendered on 1 August 902", "type": "land", "war": "Arab conquest of Sicily (Aghlabids)", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Taormina, Sicily", "lat": 37.85, "lon": 15.29, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ibrahim II, former Aghlabid emir", "commanders_b": "Eustathios, droungarios of the Fleet; Michael Charaktos; Constantine Karamallos, commandant of Taormina", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The imperial forces in Sicily and Calabria with a naval squadron, who chose to fight before the walls; the main fleet did not come (Continuator of George the Monk).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The last imperial forces in Sicily were drawn from the Greek-speaking population of eastern Sicily and Calabria.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Continuator of George the Monk; Ibn al-Athir; en.wikipedia Siege of Taormina (902)", "note": "A pitched battle before the walls, then the surrender of the town; the fall of Taormina ended imperial Sicily except for a few enclaves." }, { "id": 1316, "key": "904-thessalonica", "name": "Thessalonica", "year": 904, "month": 7, "day": 29, "date": "29-31 July 904 (a siege of three days)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasids (Leo of Tripoli))", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Thessalonica", "lat": 40.64, "lon": 22.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Leo of Tripoli", "commanders_b": "Leo Chitzilakes and Niketas, strategoi; Petronas, protospatharios", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Thessalonica; appeals to the surrounding Slavic tribes and provinces brought little help, and the fleet under Himerios did not engage (John Kaminiates).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Thessalonica was a Greek-speaking city defended mainly by its own citizens (Kaminiates was one of them).", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "John Kaminiates, The Capture of Thessalonica; Theophanes Continuatus; al-Tabari; en.wikipedia Sack of Thessalonica (904)", "note": "The raiders had 54 ships and stormed the low seaward walls; about 22,000 captives were carried off. The day of the fall is given as 29 or 31 July." }, { "id": 1317, "key": "911-chandax", "name": "Chandax", "year": 911, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 911 - spring 912 (six months)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Emirate of Crete)", "theatre": "Crete", "place": "Chandax (Heraklion), Crete", "lat": 35.34, "lon": 25.13, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the emir of Crete", "commanders_b": "Himerios, logothetes tou dromou", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Himerios' expedition of 177 ships and about 43,000 men: the Imperial Fleet, the naval themes, troops of the European themes, Mardaites and 700 Rus' (Constantine VII, De Ceremoniis 2.44).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The muster list in De Ceremoniis names the naval themes of the Aegean and southern Greece, which furnished most of the crews and soldiers; the 700 Rus' were a small fraction.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Constantine VII, De Ceremoniis 2.44; Theophanes Continuatus; en.wikipedia Himerios (admiral); en.wikipedia Siege of Chandax (background)", "note": "Himerios raised the siege on news that Leo VI was dying." }, { "id": 1318, "key": "912-chios", "name": "Chios", "year": 912, "month": 4, "day": null, "date": "April 912", "type": "sea", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasids (Leo of Tripoli))", "theatre": "Aegean", "place": "off Chios", "lat": 38.4, "lon": 26.2, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Leo of Tripoli; Damian of Tarsus", "commanders_b": "Himerios", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The fleet returning from the Cretan expedition (177 ships at the start).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The same expedition whose muster list (De Ceremoniis 2.44) names the Aegean naval themes.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus; Mas'udi; en.wikipedia Himerios (admiral)", "note": "The imperial fleet was annihilated and Himerios barely escaped." }, { "id": 1319, "key": "915-garigliano", "name": "Garigliano", "year": 915, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "June - August 915 (siege, then the final battle in August)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab raids in Italy: the Garigliano colony", "theatre": "Latium and Campania", "place": "the Saracen fortified camp on the Garigliano, near Minturnae", "lat": 41.25, "lon": 13.77, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Papal States", "Rome", "Lombards" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Pope John X; Nicholas Picingli, strategos of Longobardia; Alberic I of Spoleto; Guaimar II of Salerno; Landulf I of Benevento and Capua; John I of Gaeta; Gregory IV of Naples", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A strong contingent from Calabria and Apulia (Longobardia) under the strategos Nicholas Picingli (Liudprand; Leo of Ostia).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Calabria was largely Greek-speaking, while Apulia (Longobardia) was mostly Lombard and Latin-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Liudprand, Antapodosis; Leo of Ostia, Chronicle of Montecassino; en.wikipedia Battle of Garigliano (915)", "note": "Spoleto, Gaeta and Naples also fought in the Christian league. The Muslims of the Garigliano were an independent colony, sometimes described as Fatimid subjects." }, { "id": 1320, "key": "917-acheloos", "name": "Acheloos", "year": 917, "month": 8, "day": 20, "date": "20 August 917", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Bulgarian war of 913-927", "theatre": "Thrace (Black Sea coast)", "place": "on the river Acheloos near Anchialos (Pomorie)", "lat": 42.64, "lon": 27.64, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Simeon I", "commanders_b": "Leo Phokas the Elder, Domestic of the Schools; John Bogas; Romanos Lekapenos commanded the fleet", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The tagmata, the European themes and the themes of Asia Minor brought over for the campaign, with the fleet under Romanos Lekapenos at the Danube mouth; estimates range from 30,000 to about 60,000 (Theophanes Continuatus; Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The sources name the tagmata and the Anatolian themes, raised mainly in Greek-speaking Asia Minor with Armenians, besides the European thematic troops.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus; Skylitzes; Leo the Deacon; en.wikipedia Battle of Achelous (917)", "note": "Magyar and Pecheneg participation on the Bulgarian side, reported only in the Miracula Sancti Georgii, is disputed." }, { "id": 1321, "key": "917-katasyrtai", "name": "Katasyrtai", "year": 917, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 917", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Bulgarian war of 913-927", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Katasyrtai, just outside Constantinople", "lat": 41.03, "lon": 28.89, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Simeon I", "commanders_b": "Leo Phokas the Elder", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The last troops in the capital, gathered by Leo Phokas after Acheloos (Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes; Theophanes Continuatus; en.wikipedia Battle of Katasyrtai", "note": "A night battle; the imperial army was routed." }, { "id": 1322, "key": "921-pegae", "name": "Pegae", "year": 921, "month": 3, "day": null, "date": "between 11 and 18 March 921", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Bulgarian war of 913-927", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Pegae ('the Spring'), outside the Land Walls of Constantinople", "lat": 41.0, "lon": 28.92, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Kaukanos; Menikos", "commanders_b": "Pothos Argyros, Domestic of the Schools; Leo Argyros; Alexios Mosele, droungarios of the Fleet (drowned); John the Rhaiktor", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Troops of the tagmata, the Hetaireia (imperial guard) and sailors of the fleet (Theophanes Continuatus; Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The tagmata and the fleet of the capital were recruited mainly from Greek-speaking Anatolia, Thrace and the Aegean; the Hetaireia also had foreign guardsmen.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus; Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Battle of Pegae", "note": "The list of battles on en.wikipedia dates it 922; the battle article and the sources give March 921." }, { "id": 1323, "key": "921-thermopolis", "name": "Thermopolis", "year": 921, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "921", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Bulgarian war of 913-927", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Thermopolis (Aquae Calidae), near Burgas", "lat": 42.57, "lon": 27.35, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "Michael, son of Moroleon (mortally wounded), sent by Pothos Argyros", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A small ambush known by its place name only.", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "A detachment of the field army of Pothos Argyros, Domestic of the Schools (Theophanes Continuatus).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus; Skylitzes; en.wikipedia, the article on the war of 913-927 with Bulgaria", "note": "The site is placed near Burgas in en.wikipedia; its order relative to Pegae (March 921) is not certain." }, { "id": 1324, "key": "922-constantinople", "name": "Constantinople", "year": 922, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 922", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Bulgarian war of 913-927", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "the outskirts of Constantinople", "lat": 41.05, "lon": 28.94, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown", "commanders_b": "Saktikios, a commander of the tagmata (mortally wounded)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Units of the tagmata sent out by Romanos I against the Bulgarian camp (Theophanes Continuatus; Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus; Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Battle of Constantinople (922)", "note": "Saktikios took the lightly held camp but was driven back when the main Bulgarian army returned." }, { "id": 1325, "key": "922-lemnos", "name": "Lemnos", "year": 922, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "921 or 922", "type": "sea", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Abbasids (Leo of Tripoli))", "theatre": "Aegean", "place": "off Lemnos", "lat": 39.9, "lon": 25.25, "loc": "region", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John Rhadenos, patrikios and droungarios of the Fleet", "commanders_b": "Leo of Tripoli (escaped)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The Imperial Fleet of Constantinople under its droungarios (Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial and thematic fleets were manned mainly from Constantinople and the Greek-speaking coasts and islands of the Aegean.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus; Skylitzes (tr. Wortley, p. 211); en.wikipedia Leo of Tripoli", "note": "Most of Leo's fleet was destroyed and he disappears from the sources. en.wikipedia (after the PmbZ) dates it 921/922." }, { "id": 1326, "key": "922-adrianople", "name": "Adrianople", "year": 922, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "922 or 923", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Bulgarian war of 913-927", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Adrianople (Edirne)", "lat": 41.68, "lon": 26.56, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Simeon I", "commanders_b": "Moroleon, commander of Adrianople", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege ended by famine; the fighting is only briefly reported.", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The garrison of Adrianople under Moroleon (Theophanes Continuatus).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Thracian garrisons were recruited mainly from the Greek-speaking population, with Armenian settlers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus; Skylitzes", "note": "Moroleon held out until hunger forced the surrender. Simeon had already taken Adrianople by treachery in 914 (no battle)." }, { "id": 1327, "key": "926-melitene", "name": "Melitene", "year": 926, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "926", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (John Kourkouas' eastern offensive)", "theatre": "Upper Euphrates", "place": "Melitene (old Malatya, Battalgazi)", "lat": 38.4, "lon": 38.36, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John Kourkouas, Domestic of the Schools; Theophilos Kourkouas; Melias (the Armenian contingent)", "commanders_b": "the emir of Melitene", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A storming of the lower town; the citadel held and the emir accepted tributary status, so the result was partial.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "John Kourkouas' eastern field army with his brother Theophilos and an Armenian contingent under Melias, which stormed the lower city.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The sources name an Armenian contingent; the rest of the army came from the mainly Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "en.wikipedia John Kourkouas", "note": "Melitene was finally annexed in 934 (separate entry)." }, { "id": 1328, "key": "927-dvin", "name": "Dvin", "year": 927, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "927 (or 928)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (the Sajids in Armenia)", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "Dvin, the old capital of Armenia", "lat": 40.0, "lon": 44.58, "loc": "known", "country": "Armenia", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Nasr al-Subuki, Sajid governor", "commanders_b": "John Kourkouas, Domestic of the Schools", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The eastern field army of John Kourkouas (Ibn al-Athir; Armenian historians).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn al-Athir; en.wikipedia John Kourkouas", "note": "The siege failed and Kourkouas withdrew." }, { "id": 1329, "key": "930-theodosiopolis", "name": "Theodosiopolis", "year": 930, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "930 - spring 931 (seven months)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (John Kourkouas' eastern offensive)", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "Theodosiopolis (Qaliqala, Erzurum)", "lat": 39.91, "lon": 41.27, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John Kourkouas; Theophilos Kourkouas, strategos of Chaldia", "commanders_b": "the Arab emirate of Qaliqala", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The eastern field army of John Kourkouas with the troops of Chaldia under his brother Theophilos.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of the East and the Pontic theme of Chaldia were mainly Greek-speaking, with many Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn al-Athir; en.wikipedia John Kourkouas", "note": "Some date the siege to 928-929. The city became tributary, revolted in 939, and was taken again in 949." }, { "id": 1330, "key": "934-melitene", "name": "Melitene", "year": 934, "month": 5, "day": 19, "date": "spring 934; the city surrendered on 19 May 934", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (John Kourkouas' eastern offensive)", "theatre": "Upper Euphrates", "place": "Melitene (old Malatya, Battalgazi)", "lat": 38.4, "lon": 38.36, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John Kourkouas, Domestic of the Schools; Theophilos Kourkouas", "commanders_b": "the Arab garrison of Melitene", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "About 50,000 men under John Kourkouas, the eastern themes with Armenian troops; Armenians under Melias, later strategos of Lykandos, had fought at Melitene in 926.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus; Ibn al-Athir; en.wikipedia Conquest of Melitene (934); en.wikipedia John Kourkouas", "note": "The lower city had been stormed in 926 and later attacks failed; in 934 the city resisted fiercely and then surrendered through famine, the first major Muslim city annexed by the empire." }, { "id": 1331, "key": "938-charpete", "name": "Charpete", "year": 938, "month": 10, "day": 8, "date": "8-9 October 938", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Hamdanids (Sayf al-Dawla))", "theatre": "Upper Euphrates", "place": "near Charpete (Hisn Ziyad, Harput), above Elazig", "lat": 38.71, "lon": 39.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Hamdanids" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Sayf al-Dawla", "commanders_b": "John Kourkouas, Domestic of the Schools", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Hamdanids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A detachment of John Kourkouas' eastern field army, given as 20,000 men, defeated while separated from the main army.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Vasiliev, Byzance et les Arabes II; Runciman, The Emperor Romanus Lecapenus; Treadgold; en.wikipedia Battle of Charpete (938); en.wikipedia John Kourkouas", "note": "Sayf al-Dawla took the fort of Charpete; Arabic sources claim 70 patrikioi captured. en.wikipedia's article on Sayf al-Dawla says the imperial advance was not halted." }, { "id": 1332, "key": "941-hieron", "name": "Hieron", "year": 941, "month": 6, "day": 11, "date": "11 June 941", "type": "sea", "war": "Rus'-Roman war of 941", "theatre": "Bosporus", "place": "off Hieron, at the Black Sea mouth of the Bosporus", "lat": 41.18, "lon": 29.09, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rus'" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Theophanes, protovestiarios", "commanders_b": "Igor of Kiev", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rus'", "opponent_group": "Slavs", "roman_force": "Fifteen old chelandia fitted with Greek-fire siphons, manned in the capital while the main fleet was away against the Arabs (Liudprand; Theophanes Continuatus).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial and thematic fleets were manned mainly from Constantinople and the Greek-speaking coasts and islands of the Aegean.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Liudprand, Antapodosis; Theophanes Continuatus; Skylitzes; Russian Primary Chronicle; en.wikipedia, the article on the Rus' war of 941", "note": "The surviving Rus' raided Bithynia until Bardas Phokas and John Kourkouas, with the eastern army, hemmed them in; their remaining fleet was destroyed by Theophanes off Thrace in September 941." }, { "id": 1333, "key": "949-theodosiopolis", "name": "Theodosiopolis", "year": 949, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "949", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "Theodosiopolis (Qaliqala, Erzurum)", "lat": 39.91, "lon": 41.27, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Theophilos Kourkouas, strategos of Chaldia", "commanders_b": "the Arab garrison of Qaliqala", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Recorded briefly; a siege that ended with the city's capture.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The troops of Chaldia and the neighbouring eastern themes under Theophilos Kourkouas.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Chaldia (Pontus) was a Greek-speaking theme; the eastern armies also had many Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Theophanes Continuatus; Ibn al-Athir; en.wikipedia John Kourkouas", "note": "" }, { "id": 1334, "key": "949-crete", "name": "Crete", "year": 949, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "949", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Emirate of Crete)", "theatre": "Crete", "place": "the camp of the expedition near Chandax, Crete", "lat": 35.33, "lon": 25.13, "loc": "region", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the emir of Crete", "commanders_b": "Constantine Gongyles", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Not usually given a battle name; the defeat of an expedition in a surprise attack on its camp.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "An expedition of about 128 ships with the naval themes and tagmatic troops, whose muster lists survive in De Ceremoniis 2.45.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The muster lists name the naval themes of the Aegean and the tagmata, mainly Greek-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Constantine VII, De Ceremoniis 2.45; Theophanes Continuatus; en.wikipedia Siege of Chandax (background)", "note": "" }, { "id": 1335, "key": "950-darb-al-kankarun", "name": "Darb al-Kankarun", "year": 950, "month": 10, "day": 25, "date": "25-26 October 950", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Hamdanids (Sayf al-Dawla))", "theatre": "Taurus frontier", "place": "the pass of Darb al-Kankarun, between Lykandos and Germanikeia, near Elbistan", "lat": 38.2, "lon": 37.19, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Hamdanids" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Leo Phokas the Younger, strategos of Cappadocia", "commanders_b": "Sayf al-Dawla", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Hamdanids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The troops of the theme of Cappadocia and the neighbouring frontier themes under Leo Phokas, strategos of Cappadocia, who ambushed the returning raiders in a pass.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn al-Athir; Yahya of Antioch; Theophanes Continuatus; en.wikipedia Battle of Darb al-Kankarun; en.wikipedia Sayf al-Dawla", "note": "Arabic sources call the campaign ghazwat al-musiba, 'the dreadful expedition'. The battle article gives about 5,000 Arabs killed and 3,000 captured; the article on Sayf al-Dawla says about 8,000 lost. Earlier in the campaign Sayf al-Dawla had beaten Bardas Phokas the Elder at Batn al-Luqan." }, { "id": 1336, "key": "952-gerace", "name": "Gerace", "year": 952, "month": 5, "day": 7, "date": "7 May 952", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Fatimids (Kalbids of Sicily))", "theatre": "Calabria", "place": "near Gerace, southern Calabria", "lat": 38.27, "lon": 16.22, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Fatimids" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "al-Hasan ibn Ali al-Kalbi, emir of Sicily", "commanders_b": "the patrikios Malakenos (killed); Paschalios, strategos of Calabria; Makroioannes commanded the fleet", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Fatimids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A large army, larger than the Kalbid force, sent under the patrikios Malakenos with a fleet under Makroioannes and joined by the troops of the theme of Calabria.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Calabria was largely Greek-speaking, and the expeditionary troops came from the eastern themes.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn al-Athir; Cambridge Chronicle; en.wikipedia Battle of Gerace", "note": "The Kalbid army had been reinforced with 7,000 horse and 5,000 foot from Ifriqiya; after the rout the emperor asked for a truce and the tribute continued." }, { "id": 1337, "key": "953-marash", "name": "Marash", "year": 953, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "953", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Hamdanids (Sayf al-Dawla))", "theatre": "Taurus frontier", "place": "near Marash (Germanikeia, Kahramanmaras)", "lat": 37.58, "lon": 36.93, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Hamdanids" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Sayf al-Dawla", "commanders_b": "Bardas Phokas the Elder, Domestic of the Schools (wounded); Constantine Phokas (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Hamdanids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The Domestic's field army of the East, much larger than Sayf al-Dawla's force (600 horsemen according to his panegyrists).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Yahya of Antioch; Ibn al-Athir; Abu Firas; en.wikipedia Battle of Marash (953)", "note": "The patrikios Leo Maleinos fell; Constantine Phokas died a prisoner in Aleppo." }, { "id": 1338, "key": "954-hadath", "name": "Hadath", "year": 954, "month": 10, "day": 30, "date": "30 October 954", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Hamdanids (Sayf al-Dawla))", "theatre": "Taurus frontier", "place": "al-Hadath (Adata), which Sayf al-Dawla was refortifying", "lat": 37.97, "lon": 37.4, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Hamdanids" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Sayf al-Dawla", "commanders_b": "Bardas Phokas the Elder, Domestic of the Schools; Nikephoros Phokas (wounded); Theodoulos Parsakoutenos (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Hamdanids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Bardas Phokas' field army, about 50,000 men according to Arab sources, which name Rus', Bulgarians and Armenians in it (al-Mutanabbi; Yahya of Antioch).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "al-Mutanabbi, ode on al-Hadath; Yahya of Antioch; Ibn al-Athir; en.wikipedia Battle of Hadath (954); en.wikipedia Sayf al-Dawla", "note": "A charge of 500 ghulam horsemen broke the imperial army; about 3,000 fell. Sayf al-Dawla completed the new walls on 12 November 954." }, { "id": 1339, "key": "955-hadath", "name": "Hadath", "year": 955, "month": 8, "day": 26, "date": "26-29 August 955", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Hamdanids (Sayf al-Dawla))", "theatre": "Taurus frontier", "place": "al-Hadath (Adata)", "lat": 37.97, "lon": 37.4, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Hamdanids" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the Hamdanid garrison of al-Hadath (Sayf al-Dawla)", "commanders_b": "Nikephoros Phokas (Yahya of Antioch names Bardas Phokas the Elder)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Hamdanids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The eastern field army, described in the Arabic sources as Greeks, Slavs, Bulgarians and Rus'; it blocked the roads and began to mine the walls.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Slavic", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Yahya of Antioch; Ibn al-Athir; en.wikipedia Siege of Hadath (955); en.wikipedia Sayf al-Dawla", "note": "The besiegers withdrew when Sayf al-Dawla approached, and the garrison sallied and took the abandoned siege engines." }, { "id": 1340, "key": "956-arghana", "name": "Arghana", "year": 956, "month": 5, "day": 24, "date": "24 May 956", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Hamdanids (Sayf al-Dawla))", "theatre": "Upper Mesopotamia", "place": "a defile near Arghana (Ergani), on the road north of Amida", "lat": 38.27, "lon": 39.76, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Hamdanids" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Sayf al-Dawla", "commanders_b": "John Tzimiskes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Hamdanids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "John Tzimiskes' army of the eastern frontier, which tried to block Sayf al-Dawla's return and lost about 4,000 men in a battle fought in torrential rain.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Vasiliev, Byzance et les Arabes II; en.wikipedia Battle of Arghana (956); en.wikipedia Sayf al-Dawla", "note": "Sayf al-Dawla entered Amida (Diyarbakir) the next day, 25 May 956." }, { "id": 1341, "key": "958-samosata", "name": "Samosata", "year": 958, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 958", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Hamdanids (Sayf al-Dawla))", "theatre": "Upper Euphrates", "place": "Samosata (Samsat), on the Euphrates", "lat": 37.58, "lon": 38.48, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Hamdanids" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John Tzimiskes; Basil Lekapenos, parakoimomenos (brought reinforcements)", "commanders_b": "the Hamdanid garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The storming is recorded briefly; the fighting is not described.", "main_enemy": "Hamdanids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "John Tzimiskes' eastern army, reinforced in June by troops brought by Basil Lekapenos.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "en.wikipedia Battle of Raban; en.wikipedia Sayf al-Dawla", "note": "Tzimiskes also took the fortress of Raban; the battle of Raban against Sayf al-Dawla's relief army followed in the autumn. The old site is now under the Ataturk reservoir." }, { "id": 1342, "key": "958-amida", "name": "Amida", "year": 958, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 958", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Hamdanids (Sayf al-Dawla))", "theatre": "Upper Mesopotamia", "place": "near Amida (Diyarbakir)", "lat": 37.91, "lon": 40.24, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Hamdanids" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John Tzimiskes", "commanders_b": "Naja (Nadja), a Circassian ghulam of Sayf al-Dawla", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Not given a battle name of its own; known by the place.", "main_enemy": "Hamdanids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "John Tzimiskes' eastern army in its spring invasion of the Jazira, in which Dara was also taken.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "en.wikipedia Battle of Raban (background); en.wikipedia Sayf al-Dawla; en.wikipedia, the article on the conquest of Cilicia", "note": "Naja led about 10,000 men, half of whom are said to have fallen. en.wikipedia's article on the conquest of Cilicia places the victory at Dara." }, { "id": 1343, "key": "958-raban", "name": "Raban", "year": 958, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "between 18 October and 15 November 958", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Hamdanids (Sayf al-Dawla))", "theatre": "Upper Euphrates", "place": "near the fortress of Raban (Araban), south of al-Hadath", "lat": 37.43, "lon": 37.69, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Hamdanids" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John Tzimiskes; Basil Lekapenos, parakoimomenos", "commanders_b": "Sayf al-Dawla", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Hamdanids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The eastern field army under John Tzimiskes, reinforced by Basil Lekapenos; the army reformed by Nikephoros Phokas after 955 with many Armenians.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Yahya of Antioch; Ibn al-Athir; en.wikipedia Battle of Raban", "note": "Over 1,700 Hamdanid horsemen were captured and paraded in Constantinople." }, { "id": 1344, "key": "960-andrassos", "name": "Andrassos", "year": 960, "month": 11, "day": 8, "date": "8 November 960", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Hamdanids (Sayf al-Dawla))", "theatre": "Taurus frontier", "place": "the pass of Kylindros at Andrassos, in the Taurus between Cilicia and Cappadocia (site unidentified)", "lat": 37.6, "lon": 35.2, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Hamdanids" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Leo Phokas the Younger, Domestic of the West; Constantine Maleinos, strategos of Cappadocia", "commanders_b": "Sayf al-Dawla", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Hamdanids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The troops of the frontier provinces left in Anatolia, among them the theme of Cappadocia under Maleinos, while the best troops were in Crete (Leo the Deacon; Theophanes Continuatus).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The sources name the thematic troops of Cappadocia and the neighbouring provinces, Greek-speaking with a strong Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Leo the Deacon; Theophanes Continuatus; Yahya of Antioch; en.wikipedia Battle of Andrassos", "note": "Sayf al-Dawla escaped with a few hundred horsemen; the site and the Hamdanid numbers (3,000 to 30,000) are disputed." }, { "id": 1345, "key": "960-chandax", "name": "Chandax", "year": 960, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 960 - 6 March 961", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Emirate of Crete)", "theatre": "Crete", "place": "Chandax (Heraklion), Crete", "lat": 35.34, "lon": 25.13, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Nikephoros Phokas, Domestic of the Schools; Nikephoros Pastilas, strategos of Thrakesion (killed)", "commanders_b": "the emir Abd al-Aziz ibn Shu'ayb (Kouroupas) and his son al-Nu'man (Anemas), both captured", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The army of Asia Minor, themes and tagmata, carried by a large fleet of Greek-fire dromons and transports; one modern estimate is about 34,000 men (Leo the Deacon; Theophanes Continuatus).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The sources name the army of the Asian themes (Thrakesion among them), mainly Greek-speaking, with Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Leo the Deacon; Theophanes Continuatus; Theodosios the Deacon, The Capture of Crete; en.wikipedia Siege of Chandax", "note": "Includes the landing battle, the ambush of Pastilas, the night destruction of a relief army (40,000, Leo the Deacon) and the winter blockade; the wall was mined and the city stormed on 6 March 961." }, { "id": 1346, "key": "962-taormina", "name": "Taormina", "year": 962, "month": 12, "day": 25, "date": "spring - 25 December 962 (a siege of more than nine months)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Fatimids (Kalbids of Sicily))", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Taormina, Sicily", "lat": 37.85, "lon": 15.29, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Fatimids" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ahmad ibn al-Hasan al-Kalbi, emir of Sicily", "commanders_b": "the Christian garrison (commander not named)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Fatimids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison and townsmen of Taormina, one of the last imperial strongholds in Sicily.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Eastern Sicily's Christian population was Greek-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn al-Athir; Cambridge Chronicle; en.wikipedia Battle of the Straits (background)", "note": "Taken on Christmas Day 962 and razed." }, { "id": 1347, "key": "962-aleppo", "name": "Aleppo", "year": 962, "month": 12, "day": null, "date": "December 962", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Hamdanids (Sayf al-Dawla))", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "Aleppo", "lat": 36.2, "lon": 37.16, "loc": "known", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Hamdanids" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Nikephoros Phokas, Domestic of the East; John Tzimiskes", "commanders_b": "Sayf al-Dawla; Naja", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Hamdanids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Nikephoros Phokas' field army of the East, said by Arabic sources to number 70,000.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Leo the Deacon; Yahya of Antioch; Ibn al-Athir; en.wikipedia Sayf al-Dawla", "note": "The improvised army before the walls was routed and the city sacked; the citadel held out." }, { "id": 1348, "key": "963-rometta", "name": "Rometta", "year": 963, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "963 - May 965", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Fatimids (Kalbids of Sicily))", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Rometta, north-eastern Sicily", "lat": 38.17, "lon": 15.41, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Fatimids" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "al-Hasan ibn Ammar al-Kalbi; Ahmad ibn al-Hasan al-Kalbi", "commanders_b": "the garrison of Rometta", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Fatimids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The Greek garrison and townsmen of Rometta, the last imperial fortress in Sicily.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The defenders were the Greek-speaking Christians of the Val Demone.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn al-Athir; Cambridge Chronicle; en.wikipedia Siege of Rometta", "note": "Rometta fell in May 965, completing the Muslim conquest of Sicily." }, { "id": 1349, "key": "963-adana", "name": "Adana", "year": 963, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 963 (winter 963/964)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (conquest of Cilicia)", "theatre": "Cilicia", "place": "a hill near Adana, Cilicia", "lat": 37.0, "lon": 35.32, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John Tzimiskes, Domestic of the East", "commanders_b": "the Arabs of Adana and Tarsus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Tzimiskes' eastern field army.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Leo the Deacon; Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Sayf al-Dawla; en.wikipedia, the article on the conquest of Cilicia", "note": "Leo the Deacon: about 5,000 Arabs fell on a hill afterwards called the Hill of Blood. Tzimiskes then attacked Mopsuestia without success." }, { "id": 1350, "key": "964-rometta", "name": "Rometta", "year": 964, "month": 10, "day": 25, "date": "24/25 October 964", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Fatimids (Kalbids of Sicily))", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "before Rometta, north-eastern Sicily", "lat": 38.17, "lon": 15.41, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Fatimids" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "al-Hasan ibn Ammar al-Kalbi; al-Hasan ibn Ali al-Kalbi", "commanders_b": "Manuel Phokas (killed); Niketas Abalantes (fleet)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Fatimids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Nikephoros II's Sicilian expedition, said to number about 40,000, many of them veterans of Crete, with cavalry under Manuel Phokas.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn al-Athir; Cambridge Chronicle; Leo the Deacon; en.wikipedia Siege of Rometta", "note": "A relief battle inside the siege of Rometta; more than a quarter of the army is said to have fallen." }, { "id": 1351, "key": "965-mopsuestia", "name": "Mopsuestia", "year": 965, "month": 7, "day": 13, "date": "siege abandoned in 964; the city was stormed on 13 July 965", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (conquest of Cilicia)", "theatre": "Cilicia", "place": "Mopsuestia (Misis, Yakapinar)", "lat": 36.96, "lon": 35.62, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Nikephoros II Phokas", "commanders_b": "the garrison and people of Mopsuestia", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Nikephoros II's field army of the East with its siege train; the walls were undermined (Leo the Deacon).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Leo the Deacon; Yahya of Antioch; en.wikipedia Sayf al-Dawla", "note": "en.wikipedia (conquest of Cilicia) says spring 965; Yahya of Antioch gives 13 July. The inhabitants were deported." }, { "id": 1352, "key": "965-tarsus", "name": "Tarsus", "year": 965, "month": 8, "day": 16, "date": "summer 965; the city surrendered on 16 August 965", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (conquest of Cilicia)", "theatre": "Cilicia", "place": "Tarsus, Cilicia", "lat": 36.92, "lon": 34.89, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Nikephoros II Phokas; John Tzimiskes", "commanders_b": "the garrison and people of Tarsus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Nikephoros II's field army (about 40,000 in the campaign of 964, the tagmata and the Anatolian themes), which defeated the Tarsiots in a pitched battle before the walls in spring 965 and then blockaded the city (Leo the Deacon).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Leo the Deacon; Yahya of Antioch; en.wikipedia Sayf al-Dawla", "note": "Tarsus surrendered on terms; Cilicia became imperial." }, { "id": 1353, "key": "965-straits-of-messina", "name": "Straits of Messina", "year": 965, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "early 965", "type": "sea", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Fatimids (Kalbids of Sicily))", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "the Straits of Messina", "lat": 38.22, "lon": 15.63, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Fatimids" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ahmad ibn al-Hasan al-Kalbi, emir of Sicily", "commanders_b": "Niketas Abalantes (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Fatimids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The fleet of the Sicilian expedition, carrying the survivors of Rometta.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial and thematic fleets were manned mainly from Constantinople and the Greek-speaking coasts and islands of the Aegean.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn al-Athir; Cambridge Chronicle; en.wikipedia Battle of the Straits", "note": "Also called the Battle of the Straits. Fatimid divers fixed Greek-fire pots to the rudders; about 1,000 prisoners were taken." }, { "id": 1354, "key": "968-antioch", "name": "Antioch", "year": 968, "month": 11, "day": null, "date": "November 968 - 28 October 969", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Nikephoros II's Syrian campaigns)", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "Antioch (Antakya)", "lat": 36.2, "lon": 36.16, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Hamdanids" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Michael Bourtzes; Peter, stratopedarches; Sachakios Brachamios", "commanders_b": "the garrison of Antioch", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Hamdanids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A blockading force from the fort of Baghras under Michael Bourtzes, who with Brachamios and 300 men scaled the Kallas towers at night; Peter's army arrived three days later (Leo the Deacon; Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern armies under Nikephoros II were mainly Greek-speaking, with many Armenians (Brachamios was one).", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Leo the Deacon; Skylitzes; Yahya of Antioch; en.wikipedia Siege of Antioch (968-969)", "note": "The garrison was about 1,000 foot and 500 horse. Antioch was then held by local rulers nominally under the Hamdanids." }, { "id": 1355, "key": "969-bovino", "name": "Bovino", "year": 969, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "969", "type": "land", "war": "Otto I's war in southern Italy (967-970)", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Bovino, Apulia", "lat": 41.25, "lon": 15.34, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Lombards" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Holy Roman Empire" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the strategos of Longobardia (probably the patrikios Eugenios)", "commanders_b": "Pandulf Ironhead, prince of Capua and Benevento (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Lombards", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The imperial forces of the theme of Longobardia (Apulia), reinforced from the East in 968-969.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Imperial troops sent from the East served beside Lombard and Latin-speaking Apulian levies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Leo of Ostia; Lupus Protospatharius; en.wikipedia Pandulf Ironhead; en.wikipedia Landulf IV of Benevento", "note": "Pandulf fought as Otto I's vassal; he was held in Constantinople until 970. The Roman commander is not certain." }, { "id": 1356, "key": "969-aleppo", "name": "Aleppo", "year": 969, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 969 (a siege of 27 days)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Nikephoros II's Syrian campaigns)", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "Aleppo", "lat": 36.2, "lon": 37.16, "loc": "known", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Hamdanids" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Peter, stratopedarches; Michael Bourtzes", "commanders_b": "Qarghuyah; Bakjur", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The city was taken and the citadel capitulated by treaty (the Treaty of Safar, 969/970).", "main_enemy": "Hamdanids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Peter's army of the East, which had just taken Antioch.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Yahya of Antioch; Kamal al-Din; en.wikipedia Peter (stratopedarches)", "note": "" }, { "id": 1357, "key": "970-arcadiopolis", "name": "Arcadiopolis", "year": 970, "month": 3, "day": null, "date": "spring (March) 970", "type": "land", "war": "Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria (968-971)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Arcadiopolis (Luleburgaz)", "lat": 41.4, "lon": 27.36, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rus'" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Bulgaria", "Pechenegs", "Magyars" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Bardas Skleros, magistros; Peter, stratopedarches; John Alakaseus", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rus'", "opponent_group": "Slavs", "roman_force": "10,000-12,000 men under Bardas Skleros, the troops of the West (the tagmata of Thrace and Macedonia under Peter), in three bodies, two hidden in woods (Leo the Deacon; Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The western armies of Thrace and Macedonia were mainly Greek-speaking, with Armenian and Slavic settlers.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Leo the Deacon; Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Battle of Arcadiopolis (970)", "note": "A feigned retreat drew the Pecheneg contingent into an ambush. The Primary Chronicle claims a Rus' victory; the Greek accounts are preferred." }, { "id": 1358, "key": "970-capua", "name": "Capua", "year": 970, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "970 (some put it in 969, after Bovino)", "type": "land", "war": "Otto I's war in southern Italy (967-970)", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "Capua, Campania", "lat": 41.11, "lon": 14.21, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Lombards" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Holy Roman Empire" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the Capuans, in the captivity of Pandulf Ironhead; the relieving army of Otto I", "commanders_b": "Eugenios, patrikios and strategos of Bari (Longobardia); Marinus II of Naples", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The fighting before the walls is not described; the siege was given up when Otto I's army approached.", "main_enemy": "Lombards", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The imperial forces of Longobardia under Eugenios, reinforced from the East in 968-969, with the Neapolitans of Marinus II, who ravaged the land around Capua.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Imperial troops sent from the East served beside Lombard and Latin-speaking Apulian and Neapolitan contingents.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Leo of Ostia; en.wikipedia Pandulf Ironhead; en.wikipedia Landulf IV of Benevento; en.wikipedia Marinus II of Naples", "note": "Eugenios also took Avellino and threatened Benevento. Naples, nominally an imperial duchy, is not counted as Rome here." }, { "id": 1359, "key": "971-preslav", "name": "Preslav", "year": 971, "month": 4, "day": 13, "date": "April 971; the city was stormed on 13 April", "type": "land", "war": "Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria (968-971)", "theatre": "Bulgaria", "place": "Preslav, the Bulgarian capital", "lat": 43.16, "lon": 26.81, "loc": "known", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rus'" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John I Tzimiskes; Bardas Skleros", "commanders_b": "Sphangel (Sveneld)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rus'", "opponent_group": "Slavs", "roman_force": "John I's army of 30,000-40,000: the Immortals (a new guard cavalry), about 15,000 picked infantry and 13,000 cavalry with a siege train, while 300 ships went to the Danube (Leo the Deacon).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The tagmata and the eastern and western themes were mainly Greek-speaking, with many Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Leo the Deacon; Skylitzes; en.wikipedia, the article on Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria", "note": "A battle before the walls was followed by the storming of the city; Tsar Boris II was captured." }, { "id": 1360, "key": "971-dorostolon", "name": "Dorostolon", "year": 971, "month": 4, "day": null, "date": "late April - July 971 (a siege of about three months, with three pitched battles)", "type": "land", "war": "Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria (968-971)", "theatre": "Bulgaria (lower Danube)", "place": "Dorostolon (Silistra)", "lat": 44.12, "lon": 27.26, "loc": "known", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rus'" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John I Tzimiskes; Bardas Skleros; Peter, stratopedarches", "commanders_b": "Sviatoslav I of Kiev (wounded); Sphangel and Ikmor (both killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rus'", "opponent_group": "Slavs", "roman_force": "John I's army of 28,000-30,000 (15,000 infantry and 13,000 cavalry, with the Immortals), Peter and Skleros guarding the walls with the western and eastern troops, and 300 ships with Greek fire on the Danube (Leo the Deacon).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The tagmata and themes of East and West, mainly Greek-speaking with many Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Leo the Deacon; Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Siege of Dorostolon", "note": "The Rus' were starved into a treaty and left Bulgaria; Dorostolon was renamed Theodoropolis." }, { "id": 1361, "key": "971-alexandretta", "name": "Alexandretta", "year": 971, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 971", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Fatimid wars", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "near Alexandretta (Iskenderun)", "lat": 36.59, "lon": 36.17, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Fatimids" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Nicholas, patrikios, a eunuch of John I's household", "commanders_b": "Aras; Ibn al-Zayyat, former emir of Tarsus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Fatimids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A small force sent to relieve Antioch, which lured a Fatimid detachment of about 4,000 into a deserted camp (Leo the Deacon; Ibn al-Dawadari).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Leo the Deacon; Skylitzes; Ibn al-Dawadari; en.wikipedia Battle of Alexandretta", "note": "A battle within the Fatimid siege of Antioch." }, { "id": 1362, "key": "971-antioch", "name": "Antioch", "year": 971, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "971 (the siege was lifted in early July 971)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Fatimid wars", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "Antioch (Antakya)", "lat": 36.2, "lon": 36.16, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Fatimids" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the garrison of Antioch; a relief force under the patrikios Nicholas", "commanders_b": "Futuh (or Akhu Muslim)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Fatimids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The imperial garrison installed in 969, helped by the small relief force that won at Alexandretta.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Yahya of Antioch; Leo the Deacon; en.wikipedia Battle of Alexandretta", "note": "The Fatimid army, mostly Kutama Berbers, withdrew when the Qarmatians advanced into southern Syria; some put the start of the siege in late 970." }, { "id": 1363, "key": "972-nisibis", "name": "Nisibis", "year": 972, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 972", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (John I's eastern campaigns)", "theatre": "Upper Mesopotamia", "place": "Nisibis (Nusaybin)", "lat": 37.07, "lon": 41.22, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Hamdanids" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John I Tzimiskes", "commanders_b": "the Hamdanid emir Abu Taghlib of Mosul (garrison)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The fighting is not described; the town may have been taken with little resistance.", "main_enemy": "Hamdanids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "John I's eastern field army, which crossed the Euphrates in October 972.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Yahya of Antioch; Matthew of Edessa; en.wikipedia, the article on the Syrian campaigns of John Tzimiskes", "note": "Abu Taghlib then agreed to pay tribute; the siege of Mayyafariqin that followed was abandoned." }, { "id": 1364, "key": "973-amida", "name": "Amida", "year": 973, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "July 973 (the Hamdanid army arrived on 4 July; the battle was fought the next day)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (John I's eastern campaigns)", "theatre": "Upper Mesopotamia", "place": "before Amida (Diyarbakir)", "lat": 37.91, "lon": 40.24, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Hamdanids" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Abu'l-Qasim Hibat Allah, brother of the Hamdanid emir Abu Taghlib of Mosul", "commanders_b": "Melias (Mleh), Domestic of the Schools of the East (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Hamdanids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The eastern field army under the Domestic Melias (Mleh), an Armenian, which was attacking Amida after John I's campaign of 972.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Yahya of Antioch; Stephen of Taron; Ibn al-Athir; en.wikipedia Melias (Domestic of the Schools); en.wikipedia, the article on the Syrian campaigns of John Tzimiskes", "note": "The en.wikipedia battle article is titled 'Amida (972)' and the campaign article says winter 972/973; the article on Melias gives July 973. Melias died a prisoner, probably in 974." }, { "id": 1365, "key": "975-baalbek", "name": "Baalbek", "year": 975, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "975", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Fatimid wars: John I's Syrian campaign of 975", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "Heliopolis (Baalbek)", "lat": 34.01, "lon": 36.21, "loc": "known", "country": "Lebanon", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Fatimids" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John I Tzimiskes", "commanders_b": "the Fatimid garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege with little recorded detail.", "main_enemy": "Fatimids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "John I's field army of the East, led by the emperor (Leo the Deacon; John I's letter to Ashot III in Matthew of Edessa).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Leo the Deacon; Matthew of Edessa; en.wikipedia, the article on the Syrian campaigns of John Tzimiskes", "note": "Byblos, Balanea and Gabala were also taken in 975; Tripoli was not." }, { "id": 1366, "key": "976-lapara", "name": "Lapara", "year": 976, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 976", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Bardas Skleros (976-979)", "theatre": "Anatolia (eastern frontier)", "place": "before the rebel-held fortress of Lapara, on the borders of Lykandos", "lat": 38.3, "lon": 37.2, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Bardas Skleros", "faction_b": "Basil II (regency of Basil Lekapenos)", "commanders_a": "Bardas Skleros", "commanders_b": "Peter, stratopedarches; Eustathios Maleinos", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Rebels: the eastern frontier armies under Skleros, with Armenian and Arab supporters; loyalists: the army of Anatolia under Peter and Eustathios Maleinos (Skylitzes; Leo the Deacon).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Arabic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were imperial forces raised mainly in Greek-speaking Asia Minor, with many Armenians, especially in the eastern frontier armies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes; Leo the Deacon; Yahya of Antioch; en.wikipedia Peter (stratopedarches)", "note": "Skleros surprised the loyalists while they besieged Lapara; the survivors withdrew to Kotyaion." }, { "id": 1367, "key": "977-rhageai", "name": "Rhageai", "year": 977, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 977", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Bardas Skleros (976-979)", "theatre": "Anatolia", "place": "Rhageai, near Iconium (Konya)", "lat": 37.9, "lon": 32.6, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Bardas Skleros", "faction_b": "Basil II (regency of Basil Lekapenos)", "commanders_a": "Bardas Skleros", "commanders_b": "Leo, protovestiarios; Peter, stratopedarches (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Rebels: Skleros' eastern armies; loyalists: the regrouped army of Anatolia under the eunuch Leo.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were imperial forces raised mainly in Greek-speaking Asia Minor, with many Armenians, especially in the eastern frontier armies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes; Yahya of Antioch; en.wikipedia Peter (stratopedarches)", "note": "The loyalists had earlier beaten Skleros' subordinates Michael Bourtzes and Romanos Taronites; many loyalist commanders fell." }, { "id": 1368, "key": "978-pankaleia", "name": "Pankaleia", "year": 978, "month": 6, "day": 19, "date": "19 June 978 (Yahya of Antioch)", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Bardas Skleros (976-979)", "theatre": "Anatolia", "place": "the plain of Pankaleia, north-east of Amorion", "lat": 39.25, "lon": 31.6, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Bardas Skleros", "faction_b": "Basil II (Bardas Phokas)", "commanders_a": "Bardas Skleros", "commanders_b": "Bardas Phokas the Younger", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Rebels: Skleros' eastern armies; loyalists: the forces gathered in Anatolia by Bardas Phokas, recalled from exile.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were imperial forces raised mainly in Greek-speaking Asia Minor, with many Armenians, especially in the eastern frontier armies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Leo the Deacon; Yahya of Antioch; en.wikipedia Battle of Pankaleia", "note": "Modern scholars, following Leo the Deacon and Yahya, treat this as a defeat for Phokas; Skylitzes gives the name Pankaleia to the decisive battle of 979." }, { "id": 1369, "key": "978-abydos", "name": "Abydos", "year": 978, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "978", "type": "sea", "war": "Revolt of Bardas Skleros (976-979)", "theatre": "Hellespont", "place": "off Abydos, on the Hellespont", "lat": 40.2, "lon": 26.41, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Basil II (regency of Basil Lekapenos)", "faction_b": "Bardas Skleros", "commanders_a": "Bardas Parsakoutenos, magistros, commander of the Imperial Fleet", "commanders_b": "the rebel fleet", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Loyalists: the Imperial Fleet with Greek fire, whose men then landed and beat the rebels ashore; rebels: the fleet that Skleros had raised in the Aegean (Leo the Deacon).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial and thematic fleets were manned mainly from Constantinople and the Greek-speaking coasts and islands of the Aegean.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Leo the Deacon; Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Bardas Parsakoutenos", "note": "Skylitzes credits a naval victory over the rebel fleet of Michael Kourtikios to Theodore Karantenos; it may be the same action. Abydos was recaptured." }, { "id": 1370, "key": "978-nicaea", "name": "Nicaea", "year": 978, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "978", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Bardas Skleros (976-979)", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "Nicaea (Iznik)", "lat": 40.43, "lon": 29.72, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Bardas Skleros", "faction_b": "Basil II (regency of Basil Lekapenos)", "commanders_a": "Bardas Skleros", "commanders_b": "Manuel Erotikos Komnenos", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege ended by agreement: Manuel hid his lack of food with a ruse and left with his men under terms.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Rebels: Skleros' main army; loyalists: the garrison and townsmen of Nicaea under Manuel Erotikos Komnenos (Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were imperial forces raised mainly in Greek-speaking Asia Minor, with many Armenians, especially in the eastern frontier armies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes", "note": "" }, { "id": 1371, "key": "978-basilika-therma", "name": "Basilika Therma", "year": 978, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 978", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Bardas Skleros (976-979)", "theatre": "Anatolia (Charsianon)", "place": "Basilika Therma (Sarikaya), Charsianon", "lat": 39.49, "lon": 35.38, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Bardas Skleros", "faction_b": "Basil II (Bardas Phokas)", "commanders_a": "Bardas Skleros", "commanders_b": "Bardas Phokas the Younger", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Rebels: Skleros' eastern armies; loyalists: Phokas' Anatolian forces before the Iberian reinforcement.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were imperial forces raised mainly in Greek-speaking Asia Minor, with many Armenians, especially in the eastern frontier armies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Battle of Pankaleia", "note": "" }, { "id": 1372, "key": "979-sarvenis", "name": "Sarvenis", "year": 979, "month": 3, "day": 24, "date": "24 March 979", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Bardas Skleros (976-979)", "theatre": "Anatolia", "place": "Sarvenis (Aquae Saravenae, Kirsehir), north of Caesarea, after the Georgian sources; Skylitzes calls it Pankaleia", "lat": 39.15, "lon": 34.16, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Georgia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Basil II (Bardas Phokas)", "faction_b": "Bardas Skleros", "commanders_a": "Bardas Phokas the Younger; John Tornikios (the Iberian contingent)", "commanders_b": "Bardas Skleros (wounded)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Loyalists: Phokas' Anatolian forces with 12,000 Iberian horsemen sent by David III of Tao under John Tornikios (Skylitzes); rebels: Skleros' eastern armies.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Georgian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were imperial forces raised mainly in Greek-speaking Asia Minor, with many Armenians, especially in the eastern frontier armies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Skylitzes; Leo the Deacon; Yahya of Antioch; Psellos; en.wikipedia Battle of Pankaleia", "note": "Phokas wounded Skleros in single combat and the rebel army fled; Skleros escaped to the Hamdanid Abu Taghlib and then Baghdad. Skylitzes names this battle Pankaleia; Leo the Deacon gives that name to the first battle (978), which Phokas lost. Some (Forsyth, Tarchnichvili) see Skylitzes' account as a blend of the two. Skylitzes calls this decisive battle of 979 Pankaleia; modern scholars (Tarchnichvili, Forsyth) place it at Sarvenis (Aquae Saravenae, Kirsehir), with Pankaleia the first battle of June 978." }, { "id": 1373, "key": "986-gates-of-trajan", "name": "Gates of Trajan", "year": 986, "month": 8, "day": 17, "date": "17 August 986", "type": "land", "war": "Basil II's war with Bulgaria (976-1018)", "theatre": "Bulgaria", "place": "the pass of the Gates of Trajan (Trayanovi Vrata), near Ihtiman", "lat": 42.36, "lon": 23.92, "loc": "known", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Samuel; Roman (?)", "commanders_b": "Basil II; Stephen Kontostephanos, Domestic of the West; Leo Melissenos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Basil II's army of the West and the tagmata, perhaps 15,000-20,000 men, of whom an elite Armenian infantry unit cut its way out and saved the emperor (Leo the Deacon; Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The tagmata and western themes were mainly Greek-speaking; the sources single out an Armenian infantry unit.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Leo the Deacon; Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Battle of the Gates of Trajan", "note": "Leo the Deacon was present. The imperial insignia and baggage were captured. Some give 16 August." }, { "id": 1374, "key": "986-larissa-siege", "name": "Larissa (siege)", "year": 986, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "fell in 986 after a long blockade (some date the capture 983)", "type": "land", "war": "Basil II's war with Bulgaria (976-1018)", "theatre": "Thessaly", "place": "Larissa, Thessaly", "lat": 39.64, "lon": 22.42, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Samuel", "commanders_b": "the garrison and townsmen of Larissa", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A blockade ended by famine; little fighting is recorded.", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The garrison and people of Larissa, the chief town of the theme of Hellas in Thessaly.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Vlach (Romance)" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Larissa was a Greek-speaking town; Kekaumenos records Vlachs in its district.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes; Kekaumenos, Strategikon; en.wikipedia Samuel of Bulgaria; en.wikipedia Battle of the Gates of Trajan", "note": "The siege is variously dated from 977 or 983; Zlatarski and Cholpanov date the capture to 983. The inhabitants were deported." }, { "id": 1375, "key": "986-serdica", "name": "Serdica", "year": 986, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "July - August 986 (twenty days)", "type": "land", "war": "Basil II's war with Bulgaria (976-1018)", "theatre": "Bulgaria", "place": "Serdica (Sredets, Sofia)", "lat": 42.7, "lon": 23.32, "loc": "known", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the garrison of Sredets; Samuel", "commanders_b": "Basil II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Basil II's army of the West and the tagmata, perhaps 15,000-20,000 men, with siege engines; the eastern armies stayed facing the Arabs (Leo the Deacon, an eyewitness).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The tagmata and western themes were mainly Greek-speaking; an Armenian infantry unit is named in the retreat.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Leo the Deacon; Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Battle of the Gates of Trajan", "note": "Sorties burned the siege engines; Basil lifted the siege and retreated." }, { "id": 1376, "key": "988-chrysopolis", "name": "Chrysopolis", "year": 988, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "988 (or early 989)", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Bardas Phokas (987-989)", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "Chrysopolis (Uskudar), opposite Constantinople", "lat": 41.02, "lon": 29.02, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Rus'" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Basil II", "faction_b": "Bardas Phokas", "commanders_a": "Basil II", "commanders_b": "Kalokyros Delphinas (captured and executed); Nikephoros Phokas Barytrachelos", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Loyalists: Basil II's troops from the capital with the 6,000 Rus' warriors (Varangians) sent by Vladimir of Kiev; rebels: a detachment of Bardas Phokas' Anatolian army (Skylitzes; Yahya of Antioch).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The sources name the Rus' contingent; the rest of both armies were imperial troops raised mainly in Greek-speaking Anatolia and Thrace.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Skylitzes; Yahya of Antioch; Psellos; en.wikipedia, the article on the rebellion of Bardas Phokas the Younger", "note": "Basil crossed the Bosporus by night and surprised the rebel camp." }, { "id": 1377, "key": "988-chersonesos", "name": "Chersonesos", "year": 988, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "988 (some date it 989)", "type": "land", "war": "Vladimir's war in the Crimea (988-989)", "theatre": "Crimea", "place": "Chersonesos (Cherson), near Sevastopol", "lat": 44.61, "lon": 33.49, "loc": "known", "country": "Ukraine", "side_a": [ "Rus'" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Vladimir I of Kiev", "commanders_b": "the citizens and garrison of Cherson", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Whether Cherson then held for Basil II or for the rebel Phokas, and so whether Vladimir was fighting the emperor, is disputed.", "main_enemy": "Rus'", "opponent_group": "Slavs", "roman_force": "The citizens and garrison of Cherson, the empire's city in the Crimea.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Cherson was a Greek-speaking city defended by its own citizens.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Russian Primary Chronicle; Leo the Deacon; Yahya of Antioch", "note": "The Primary Chronicle tells of a siege of several months, ended when the water supply was cut; modern scholars (Poppe) date it 989." }, { "id": 1378, "key": "989-abydos", "name": "Abydos", "year": 989, "month": 4, "day": 13, "date": "13 April 989", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Bardas Phokas (987-989)", "theatre": "Hellespont", "place": "before Abydos, on the Hellespont", "lat": 40.2, "lon": 26.41, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Rus'" ], "allies_b": [ "Georgia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Basil II", "faction_b": "Bardas Phokas", "commanders_a": "Basil II; Constantine VIII", "commanders_b": "Bardas Phokas (died on the field); Leo Melissenos", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The battle barely began: Phokas died, of a seizure or poison, as he rode at the emperor's line, and his army broke up.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Loyalists: Basil II's army with the Varangians; rebels: Phokas' Anatolian army, with Caucasian troops from David III of Tao, besieging Abydos (Psellos; Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English", "Armenian", "Georgian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Both armies were mainly imperial thematic and tagmatic troops; the sources name the Rus' and the Iberian contingents.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Psellos; Skylitzes; Yahya of Antioch; en.wikipedia Bardas Phokas the Younger", "note": "Some give 16 April 989." }, { "id": 1379, "key": "994-orontes", "name": "Orontes", "year": 994, "month": 9, "day": 15, "date": "15 September 994", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Fatimid wars", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "the fords of the Orontes near Apamea", "lat": 35.42, "lon": 36.38, "loc": "approx", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Fatimids" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Hamdanids" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Manjutakin, Fatimid governor of Damascus", "commanders_b": "Michael Bourtzes, doux of Antioch", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Fatimids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The forces of the duchy of Antioch under Michael Bourtzes, with the Hamdanid troops of Aleppo as allies.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of the duchy of Antioch mixed Greek-speaking tagmata with many Armenians and local Syrian Christians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Yahya of Antioch; Ibn al-Qalanisi; en.wikipedia Battle of the Orontes", "note": "About 5,000 of the imperial army fell. Basil II relieved Aleppo by a forced march in 995 without a battle." }, { "id": 1380, "key": "995-thessalonica", "name": "Thessalonica", "year": 995, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "995 or earlier (an Armenian source says 991)", "type": "land", "war": "Basil II's war with Bulgaria (976-1018)", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "near Thessalonica", "lat": 40.66, "lon": 22.9, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Samuel", "commanders_b": "Gregory Taronites, doux of Thessalonica (killed); his son Ashot (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The garrison and forces of the duchy of Thessalonica under Gregory Taronites, an Armenian prince in imperial service.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The garrison of Thessalonica was drawn from the Greek-speaking population of Macedonia, under Armenian commanders.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes; Stephen of Taron; en.wikipedia Battle of Thessalonica (995)", "note": "An ambush; Skylitzes' account implies 996, but John Chaldos was already doux in 995/996." }, { "id": 1381, "key": "997-spercheios", "name": "Spercheios", "year": 997, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "July 997 (16 July; some say 996)", "type": "land", "war": "Basil II's war with Bulgaria (976-1018)", "theatre": "Greece", "place": "the river Spercheios near Lamia", "lat": 38.88, "lon": 22.4, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Nikephoros Ouranos, Domestic of the West", "commanders_b": "Samuel (wounded); Gavril Radomir", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "A large army given by Basil II to Nikephoros Ouranos as commander of the West, which forded the flooded river by night (Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The armies of the West were raised mainly in Greek-speaking Thrace, Macedonia and Greece, with Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Skylitzes; Yahya of Antioch; en.wikipedia Battle of Spercheios", "note": "en.wikipedia gives 16 July 997 in the battle article and 19 July 996 in the article on Samuel. Yahya: 1,000 heads and 12,000 captives." }, { "id": 1382, "key": "998-tyre", "name": "Tyre", "year": 998, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 998", "type": "sea", "war": "Roman-Fatimid wars", "theatre": "Levant coast", "place": "off Tyre", "lat": 33.27, "lon": 35.19, "loc": "approx", "country": "Lebanon", "side_a": [ "Fatimids" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the Fatimid fleet and army sent by the regent Barjawan", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A naval action in support of a rebel city; few details survive.", "main_enemy": "Fatimids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A squadron of imperial ships sent to help Tyre, which had rebelled against the Fatimids under the sailor Allaqa (Yahya of Antioch).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial and thematic fleets were manned mainly from Constantinople and the Greek-speaking coasts and islands of the Aegean.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Yahya of Antioch; Ibn al-Qalanisi; en.wikipedia Battle of Apamea (background)", "note": "The Fatimids beat off the imperial ships and retook Tyre." }, { "id": 1383, "key": "998-apamea", "name": "Apamea", "year": 998, "month": 7, "day": 19, "date": "19 July 998", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Fatimid wars", "theatre": "Syria", "place": "the plain of al-Mudiq near Apamea", "lat": 35.42, "lon": 36.4, "loc": "known", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Fatimids" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Jaysh ibn al-Samsama", "commanders_b": "Damian Dalassenos, doux of Antioch (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Fatimids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The army of the duchy of Antioch under Damian Dalassenos, with Georgian and Armenian officers such as the patrikios Tchortovanel (captured) (Yahya of Antioch).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Georgian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of the duchy of Antioch mixed Greek-speaking tagmata with many Armenians and Georgians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Yahya of Antioch; Ibn al-Qalanisi; en.wikipedia Battle of Apamea", "note": "5,000-10,000 of the imperial army fell and about 2,000 were captured. Basil II's campaign of 999 followed." }, { "id": 1384, "key": "1001-servia", "name": "Servia", "year": 1001, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1001", "type": "land", "war": "Basil II's war with Bulgaria (976-1018)", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Servia, western Macedonia", "lat": 40.18, "lon": 22.0, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Basil II", "commanders_b": "Nikulitsa (Nikoulitzas), governor of Servia (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege recorded briefly by Skylitzes.", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Basil II's field army of the Balkan war (Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The armies of the West, raised mainly in Greek-speaking Thrace, Macedonia and Greece, with Armenians and eastern veterans moved to the Balkans.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Samuel of Bulgaria", "note": "Some date it 1002 and credit Basil's generals." }, { "id": 1385, "key": "1001-vodena", "name": "Vodena", "year": 1001, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1001 or 1002", "type": "land", "war": "Basil II's war with Bulgaria (976-1018)", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Vodena (Edessa)", "lat": 40.8, "lon": 22.05, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Basil II", "commanders_b": "Dragshan", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege recorded briefly by Skylitzes.", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Basil II's field army of the Balkan war (Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The armies of the West, raised mainly in Greek-speaking Thrace, Macedonia and Greece, with Armenians and eastern veterans moved to the Balkans.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Samuel of Bulgaria", "note": "The town fell after a long siege; its garrison was resettled." }, { "id": 1386, "key": "1002-vidin", "name": "Vidin", "year": 1002, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1002-1003 (eight months)", "type": "land", "war": "Basil II's war with Bulgaria (976-1018)", "theatre": "Bulgaria (Danube)", "place": "Vidin, on the Danube", "lat": 43.99, "lon": 22.88, "loc": "known", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Basil II", "commanders_b": "the Bulgarian garrison of Vidin", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Basil II's field army of the Balkan war with its siege train (Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The armies of the West, raised mainly in Greek-speaking Thrace, Macedonia and Greece, with Armenians and eastern veterans moved to the Balkans.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Samuel of Bulgaria; en.wikipedia Battle of Skopje", "note": "Some date it 1003. Samuel raided Adrianople on 15 August 1003 while Basil was at Vidin." }, { "id": 1387, "key": "1002-bari", "name": "Bari", "year": 1002, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1002 (some date it 1003 or 1004)", "type": "land", "war": "Arab-Roman wars (Kalbids of Sicily)", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Bari, Apulia", "lat": 41.13, "lon": 16.87, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [ "Venice" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gregory Tarchaneiotes, catepan of Italy; Pietro II Orseolo, doge of Venice", "commanders_b": "the Saracens of Sicily (leader uncertain)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Bari under the catepan; a Venetian fleet broke the blockade (John the Deacon).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The catepan's garrison was imperial, but Bari's citizens were mostly Lombard and Latin-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "John the Deacon, Chronicle of Venice; Lupus Protospatharius", "note": "The siege lasted several months and was raised after the Venetian relief." }, { "id": 1388, "key": "1004-skopje", "name": "Skopje", "year": 1004, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1004 (some say 1003)", "type": "land", "war": "Basil II's war with Bulgaria (976-1018)", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "the Vardar at Skopje", "lat": 42.0, "lon": 21.43, "loc": "approx", "country": "North Macedonia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Basil II", "commanders_b": "Samuel", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Basil II's field army, which forded the Vardar and attacked Samuel's camp at night (Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The armies of the West, raised mainly in Greek-speaking Thrace, Macedonia and Greece, with Armenians and eastern veterans moved to the Balkans.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Battle of Skopje", "note": "Skopje was then surrendered by its governor Romanos." }, { "id": 1389, "key": "1004-pernik", "name": "Pernik", "year": 1004, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1004", "type": "land", "war": "Basil II's war with Bulgaria (976-1018)", "theatre": "Bulgaria", "place": "Pernik", "lat": 42.61, "lon": 23.03, "loc": "known", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Krakra, governor of Pernik", "commanders_b": "Basil II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Basil II's field army of the Balkan war (Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The armies of the West, raised mainly in Greek-speaking Thrace, Macedonia and Greece, with Armenians and eastern veterans moved to the Balkans.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Samuel of Bulgaria", "note": "Basil withdrew with heavy losses." }, { "id": 1390, "key": "1009-kreta", "name": "Kreta", "year": 1009, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1009", "type": "land", "war": "Basil II's war with Bulgaria (976-1018)", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "near the village of Kreta, east of Thessalonica", "lat": 40.65, "lon": 23.2, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Basil II", "commanders_b": "Samuel", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Basil II's field army of the Balkan war.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The armies of the West, raised mainly in Greek-speaking Thrace, Macedonia and Greece, with Armenians and eastern veterans moved to the Balkans.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "en.wikipedia Battle of Kreta; en.wikipedia Samuel of Bulgaria", "note": "Little is known of this battle." }, { "id": 1391, "key": "1010-bari", "name": "Bari", "year": 1010, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1010 - 11 June 1011", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Melus (1009-1011)", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Bari, Apulia", "lat": 41.13, "lon": 16.87, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Lombards" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Basil Mesardonites, catepan of Italy", "commanders_b": "Melus; Dattus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Lombards", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "A large army gathered by the new catepan Basil Mesardonites, who brought reinforcements in March 1010.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Imperial troops sent from the East served beside local Apulian levies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Lupus Protospatharius; Annales Barenses; en.wikipedia Melus of Bari; en.wikipedia Norman conquest of southern Italy", "note": "The rebels were Lombard citizens of Bari; the city negotiated its surrender and the catepan entered on 11 June 1011." }, { "id": 1392, "key": "1014-kleidion", "name": "Kleidion", "year": 1014, "month": 7, "day": 29, "date": "29 July 1014", "type": "land", "war": "Basil II's war with Bulgaria (976-1018)", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "the Kleidion pass (Klyuch), between the Belasitsa and Ograzhden mountains", "lat": 41.38, "lon": 23.06, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Basil II; Nikephoros Xiphias, strategos of Philippopolis", "commanders_b": "Samuel; Gavril Radomir", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Basil II's main Balkan field army, veterans of many campaigns, with the flanking force under Nikephoros Xiphias that crossed the Belasitsa to take the Bulgarian wall from the rear (Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The armies of the West, raised mainly in Greek-speaking Thrace, Macedonia and Greece, with Armenians and eastern veterans moved to the Balkans.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Skylitzes; Kekaumenos; en.wikipedia Battle of Kleidion", "note": "Skylitzes says 15,000 prisoners were blinded (8,000 in the Bulgarian translation of Manasses). Samuel died on 6 October 1014." }, { "id": 1393, "key": "1014-thessalonica", "name": "Thessalonica", "year": 1014, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "July (summer) 1014", "type": "land", "war": "Basil II's war with Bulgaria (976-1018)", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "the fields west of Thessalonica (or by the Galikos river)", "lat": 40.64, "lon": 22.88, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Theophylaktos Botaneiates, doux of Thessalonica; his son Michael", "commanders_b": "Nestoritsa", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The forces of the duchy of Thessalonica under Theophylaktos Botaneiates, with cavalry under his son Michael.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The duchy of Thessalonica's troops came from Greek-speaking Macedonia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Battle of Thessalonica (1014)", "note": "A Bulgarian diversion before Kleidion; Botaneiates then joined Basil." }, { "id": 1394, "key": "1014-strumitsa", "name": "Strumitsa", "year": 1014, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August 1014", "type": "land", "war": "Basil II's war with Bulgaria (976-1018)", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "a gorge near Strumitsa (perhaps the Kosturino gorge)", "lat": 41.4, "lon": 22.73, "loc": "approx", "country": "North Macedonia", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gavril Radomir", "commanders_b": "Theophylaktos Botaneiates (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "A detachment of Basil II's army under Theophylaktos Botaneiates, sent to clear the passes towards Thessalonica (Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The armies of the West, raised mainly in Greek-speaking Thrace, Macedonia and Greece, with Armenians and eastern veterans moved to the Balkans.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Battle of Strumica", "note": "Basil lifted the siege of Strumitsa and withdrew." }, { "id": 1395, "key": "1015-moglena", "name": "Moglena", "year": 1015, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 1015", "type": "land", "war": "Basil II's war with Bulgaria (976-1018)", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "the fortress of Moglena (Almopia)", "lat": 40.98, "lon": 22.06, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Basil II; Nikephoros Xiphias; Constantine Diogenes", "commanders_b": "Dometian, kavkhan (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege recorded briefly by Skylitzes.", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Basil II's field army; the river was diverted and the walls undermined (Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The armies of the West, raised mainly in Greek-speaking Thrace, Macedonia and Greece, with Armenians and eastern veterans moved to the Balkans.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Battle of Bitola (1015)", "note": "" }, { "id": 1396, "key": "1015-bitola", "name": "Bitola", "year": 1015, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 1015", "type": "land", "war": "Basil II's war with Bulgaria (976-1018)", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "near Bitola, Pelagonia", "lat": 41.03, "lon": 21.33, "loc": "approx", "country": "North Macedonia", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ivats", "commanders_b": "George Gonitsiates; Orestes, protospatharios", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "A large detachment left in Pelagonia under George Gonitsiates and Orestes to ravage the country and guard Basil's rear (Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The armies of the West, raised mainly in Greek-speaking Thrace, Macedonia and Greece, with Armenians and eastern veterans moved to the Balkans.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Battle of Bitola (1015)", "note": "The detachment was ambushed and destroyed." }, { "id": 1397, "key": "1016-pernik", "name": "Pernik", "year": 1016, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 1016 (88 days)", "type": "land", "war": "Basil II's war with Bulgaria (976-1018)", "theatre": "Bulgaria", "place": "Pernik", "lat": 42.61, "lon": 23.03, "loc": "known", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Krakra, governor of Pernik", "commanders_b": "Basil II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Basil II's field army with its siege train (Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The armies of the West, raised mainly in Greek-speaking Thrace, Macedonia and Greece, with Armenians and eastern veterans moved to the Balkans.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Battle of Setina (background)", "note": "Basil withdrew to Mosynopolis after heavy losses." }, { "id": 1398, "key": "1017-arenula", "name": "Arenula", "year": 1017, "month": 5, "day": null, "date": "May 1017", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Melus (1017-1018)", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Arenula, on the Fortore", "lat": 41.7, "lon": 15.1, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Lombards" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Normans" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Melus of Bari; Gilbert Buatere and the Normans", "commanders_b": "Leo Passianos (sent by the catepan Leo Tornikios Kontoleon)", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Lombards", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The forces of the catepanate of Italy under Leo Passianos.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The catepanate's army combined imperial troops from the Balkans and Anatolia with Lombard and Latin-speaking Apulian levies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "William of Apulia; Leo of Ostia; Amatus of Montecassino; en.wikipedia Norman conquest of southern Italy; en.wikipedia Melus of Bari", "note": "William of Apulia calls it indecisive; Leo of Ostia and Amatus a victory for Melus." }, { "id": 1399, "key": "1017-civita", "name": "Civita", "year": 1017, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 1017", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Melus (1017-1018)", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Civita, near San Paolo di Civitate", "lat": 41.74, "lon": 15.26, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Lombards" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Normans" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Melus of Bari; the Normans", "commanders_b": "Leo Tornikios Kontoleon, catepan of Italy", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Lombards", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The catepan's army of the catepanate of Italy.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The catepanate's army combined imperial troops from the Balkans and Anatolia with Lombard and Latin-speaking Apulian levies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "William of Apulia; Leo of Ostia; Lupus Protospatharius; en.wikipedia Norman conquest of southern Italy", "note": "Most sources give Melus the victory; Lupus Protospatharius and the Annals of Bari record an imperial victory." }, { "id": 1400, "key": "1017-kastoria", "name": "Kastoria", "year": 1017, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1017", "type": "land", "war": "Basil II's war with Bulgaria (976-1018)", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Kastoria", "lat": 40.52, "lon": 21.26, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the Bulgarian garrison of Kastoria", "commanders_b": "Basil II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A failed siege; the fighting is not described.", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Basil II's army of 1017, which included Rus' mercenaries (Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The armies of the West, raised mainly in Greek-speaking Thrace, Macedonia and Greece, with Armenians and eastern veterans moved to the Balkans.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Battle of Setina", "note": "Basil withdrew on news of Bulgarian negotiations with the Pechenegs." }, { "id": 1401, "key": "1017-setina", "name": "Setina", "year": 1017, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 1017", "type": "land", "war": "Basil II's war with Bulgaria (976-1018)", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Setina, between Ostrovo and Bitola", "lat": 40.85, "lon": 21.65, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Basil II; Constantine Diogenes", "commanders_b": "Ivan Vladislav", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Basil II's army of 1017, which included Rus' mercenaries; the units under Constantine Diogenes were ambushed and rescued by the emperor (Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The armies of the West, raised mainly in Greek-speaking Thrace, Macedonia and Greece, with Armenians and eastern veterans moved to the Balkans.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Battle of Setina", "note": "About 200 Bulgarians were taken prisoner (Skylitzes)." }, { "id": 1402, "key": "1017-vaccarizza", "name": "Vaccarizza", "year": 1017, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 1017", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Melus (1017-1018)", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Vaccarizza (Vaccaricia), near Troia", "lat": 41.4, "lon": 15.38, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Lombards" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Normans" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Melus of Bari; the Normans", "commanders_b": "the catepan's commanders (Leo Tornikios Kontoleon's army)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Lombards", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The army of the catepanate of Italy.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The catepanate's army combined imperial troops from the Balkans and Anatolia with Lombard and Latin-speaking Apulian levies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "William of Apulia; Leo of Ostia; en.wikipedia Norman conquest of southern Italy", "note": "A decisive victory for Melus: the land from the Fortore to Trani came under his control, and Tornikios was replaced by Basil Boioannes." }, { "id": 1403, "key": "1018-dyrrhachium", "name": "Dyrrhachium", "year": 1018, "month": 2, "day": null, "date": "February 1018", "type": "land", "war": "Basil II's war with Bulgaria (976-1018)", "theatre": "Adriatic coast", "place": "before Dyrrhachium (Durres)", "lat": 41.32, "lon": 19.45, "loc": "approx", "country": "Albania", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Niketas Pegonites, strategos of Dyrrhachium; David Areianites", "commanders_b": "Ivan Vladislav (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The garrison of Dyrrhachium under its strategos, whose sortie broke the besiegers (Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Dyrrhachium was an imperial Greek-speaking stronghold; its garrison came from the empire.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Battle of Dyrrhachium (1018)", "note": "Ivan Vladislav's death ended Bulgarian resistance; the Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja tells another version." }, { "id": 1404, "key": "1018-cannae", "name": "Cannae", "year": 1018, "month": 10, "day": null, "date": "October 1018 (some say 1019)", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Melus (1017-1018)", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Cannae, on the Ofanto", "lat": 41.3, "lon": 16.15, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Lombards" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Normans" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Basil Boioannes, catepan of Italy", "commanders_b": "Melus of Bari; Gilbert Buatere (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Lombards", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The catepan Basil Boioannes' army, with a detachment of the Varangian Guard sent by Basil II at his request.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The catepanate's army combined imperial troops from the Balkans and Anatolia, Apulian levies and a Varangian detachment.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "William of Apulia; Amatus of Montecassino; Leo of Ostia; en.wikipedia Battle of Cannae (1018)", "note": "Amatus says the Normans numbered 250 and only ten survived. Melus fled to the Papal States and then to Henry II." }, { "id": 1405, "key": "1021-garigliano-tower", "name": "Garigliano tower", "year": 1021, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 1021 (before 15 June)", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Melus: its aftermath", "theatre": "Campania", "place": "a fortified tower on the Garigliano, in the territory of Gaeta", "lat": 41.23, "lon": 13.77, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Lombards" ], "allies_a": [ "Lombards" ], "allies_b": [ "Papal States" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Basil Boioannes, catepan of Italy; Pandulf IV of Capua", "commanders_b": "Dattus (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The capture of a single tower; a small action.", "main_enemy": "Lombards", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The catepan's army, helped by Pandulf IV of Capua; Dattus held the tower with papal troops.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The catepanate's army combined imperial troops with Apulian levies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Leo of Ostia; Annales Barenses; en.wikipedia Norman conquest of southern Italy", "note": "Dattus was executed at Bari on 15 June 1021 by the poena cullei." }, { "id": 1406, "key": "1021-shirimni", "name": "Shirimni", "year": 1021, "month": 9, "day": 11, "date": "11 September 1021", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Georgian war (1021-1022)", "theatre": "Georgia (Tao)", "place": "Shirimni, by Lake Palakatsio (Cildir)", "lat": 41.1, "lon": 43.2, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Georgia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Armenia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Basil II", "commanders_b": "George I of Georgia; Rati Baghuashi and Khursi (both killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Georgia", "opponent_group": "Caucasus", "roman_force": "Basil II's field army of the East, led in person; its make-up is not detailed, but Varangians are reported in the Georgian campaign of 1021-1022.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Norse/English" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes; Aristakes of Lastivert; Kartlis Tskhovreba; en.wikipedia Battle of Shirimni", "note": "Sometimes dated 1022; the war ended in 1022 after a second victory at Svindax. en.wikipedia lists an Armenian ally of Georgia." }, { "id": 1407, "key": "1022-svindax", "name": "Svindax", "year": 1022, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 1022", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Georgian war (1021-1022)", "theatre": "Armenia (Phasiane)", "place": "Svindax, in Phasiane (Basean)", "lat": 39.9, "lon": 41.6, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Georgia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Basil II", "commanders_b": "George I of Georgia", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Georgia", "opponent_group": "Caucasus", "roman_force": "Basil II's field army of the East, led in person.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Norse/English" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of this period was raised mainly in the Greek-speaking themes of Asia Minor and the tagmata of Constantinople, with a substantial Armenian element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kartlis Tskhovreba; Aristakes of Lastivert; en.wikipedia Battle of Svindax", "note": "George I then made peace, ceding the disputed lands of Tao." }, { "id": 1408, "key": "1022-troia", "name": "Troia", "year": 1022, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring - summer 1022 (about three months)", "type": "land", "war": "Henry II's Italian expedition (1021-1022)", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Troia, Apulia", "lat": 41.36, "lon": 15.31, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Holy Roman Empire" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the citizens and garrison of Troia", "commanders_b": "Henry II, emperor in the West", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Holy Roman Empire", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The settlers and garrison of Troia, a frontier city founded by Basil Boioannes, which had Norman mercenaries in imperial pay.", "languages": [ "Italian", "French", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Troia's settlers were mostly Lombard and Latin-speaking Apulians, with Norman soldiers; few Greek speakers are likely.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Raoul Glaber; Leo of Ostia; Amatus of Montecassino; en.wikipedia Norman conquest of southern Italy", "note": "Troia did not fall; Raoul Glaber says the townsmen finally made a nominal submission, and Henry withdrew." }, { "id": 1409, "key": "1024-lemnos", "name": "Lemnos", "year": 1024, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1024", "type": "sea", "war": "Rus' raid of Chrysocheir (1024)", "theatre": "Aegean", "place": "Lemnos", "lat": 39.9, "lon": 25.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rus'" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "David of Ohrid, strategos of Samos; Nikephoros Kabasilas, doux of Thessalonica", "commanders_b": "Chrysocheir, a kinsman of Vladimir", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rus'", "opponent_group": "Slavs", "roman_force": "The fleets of Samos and of the Kibyrrhaiotai and the troops of Nikephoros Kabasilas from Thessalonica (Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The sources name the naval theme of the Kibyrrhaiotai, the squadron of Samos and the troops of Thessalonica, all Greek-speaking provinces.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes; en.wikipedia Battle of Lemnos (1024)", "note": "Chrysocheir's 800 Rus' had forced the Hellespont; the imperial commanders feigned negotiations and then destroyed them." }, { "id": 1410, "key": "1028-kldekari-siege", "name": "Kldekari (siege)", "year": 1028, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1028 (before Constantine VIII's death in November)", "type": "land", "war": "War with Georgia of 1028", "theatre": "Trialeti (Georgia)", "place": "Kldekari fortress, in the Trialeti range", "lat": 41.74, "lon": 44.21, "loc": "known", "country": "Georgia", "side_a": [ "Georgia" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Liparit IV of Kldekari, for Bagrat IV", "commanders_b": "the parakoimomenos ('Parakimanos' of the Georgian chronicle), sent by Constantine VIII", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from the Georgian chronicle; the Wikipedia articles say the fortress was 'fiercely defended' and the Romans forced to retreat, without detail of the fighting.", "main_enemy": "Georgia", "opponent_group": "Caucasus", "roman_force": "The army that Constantine VIII sent into Georgia under his parakoimomenos, which overran Artaani and threatened Kldekari; the sources give no units or numbers. Probably the eastern tagmata with the troops of the theme of Iberia (inferred).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Georgian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "An expedition sent from Constantinople would have included the Greek-speaking tagmata, beside Armenian and Georgian troops of the Iberian frontier themes.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Georgian Chronicles (Chronicle of Kartli); en.wikipedia Kldekari Fortress; en.wikipedia, the article on the war with Georgia of 1028", "note": "The same campaign met a successful local defence in Shavsheti organized by Bishop Saba of Tbeti (not entered). Peace followed under Romanos III (1030/31)." }, { "id": 1411, "key": "1029-qaybar", "name": "Qaybar", "year": 1029, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "July 1029", "type": "land", "war": "Wars with the Mirdasids of Aleppo", "theatre": "Northern Syria", "place": "Qaybar, near the frontier of Antioch and Aleppo", "lat": 36.1, "lon": 36.6, "loc": "region", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the Banu Kilab (Mirdasids)", "commanders_b": "officers of Michael Spondyles, doux of Antioch", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only as the place where a Roman force was destroyed by the Kilab; no separate article.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A detachment of the army of the doux of Antioch; the sources give no units or numbers.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The ducate of Antioch drew on Greek, Armenian and Syrian Christian soldiers of the frontier.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Yahya of Antioch; en.wikipedia Battle of Azaz (1030) (background)", "note": "The defeat led Romanos III to march on Aleppo in 1030." }, { "id": 1412, "key": "1030-azaz", "name": "Azaz", "year": 1030, "month": 8, "day": 8, "date": "8-10 August 1030", "type": "land", "war": "Wars with the Mirdasids of Aleppo", "theatre": "Northern Syria", "place": "Azaz, northwest of Aleppo", "lat": 36.58, "lon": 37.04, "loc": "known", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Shibl al-Dawla Nasr, Mirdasid emir of Aleppo", "commanders_b": "Romanos III Argyros, Leo Choirosphaktes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The emperor's field army, about 20,000 by modern estimate, with the Exkoubitoi under Leo Choirosphaktes, the Hetaireia and Armenian and other foreign mercenaries; routed by 700-2,000 Bedouin horsemen of the Kilab and Numayr.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "other" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The tagmata were recruited mainly in Anatolia and Thrace, but the army 'contained many foreign mercenaries', Armenians among them.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Romanos III 4; Yahya of Antioch; Psellos, Chronographia 3.7-11; en.wikipedia Battle of Azaz (1030)", "note": "The Arabs took the whole baggage train but could not exploit the victory." }, { "id": 1413, "key": "1031-edessa", "name": "Edessa", "year": 1031, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1031", "type": "land", "war": "Wars in Upper Mesopotamia", "theatre": "Upper Mesopotamia", "place": "Edessa (Urfa)", "lat": 37.15, "lon": 38.79, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "George Maniakes, strategos of Teluch", "commanders_b": "Marwanid and Numayrid commanders (Nasr al-Dawla, Shibl al-Dawla)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A purchased citadel followed by fighting for the town, not a pitched battle.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison troops of Teluch and the Euphrates frontier under Maniakes, who occupied the citadel sold by Ibn Utayr and held it against the Muslim troops in the town.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Aramaic/Syriac" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The frontier commands of the Euphrates were manned by Greek and Armenian soldiers with local Syrian Christians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Romanos III 10; Matthew of Edessa 1.50; en.wikipedia George Maniakes, Numayrids", "note": "Dated 1031 or 1032; the Muslim inhabitants were killed or expelled and Edessa stayed Roman until 1086." }, { "id": 1414, "key": "1036-edessa", "name": "Edessa", "year": 1036, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1036", "type": "land", "war": "Wars in Upper Mesopotamia", "theatre": "Upper Mesopotamia", "place": "Edessa (Urfa)", "lat": 37.15, "lon": 38.79, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the Roman garrison of the citadel", "commanders_b": "Shabib ibn Waththab (Numayrid), with Marwanid and Uqaylid troops", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Siege of uncertain scale; the town was taken and looted but the citadel held.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The Roman garrison of the citadel of Edessa; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The frontier garrisons of the 1030s were Greek and Armenian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Michael IV; Ibn al-Athir; en.wikipedia Numayrids", "note": "The attackers withdrew when the Seljuks threatened Harran; peace in 1037 confirmed Edessa as Roman." }, { "id": 1415, "key": "1038-messina", "name": "Messina", "year": 1038, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 1038", "type": "land", "war": "Sicilian expedition of George Maniakes", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "beach near the Strait of Messina, possibly Pelorus (Torre Faro)", "lat": 38.26, "lon": 15.63, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "George Maniakes, Katakalon Kekaumenos, Harald Sigurdsson, Stephen (fleet)", "commanders_b": "Kalbid commanders (unnamed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "At least 10,000 men: eastern thematic units (Kekaumenos led the Armeniakon contingent), up to 1,000 Varangians under Harald, and up to 2,000 Italian recruits including 300-500 Normans under Arduin and Rainulf, landed by Stephen's fleet.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English", "Italian", "French", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Skylitzes names thematic contingents from Anatolia (the Armeniakon) as the core of the army, with Varangian and Italian-Norman mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Michael IV 20; Kekaumenos, Strategikon; Malaterra 1.7; en.wikipedia Capture of Messina (1038)", "note": "An opposed landing; Messina then surrendered without a siege." }, { "id": 1416, "key": "1038-rometta", "name": "Rometta", "year": 1038, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1038", "type": "land", "war": "Sicilian expedition of George Maniakes", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Rometta, in the hills west of Messina", "lat": 38.17, "lon": 15.42, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "George Maniakes, Katakalon Kekaumenos, Harald Sigurdsson, Basil Pediadites", "commanders_b": "Abdallah ibn al-Muizz (Zirid)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "10,000-15,000 men (modern estimate): Anatolian thematic and tagmatic troops, 1,000 Varangians, 2,000 Italian recruits and auxiliaries including 300-500 Normans, perhaps some Sicilian Christians.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English", "Italian", "French" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The army was built round thematic troops from Anatolia; the Varangians and Italians were a few thousand at most.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Michael IV 20; Malaterra 1.7; en.wikipedia Battle of Rometta (1038)", "note": "Fought against a combined Kalbid-Zirid army; Rometta was taken." }, { "id": 1417, "key": "1040-syracuse-siege", "name": "Syracuse (siege)", "year": 1040, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 1038 - spring 1040", "type": "land", "war": "Sicilian expedition of George Maniakes", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Syracuse", "lat": 37.07, "lon": 15.29, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "George Maniakes, Katakalon Kekaumenos, Harald Sigurdsson, William Iron Arm, Arduin, Stephen", "commanders_b": "Archadius, qaid of Syracuse (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Maniakes' expeditionary army of 10,000-15,000: Anatolian thematic troops, 1,000 Varangians, 2,000 Italian recruits with 300-500 Normans, and the fleet.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English", "Italian", "French" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The thematic contingents from Anatolia formed the bulk; Varangians, Lombards and Normans were mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Michael IV 20; Malaterra 1.7; Amatus 2.8; en.wikipedia Campaign for Syracuse (1038-1040)", "note": "The garrison was defeated in a battle under the walls (William Iron Arm killed its commander in single combat) and the city taken in 1040." }, { "id": 1418, "key": "1040-dranginai-troina", "name": "Dranginai (Troina)", "year": 1040, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 1040", "type": "land", "war": "Sicilian expedition of George Maniakes", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Dranginai, probably Troina", "lat": 37.78, "lon": 14.6, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "George Maniakes, Harald Sigurdsson, Arduin, William Iron Arm, Drogo of Hauteville", "commanders_b": "Abdallah ibn al-Muizz (Zirid)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A large army with 1,000 Varangians in the centre under Harald, 300-500 Norman horse on the wings under William Iron Arm, and the Roman heavy cavalry that Maniakes sent in to decide the battle.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English", "French", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Skylitzes' account has the Roman cavalry and thematic troops as the main force, with Varangians and Normans as named mercenary units.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Michael IV 20; Malaterra 1.7; en.wikipedia Battle of Dranginai (1040)", "note": "Troina is the usual identification. Malaterra's 60,000 Zirids and Skylitzes' 50,000 dead are not credible." }, { "id": 1419, "key": "1040-thessalonica", "name": "Thessalonica", "year": 1040, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1040", "type": "land", "war": "Uprising of Peter Delyan", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "near Thessalonica", "lat": 40.64, "lon": 22.94, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Peter Delyan", "commanders_b": "Michael IV", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Skylitzes describes Michael IV leaving Thessalonica as the rebels approached rather than a pitched battle.", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The emperor's escort and the troops with him at Thessalonica; the sources give no units or numbers.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The tagmata and the troops of Thessalonica were mainly Greek-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Michael IV 24; en.wikipedia Battle of Thessalonica (1040); en.wikipedia Uprising of Peter Delyan", "note": "Not a double of 1040-thessalonica-siege: English Wikipedia has two articles, this one (Delyan 'surprised and defeated' Michael IV at Thessalonica, after which the emperor fled and his officer Manuel Ivats went over to Delyan) and 'Battle of Thessalonica (2nd 1040)', Alusian's failed attack in the autumn. Delyan's rebels were former Roman subjects of the Bulgarian lands, counted here as Bulgaria." }, { "id": 1420, "key": "1040-thebes", "name": "Thebes", "year": 1040, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1040", "type": "land", "war": "Uprising of Peter Delyan", "theatre": "Central Greece", "place": "Thebes, Boeotia", "lat": 38.32, "lon": 23.32, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Antim (Anthimos)", "commanders_b": "Alakaseus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The thematic army of Hellas; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The theme of Hellas was raised in Boeotia and Attica.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Michael IV 24; en.wikipedia Uprising of Peter Delyan", "note": "" }, { "id": 1421, "key": "1040-thessalonica-siege", "name": "Thessalonica (siege)", "year": 1040, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 1040", "type": "land", "war": "Uprising of Peter Delyan", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Thessalonica", "lat": 40.64, "lon": 22.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the garrison of Thessalonica (the patrikios Constantine)", "commanders_b": "Alusian", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The garrison and the tagma stationed at Thessalonica, which sallied and routed Alusian's besieging army (said to be 40,000, with 15,000 killed).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The defenders were the Greek-speaking garrison and citizens of Thessalonica.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Michael IV 26; en.wikipedia Battle of Thessalonica (2nd 1040); en.wikipedia Uprising of Peter Delyan", "note": "The sortie was credited to Saint Demetrios; the rebel figures are Skylitzes'." }, { "id": 1422, "key": "1041-olivento", "name": "Olivento", "year": 1041, "month": 3, "day": 17, "date": "17 March 1041", "type": "land", "war": "Norman conquest of southern Italy", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "on the Olivento river, near Venosa", "lat": 41.02, "lon": 15.78, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Normans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Lombards" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "William Iron Arm, Rainulf Drengot, Arduin", "commanders_b": "Michael Dokeianos, catepan of Italy", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Normans", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Several thousand men: units of the Opsikion and Thrakesion and Varangians (Harald Hardrada among them), against 300 Norman knights and 600 foot.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Skylitzes names the Opsikion and Thrakesion units, Anatolian Greek-speaking troops, as Dokeianos' army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Michael IV 28; William of Apulia 1; Amatus 2.21; en.wikipedia Battle of Olivento", "note": "Some accounts give 16 March. Many Romans drowned in the river." }, { "id": 1423, "key": "1041-montemaggiore", "name": "Montemaggiore", "year": 1041, "month": 5, "day": 4, "date": "4 May 1041", "type": "land", "war": "Norman conquest of southern Italy", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "on the Ofanto near Cannae", "lat": 41.35, "lon": 16.22, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Normans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Lombards" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "William Iron Arm, Drogo and Humphrey of Hauteville, Rainulf Drengot", "commanders_b": "Michael Dokeianos, Harald Hardrada", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Normans", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "'Several thousand' (18,000 in the Annals of Bari): fresh troops from Asia Minor, soldiers back from Sicily and the Varangian Guard from Bari, in two lines.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The army was mainly Anatolian thematic troops brought over from Asia and from Sicily, with the Varangians.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Michael IV 28; Annales Barenses; William of Apulia 1; en.wikipedia Battle of Montemaggiore", "note": "Many of the fleeing Romans drowned in the Ofanto." }, { "id": 1424, "key": "1041-montepeloso", "name": "Montepeloso", "year": 1041, "month": 9, "day": 3, "date": "3 September 1041", "type": "land", "war": "Norman conquest of southern Italy", "theatre": "Basilicata", "place": "Monte Siricolo, near Montepeloso (Irsina), on the Bradano", "lat": 40.75, "lon": 16.23, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Normans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Lombards" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "William Iron Arm, Atenulf of Benevento", "commanders_b": "Exaugustus Boioannes, catepan of Italy (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Normans", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The catepan's army with the Varangian Guard and troops brought from the Balkan themes (Skylitzes speaks of Macedonians); no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Boioannes' army was reinforced from the Balkan themes; Apulian levies were Lombard.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "William of Apulia 1; Amatus 2.26; Skylitzes, Michael IV 28; en.wikipedia Battle of Montepeloso", "note": "The last pitched battle between Normans and Romans on the Italian mainland." }, { "id": 1425, "key": "1041-messina", "name": "Messina", "year": 1041, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1041", "type": "land", "war": "Sicilian expedition of George Maniakes", "theatre": "Sicily", "place": "Messina", "lat": 38.19, "lon": 15.55, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Katakalon Kekaumenos", "commanders_b": "Zirid and Kalbid commanders", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A defence of the city with a sortie; named only as the defence of Messina.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The garrison of Messina, Kekaumenos' Armeniakon contingent of about 500 horse and 300 foot by Skylitzes' account.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The defenders were the Armeniakon thematic troops left with Kekaumenos.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Michael IV 20; en.wikipedia Katakalon Kekaumenos", "note": "The figures for Kekaumenos' men are from Skylitzes; Messina was the last Roman foothold in Sicily, held until 1042-43." }, { "id": 1426, "key": "1041-ostrovo", "name": "Ostrovo", "year": 1041, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late summer 1041", "type": "land", "war": "Uprising of Peter Delyan", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Ostrovo (Arnissa), by Lake Vegoritida", "lat": 40.8, "lon": 21.84, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Michael IV, Harald Hardrada", "commanders_b": "Peter Delyan (blinded), Botko", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The emperor's field army of the tagmata and western themes, with about 500 Varangians under Harald Hardrada, to whom the Norse sagas give a decisive part.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army was raised from the tagmata and the western themes; the Varangians were a few hundred.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Michael IV 28; Psellos, Chronographia 4.40-48; Heimskringla, Harald's saga; en.wikipedia Uprising of Peter Delyan", "note": "Ostrovo is usually identified with Arnissa in Greek Macedonia; Delyan was captured or killed." }, { "id": 1427, "key": "1042-ani", "name": "Ani", "year": 1042, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1042", "type": "land", "war": "Annexation of Ani", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "before Ani", "lat": 40.51, "lon": 43.57, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Armenia" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Vahram Pahlavuni, for Gagik II of Ani", "commanders_b": "imperial generals (unnamed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known mainly from Armenian sources; date 1042 or 1044.", "main_enemy": "Armenia", "opponent_group": "Caucasus", "roman_force": "An army of the eastern themes sent to claim Ani under the will of Hovhannes-Smbat; Armenian sources call it 100,000, which is not credible.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern armies drew on both Greek-speaking Anatolia and the Armenian provinces.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Aristakes Lastivertc'i 10; Matthew of Edessa 1.66; en.wikipedia Siege of Ani (list of sieges)", "note": "Ani was ceded to the empire in 1045 by negotiation." }, { "id": 1428, "key": "1042-sasireti", "name": "Sasireti", "year": 1042, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 1042", "type": "land", "war": "Georgian civil war (revolt of Liparit IV)", "theatre": "Georgia", "place": "near Sasireti, Shida Kartli, near Kaspi", "lat": 41.97, "lon": 44.33, "loc": "approx", "country": "Georgia", "side_a": [ "Georgia" ], "side_b": [ "Georgia" ], "allies_a": [ "Rome" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "ally", "faction_a": "Liparit IV of Kldekari (rebels)", "faction_b": "Bagrat IV", "commanders_a": "Liparit IV of Kldekari", "commanders_b": "Bagrat IV, Ingvar (Varangian leader)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The Romans were auxiliaries of one side in a Georgian civil war.", "main_enemy": "Georgia", "opponent_group": "Caucasus", "roman_force": "Roman auxiliaries sent to support Liparit, of unknown number, beside Liparit's Georgians and an army from Kakheti.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Georgian" ], "greek_share": "unknown", "greek_basis": "unknown", "greek_note": "The sources say only that a Roman force supported Liparit; it probably came from the theme of Iberia, recruited largely among Armenians and Georgians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Georgian Chronicles (Life of Bagrat IV); en.wikipedia Battle of Sasireti", "note": "Some lists date it to 1047. Bagrat's side included about 1,000-2,000 Varangians of Ingvar's expedition." }, { "id": 1429, "key": "1042-bar", "name": "Bar", "year": 1042, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1042 or 1043", "type": "land", "war": "War with Duklja", "theatre": "Duklja (Zeta)", "place": "the mountains between Bar (Antivari) and Crmnica", "lat": 42.09, "lon": 19.1, "loc": "approx", "country": "Montenegro", "side_a": [ "Serbia" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Serbia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Stefan Vojislav of Duklja and five of his sons", "commanders_b": "Michael (Michaelus Anastasii), governor of Dyrrhachium; Curcilius, toparch (killed); Ljutovid of Zahumlje (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Serbia", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The army of the theme of Dyrrhachium with its local Slav vassals, 60,000 according to Skylitzes, and allies paid in gold: Ljutovid of Zahumlje, the zupan of Raska and the ban of Bosnia (Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Slavic", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The western themes of Dyrrhachium and Nikopolis mixed Greek, Slav and Albanian soldiers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Constantine IX 5; Kekaumenos, Strategikon; Chronicle of the Priest of Duklja 38; en.wikipedia Battle of Bar", "note": "Also called the battle of Tudjemili; dated 1042 or 1043. Kekaumenos says the Romans lost over 40,000; the figures are inflated." }, { "id": 1430, "key": "1043-ostrovo", "name": "Ostrovo", "year": 1043, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "early 1043", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of George Maniakes", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Ostrovo, on the road from Dyrrhachium to Thessalonica", "lat": 40.8, "lon": 21.84, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantine IX", "faction_b": "George Maniakes", "commanders_a": "Stephen Pergamenos (sebastophoros)", "commanders_b": "George Maniakes (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Loyalist: the field army sent from Constantinople under Stephen. Rebel: Maniakes' army from Italy, with Varangians and Italian (Lombard and Norman) troops he had brought across from Apulia.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were built on the regular tagmata and themes; Maniakes added the Italian and Varangian soldiers of his command.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Constantine IX 3; Psellos, Chronographia 6.84-86; en.wikipedia George Maniakes", "note": "Maniakes was winning when he was mortally wounded; his army then surrendered." }, { "id": 1431, "key": "1043-constantinople-sea", "name": "Constantinople (sea)", "year": 1043, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 1043", "type": "sea", "war": "Rus' war of 1043", "theatre": "Bosporus and Black Sea coast", "place": "off the northern mouth of the Bosporus, near Pharos", "lat": 41.2, "lon": 29.12, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rus'" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Constantine IX, Basil Theodorokanos, Katakalon Kekaumenos", "commanders_b": "Vladimir Yaroslavich, Ivan Tvorimich, Vyshata", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rus'", "opponent_group": "Slavs", "roman_force": "The imperial fleet of dromons with Greek fire, the remnants of which had been gathered in the capital; Varangians were in the city. A pursuing squadron of 14 or 24 ships was lost, and Kekaumenos defeated the Rus' who came ashore.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial fleet was crewed by Greek-speaking oarsmen and marines of the capital and the Aegean themes.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Psellos, Chronographia 6.90-95; Skylitzes, Constantine IX 6; Russian Primary Chronicle s.a. 1043; en.wikipedia, the article on the Rus' war of 1043", "note": "The Slavonic chronicles blame a storm. About 800 captives were reportedly blinded." }, { "id": 1432, "key": "1045-taranto", "name": "Taranto", "year": 1045, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1045", "type": "land", "war": "Norman conquest of southern Italy", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "near Taranto", "lat": 40.47, "lon": 17.24, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Normans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Argyros", "commanders_b": "William Iron Arm", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Unnamed engagement near Taranto, known from one sentence of the Wikipedia overview (from the south Italian annals); named here from its site.", "main_enemy": "Normans", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Argyros' forces from Bari and the imperial troops left in Apulia; no units or numbers are recorded.", "languages": [ "Italian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "As at Siponto (1053), Argyros' army was mainly Apulian Lombards with a small Greek-speaking imperial element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "en.wikipedia Norman conquest of southern Italy", "note": "Argyros, the Lombard of Bari, had gone over to Constantine IX in 1042." }, { "id": 1433, "key": "1045-dvin", "name": "Dvin", "year": 1045, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1045", "type": "land", "war": "Wars with the Shaddadids", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "before Dvin", "lat": 40.0, "lon": 44.58, "loc": "approx", "country": "Armenia", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Abu'l-Aswar Shavur, Shaddadid emir of Dvin", "commanders_b": "Michael Iasites, the magistros Constantine the Alan", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A failed attack on Dvin; not a standard named battle.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A large army of the eastern themes 'including many Armenians', sent after the annexation of Ani; caught on the plain the emir had flooded and shot down by his archers.", "languages": [ "Armenian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Skylitzes notes that many of the soldiers were Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Constantine IX 15; Aristakes 12; en.wikipedia Abu'l-Aswar Shavur ibn Fadl", "note": "The Shaddadids were a Kurdish dynasty, counted here with the Muslim emirates under 'Arabs'." }, { "id": 1434, "key": "1046-taranto", "name": "Taranto", "year": 1046, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1046", "type": "land", "war": "Norman conquest of southern Italy", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "near Taranto", "lat": 40.47, "lon": 17.24, "loc": "region", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Normans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Drogo of Hauteville", "commanders_b": "Eustathios Palatinos, catepan of Italy", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Unnamed engagement near Taranto, known from one sentence of the Wikipedia overview (from the south Italian annals); named here from its site.", "main_enemy": "Normans", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The field army of the catepan Eustathios Palatinos; no units or numbers are recorded.", "languages": [ "Italian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A catepan's army combined imperial units sent from the east with Apulian levies; the Taranto region was partly Greek-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "en.wikipedia Norman conquest of southern Italy", "note": "In the same year Humphrey of Hauteville forced Bari to make a treaty with the Normans." }, { "id": 1435, "key": "1046-ganja", "name": "Ganja", "year": 1046, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1046", "type": "land", "war": "Seljuk wars", "theatre": "Arran (eastern Caucasus)", "place": "before the walls of Ganja", "lat": 40.68, "lon": 46.36, "loc": "approx", "country": "Azerbaijan", "side_a": [ "Seljuks" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Georgia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Qutalmish, sent by Tughril Beg", "commanders_b": "Liparit IV of Kldekari", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from a short Wikipedia article that names no primary source; the Roman part (an army sent by Constantine IX under Liparit) is unverified.", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "An army sent to the Caucasus by Constantine IX under the Georgian duke Liparit IV of Kldekari, with his own Georgian troops; no units or numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Georgian", "Armenian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial forces on the Caucasus frontier in the 1040s were drawn largely from the Armenian and Iberian themes, and Liparit's own men were Georgians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "en.wikipedia Battle of Ganja (1046)", "note": "Ganja was the seat of the Shaddadid emirs. The article also lists Ibrahim Yinal among the Seljuk commanders. Two years later Liparit was captured at Kapetron." }, { "id": 1436, "key": "1047-constantinople", "name": "Constantinople", "year": 1047, "month": 9, "day": 25, "date": "25-28 September 1047", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Leo Tornikios", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "the land walls of Constantinople (Blachernai)", "lat": 41.03, "lon": 28.93, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantine IX", "faction_b": "Leo Tornikios", "commanders_a": "Constantine IX", "commanders_b": "Leo Tornikios, John Vatatzes", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Rebels: the Macedonian tagmata and western troops raised at Adrianople. Loyalists: a few soldiers, Saracen prisoners, armed citizens and released convicts; the eastern army was away in Iberia.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Arabic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Psellos and Attaleiates describe the rebel army as the Macedonians of Adrianople and the defenders as the citizens of the capital.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Psellos, Chronographia 6.99-123; Attaleiates 4; Skylitzes, Constantine IX 9; en.wikipedia Leo Tornikios", "note": "A sortie of citizens was routed and two assaults were repulsed; Tornikios withdrew in early October." }, { "id": 1437, "key": "1047-rhaidestos", "name": "Rhaidestos", "year": 1047, "month": 10, "day": null, "date": "October 1047", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Leo Tornikios", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Rhaidestos (Tekirdag)", "lat": 40.98, "lon": 27.51, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Constantine IX", "faction_b": "Leo Tornikios", "commanders_a": "the loyal garrison of Rhaidestos", "commanders_b": "Leo Tornikios", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A repulsed attack on a town, minor.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Loyal townsmen and garrison of Rhaidestos against the rebel Macedonian army.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both sides were Thracian and Macedonian Greek-speaking troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Attaleiates 4; Skylitzes, Constantine IX 9; en.wikipedia Leo Tornikios", "note": "After the failure Tornikios' men deserted and he was captured at Boulgarophygon." }, { "id": 1438, "key": "1047-chelidonion", "name": "Chelidonion", "year": 1047, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1047 (to September)", "type": "land", "war": "Wars with the Shaddadids", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "Chelidonion (Yerevan)", "lat": 40.18, "lon": 44.51, "loc": "approx", "country": "Armenia", "side_a": [ "Arabs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the Shaddadid garrison of Abu'l-Aswar", "commanders_b": "Katakalon Kekaumenos, the parakoimomenos Constantine", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege abandoned when the army was recalled against Tornikios; fighting not described.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "The army of Ani-Iberia and the East, which took Surmari, Anberd and Khor Virap before besieging Chelidonion.", "languages": [ "Armenian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern armies of the 1040s combined Anatolian Greek and local Armenian soldiers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Constantine IX; en.wikipedia Abu'l-Aswar Shavur ibn Fadl", "note": "A treaty followed in which Abu'l-Aswar recognised the emperor's authority." }, { "id": 1439, "key": "1048-kapetron", "name": "Kapetron", "year": 1048, "month": 9, "day": 18, "date": "18 September 1048", "type": "land", "war": "Seljuk wars", "theatre": "Armenia (Iberia)", "place": "plain of Kapetron, near Pasinler (Hasankale), east of Erzurum", "lat": 39.98, "lon": 41.68, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Seljuks" ], "allies_a": [ "Georgia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aaron, Katakalon Kekaumenos, Liparit IV of Kldekari (captured)", "commanders_b": "Ibrahim Inal, Aspan Salarios, Chorosantes (killed)", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The troops of the katepanates of Vaspurakan (Aaron) and Ani-Iberia (Kekaumenos), with Liparit's Georgian army in the centre; the tagmata were in the Balkans after Tornikios' revolt. Ibn al-Athir's 50,000 and Aristakes' 60,000 are exaggerated.", "languages": [ "Armenian", "Georgian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "With the tagmata absent, the army was mainly local Armenian troops and Liparit's Georgians under Roman commanders.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Constantine IX 16; Aristakes 12; Ibn al-Athir; en.wikipedia Battle of Kapetron", "note": "Indecisive: the Roman wings won, but Liparit was captured and Ibrahim escaped with his booty. Some date it 1049." }, { "id": 1440, "key": "1048-stragna-river", "name": "Stragna River", "year": 1048, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 1048", "type": "land", "war": "Seljuk wars", "theatre": "Vaspurakan", "place": "the Stragna river (perhaps the upper Great Zab), Vaspurakan", "lat": 38.1, "lon": 44.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Seljuks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Aaron, katepano of Vaspurakan; Katakalon Kekaumenos, katepano of Ani and Iberia", "commanders_b": "Hasan 'the Deaf' (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The troops of the katepanates of Vaspurakan and Ani-Iberia, smaller than the Turkish raiders (20,000 according to Skylitzes).", "languages": [ "Armenian", "Greek", "Georgian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern katepanates were garrisoned largely by local Armenian and Georgian soldiers under Roman officers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Constantine IX 16; en.wikipedia Battle of the Stragna River", "note": "The Turks were ambushed in their camp and most were killed." }, { "id": 1441, "key": "1049-dampolis", "name": "Dampolis", "year": 1049, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1049", "type": "land", "war": "Pecheneg revolt", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "near Dampolis (Diampolis, Yambol)", "lat": 42.48, "lon": 26.5, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Pechenegs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tyrach, Selte and other Pecheneg chiefs", "commanders_b": "Constantine Arianites, doux of Adrianople", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pechenegs", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "The western army of Thrace and Macedonia under Arianites; after beating small bands he was defeated by the main Pecheneg host and fell back on Adrianople.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The western tagmata and Thracian-Macedonian themes were Greek-speaking with Bulgarian elements.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Constantine IX 17; en.wikipedia Pecheneg revolt", "note": "" }, { "id": 1442, "key": "1049-diakene", "name": "Diakene", "year": 1049, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1049", "type": "land", "war": "Pecheneg revolt", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Diakene, in Thrace (site unknown)", "lat": 42.3, "lon": 26.6, "loc": "region", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Pechenegs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tyrach and the Pecheneg chiefs", "commanders_b": "the rhaiktor Nikephoros (or Constantine), Katakalon Kekaumenos (wounded), Herve Frankopoulos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Site unidentified; the name Diakene is from Skylitzes.", "main_enemy": "Pechenegs", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "The armies of the East brought over to Europe, with Herve's Frankish mercenaries; Kekaumenos was badly wounded and left among the dead.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "French" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Skylitzes names the eastern tagmata and Herve's Franks.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Constantine IX 17; en.wikipedia Pecheneg revolt, Katakalon Kekaumenos", "note": "" }, { "id": 1443, "key": "1050-adrianople", "name": "Adrianople", "year": 1050, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 1050", "type": "land", "war": "Pecheneg revolt", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "before the camp at Adrianople", "lat": 41.68, "lon": 26.56, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Pechenegs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Soultzous (killed)", "commanders_b": "the hetaireiarches Constantine, Samuel Bourtzes, Constantine Arianites (mortally wounded), Michael Dokeianos (captured and killed), Niketas Glabas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pechenegs", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "Units of the western and eastern tagmata under the hetaireiarches Constantine; the Scholai under Niketas Glabas saved the camp.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The sources name the tagmata of East and West and the Scholai, regular Roman regiments.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Constantine IX 17; Attaleiates 7; en.wikipedia Pecheneg revolt", "note": "Bourtzes attacked before the signal; the Romans lost the field but the Pechenegs failed to storm the camp." }, { "id": 1444, "key": "1050-arcadiopolis", "name": "Arcadiopolis", "year": 1050, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 1050 or early 1051", "type": "land", "war": "Pecheneg revolt", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "near Arcadiopolis (Luleburgaz)", "lat": 41.4, "lon": 27.36, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pechenegs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "an imperial commander, perhaps Demetrios Katakalon", "commanders_b": "Pecheneg chiefs", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pechenegs", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "Roman cavalry of the western army, which broke and pursued the 'innumerable' Pechenegs (Attaleiates).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A regular Roman cavalry force of the Thracian command.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Attaleiates 7; Skylitzes, Constantine IX 17; en.wikipedia Pecheneg revolt", "note": "" }, { "id": 1445, "key": "1051-rentakion", "name": "Rentakion", "year": 1051, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1051", "type": "land", "war": "Pecheneg revolt", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Rentakion, in eastern Thrace (site unknown)", "lat": 41.3, "lon": 27.6, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pechenegs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the commander of the victory at Arcadiopolis", "commanders_b": "Pecheneg chiefs", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Minor and the site is unknown.", "main_enemy": "Pechenegs", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "The same western army that won at Arcadiopolis.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Regular troops of the Thracian command.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Attaleiates 7; en.wikipedia Pecheneg revolt", "note": "The Pechenegs, joined by another raiding column, were scattered into the forests." }, { "id": 1446, "key": "1051-toplitzos", "name": "Toplitzos", "year": 1051, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 1051-1052", "type": "land", "war": "Pecheneg revolt", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "the Pecheneg encampment at Toplitzos, in Thrace (site unknown)", "lat": 42.3, "lon": 26.9, "loc": "region", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pechenegs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Bryennios, Michael Akolouthos", "commanders_b": "Pecheneg chiefs", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "One of several small victories of the counter-raiding campaign (others at Goloe and near Charioupolis); site unknown.", "main_enemy": "Pechenegs", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "A mobile force of Varangians, Franks and other westerners under the Varangian captain Michael Akolouthos, with Bryennios' Roman cavalry.", "languages": [ "Norse/English", "French", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The sources stress the Varangians and Franks; the Roman horse of Bryennios made up the rest.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Constantine IX 17; en.wikipedia Pecheneg revolt", "note": "A victory at Goloe and the destruction of a Pecheneg band near Charioupolis belong to the same campaign." }, { "id": 1447, "key": "1053-preslav", "name": "Preslav", "year": 1053, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1053", "type": "land", "war": "Pecheneg revolt", "theatre": "Paristrion", "place": "the Pecheneg palisaded camp near Preslav", "lat": 43.16, "lon": 26.81, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Pechenegs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tyrach", "commanders_b": "Michael Akolouthos, the doux Basil (Basil the synkellos)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pechenegs", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "A regular field army with Akolouthos' Varangians and Franks.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English", "French" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Regular western and eastern regiments with the Varangian-Frankish corps.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Constantine IX 20; en.wikipedia Pecheneg revolt, Battle of Zygos Pass", "note": "The Romans could not take the palisade and withdrew when supplies ran short." }, { "id": 1448, "key": "1053-zygos-pass", "name": "Zygos Pass", "year": 1053, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1053", "type": "land", "war": "Pecheneg revolt", "theatre": "Haemus", "place": "the Zygos pass over the Haemus (Balkan Mountains), south of Preslav", "lat": 42.95, "lon": 26.7, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Pechenegs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tyrach", "commanders_b": "Michael Akolouthos, Basil the synkellos (killed), Nikephoros Botaneiates", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pechenegs", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "The army withdrawing from Preslav, regular regiments with Varangians and Franks; Botaneiates rallied the cavalry and led a 12-day fighting retreat to Adrianople.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English", "French" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Regular Roman cavalry and infantry with the western mercenary corps.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Constantine IX 20; Attaleiates 7; en.wikipedia Battle of Zygos Pass", "note": "Peace followed soon after (c. 1053)." }, { "id": 1449, "key": "1053-siponto", "name": "Siponto", "year": 1053, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 1053", "type": "land", "war": "Norman conquest of southern Italy", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "near Siponto, on the Gargano", "lat": 41.61, "lon": 15.89, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Normans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Norman leaders of Apulia (Humphrey of Hauteville)", "commanders_b": "Argyros, catepan and doux of Italy (wounded)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Named only in the Italian chronicles; the Romans did not fight at Civitate.", "main_enemy": "Normans", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Argyros' army of Apulian levies and the few imperial troops in Italy, marching to join Pope Leo IX against the Normans.", "languages": [ "Italian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Argyros was a Lombard of Bari and his army was mainly Apulian Lombards with a small Roman element.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "William of Apulia 2; Annales Barenses s.a. 1053", "note": "Civitate (18 June 1053) itself is excluded: Argyros' army never joined the papal army." }, { "id": 1450, "key": "1054-manzikert", "name": "Manzikert", "year": 1054, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1054", "type": "land", "war": "Seljuk wars", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "Manzikert (Malazgirt)", "lat": 39.14, "lon": 42.54, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Seljuks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Basil Apokapes", "commanders_b": "Tughril Beg", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison of Manzikert under Basil Apokapes, including Latin mercenaries (one of whom burned the sultan's great siege engine with Greek fire).", "languages": [ "Armenian", "Greek", "French" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The garrisons of the Armenian frontier were largely local Armenians under Roman officers, with some Latin mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Attaleiates 9; Aristakes 15; Matthew of Edessa 1.88; en.wikipedia Siege of Manzikert (1054)", "note": "Tughril raised the siege after about 30 days." }, { "id": 1451, "key": "1057-petroe", "name": "Petroe", "year": 1057, "month": 8, "day": 20, "date": "20 August 1057", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Isaac Komnenos", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "plain of Hades (Petroe, Polemon), near Nicaea", "lat": 40.49, "lon": 29.69, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Isaac Komnenos", "faction_b": "Michael VI", "commanders_a": "Isaac Komnenos, Katakalon Kekaumenos, Romanos Skleros, Nikephoros Botaneiates", "commanders_b": "the proedros Theodore, Aaron, Basil Tarchaneiotes, Randolf the Frank", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Rebels: the regiments of the Armeniakon, two Frankish and one Rus' mercenary unit, the units of Koloneia and Chaldia and Anatolian troops. Loyalists: the western regiments with the Anatolikon and Charsianon units and Frankish mercenaries.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "French", "Norse/English" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The sources name thematic regiments from Anatolia and the West on both sides, with a few Frankish and Rus' units.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes, Michael VI 6-8; Psellos, Chronographia 7.8-11; Attaleiates 10; en.wikipedia Battle of Petroe", "note": "Michael VI abdicated; Isaac I was crowned on 1 September 1057." }, { "id": 1452, "key": "1060-reggio", "name": "Reggio", "year": 1060, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1060", "type": "land", "war": "Norman conquest of southern Italy", "theatre": "Calabria", "place": "Reggio Calabria", "lat": 38.11, "lon": 15.65, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Normans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Robert Guiscard, Roger of Hauteville", "commanders_b": "the imperial garrison of Reggio", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege ending in surrender; scale of fighting uncertain.", "main_enemy": "Normans", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The imperial garrison and citizens of Reggio, the capital of Roman Calabria.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Southern Calabria was Greek-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Malaterra 1.34-35; William of Apulia 2; en.wikipedia Norman conquest of southern Italy", "note": "The garrison withdrew to Squillace, which also fell." }, { "id": 1453, "key": "1064-ani", "name": "Ani", "year": 1064, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 1064", "type": "land", "war": "Seljuk wars", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "Ani", "lat": 40.51, "lon": 43.57, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Seljuks" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Alp Arslan", "commanders_b": "Bagrat Vkhkatsi and the Roman commanders of Ani", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison of the katepanate of Ani, with Armenian and Georgian troops under Roman command.", "languages": [ "Armenian", "Greek", "Georgian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Ani's defenders were mainly Armenian townsmen and soldiers under Roman governors.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Aristakes 24; Matthew of Edessa 2.11; Ibn al-Athir; en.wikipedia Siege of Ani", "note": "The city was stormed after about 25 days and sacked." }, { "id": 1454, "key": "1067-caesarea", "name": "Caesarea", "year": 1067, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1067", "type": "land", "war": "Seljuk wars", "theatre": "Cappadocia", "place": "Caesarea (Kayseri)", "lat": 38.72, "lon": 35.49, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Seljuks" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Afshin and other emirs of Alp Arslan", "commanders_b": "the local defenders", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Listed as a battle in the Wikipedia list but essentially a raid and sack; whether imperial troops fought is unclear.", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The citizens and local garrison of Caesarea; no field army was present.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Cappadocia was mainly Greek-speaking with a large Armenian settlement.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Attaleiates 13; Matthew of Edessa 2.20; en.wikipedia List of battles of the Roman Empire (East) ('Battle of Caesarea')", "note": "The shrine of Saint Basil was plundered." }, { "id": 1455, "key": "1068-bari-siege", "name": "Bari (siege)", "year": 1068, "month": 8, "day": 5, "date": "5 August 1068 - April 1071", "type": "land", "war": "Norman conquest of southern Italy", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Bari", "lat": 41.13, "lon": 16.87, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Normans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Robert Guiscard, Roger of Hauteville", "commanders_b": "Michael Maurex Avartuteles, Stephen Pateranos (catepans), Argyritzos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Normans", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Bari with reinforcements and supply fleets from Constantinople (20 ships in 1071); a Roman field army sent in 1069 was beaten in Apulia.", "languages": [ "Italian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Bari's citizens were Lombard Italians; the imperial troops were a minority.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "William of Apulia 2-3; Amatus 5; Lupus Protospatharius; en.wikipedia Siege of Bari", "note": "Bari surrendered on 15 or 16 April 1071, ending Roman rule in Italy." }, { "id": 1456, "key": "1068-hierapolis", "name": "Hierapolis", "year": 1068, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "November 1068", "type": "land", "war": "Campaigns of Romanos IV", "theatre": "Northern Syria", "place": "Hierapolis (Manbij)", "lat": 36.53, "lon": 37.95, "loc": "known", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Seljuks" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Romanos IV Diogenes", "commanders_b": "Mirdasid emir of Aleppo (Mahmud ibn Nasr), with Turkmen", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A capture with fighting and a battle outside against the Aleppines.", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "Romanos IV's field army of the eastern and western tagmata, thematic levies, Frankish and other mercenaries.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "French", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Attaleiates, who served in it, describes an army of regular regiments and mercenaries raised in Anatolia and the Balkans.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Attaleiates 14-15; Skylitzes Continuatus; en.wikipedia Romanos IV Diogenes", "note": "The city was taken and fortified; the engagements with the Aleppines and Turks were indecisive." }, { "id": 1457, "key": "1069-iconium", "name": "Iconium", "year": 1069, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 1069", "type": "land", "war": "Seljuk wars", "theatre": "Lycaonia", "place": "near Iconium (Konya)", "lat": 37.87, "lon": 32.48, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Seljuks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Manuel Komnenos", "commanders_b": "Afshin", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "Units of Romanos IV's eastern army; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The eastern regiments of the late 1060s were recruited in Anatolia and Armenia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Attaleiates 16; en.wikipedia Battle of Iconium (1069)", "note": "Accounts differ: Attaleiates has the Turks sack Iconium in 1069 and escape through Cilicia; the Wikipedia article counts a Roman victory near the city." }, { "id": 1458, "key": "1070-sebasteia", "name": "Sebasteia", "year": 1070, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1070", "type": "land", "war": "Seljuk wars", "theatre": "Cappadocia", "place": "near Sebasteia (Sivas)", "lat": 39.75, "lon": 37.02, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Seljuks" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the emir Khroudj (Chrysoskoulos)", "commanders_b": "Manuel Komnenos (captured), Nikephoros Melissenos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The eastern army entrusted to Manuel Komnenos while Romanos IV stayed in the capital.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Recruited in the Anatolian and Armenian themes.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Attaleiates 17; Bryennios 1.11; en.wikipedia Romanos IV Diogenes", "note": "Khroudj then defected to Romanos, provoking Alp Arslan's campaign of 1071." }, { "id": 1459, "key": "1071-manzikert", "name": "Manzikert", "year": 1071, "month": 8, "day": 26, "date": "26 August 1071", "type": "land", "war": "Seljuk wars", "theatre": "Armenia", "place": "plain south of Manzikert (Malazgirt)", "lat": 39.14, "lon": 42.54, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Seljuks" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Alp Arslan", "commanders_b": "Romanos IV Diogenes (captured), Nikephoros Bryennios, Theodore Alyates, Andronikos Doukas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "About 40,000 at the start, perhaps half present: the tagmata of East and West (Scholai, Hetaireia, Stratelatai, about 5,000 from each half of the empire), thematic levies and archontic retinues, part of the Varangian Guard, about 500 Franks under Roussel, Uz and Pecheneg horse, Armenian infantry, Georgians and Bulgarians.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Turkic", "French", "Norse/English", "Slavic", "Georgian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Attaleiates names the regular Roman tagmata and themes beside a large mercenary and Armenian element; many Turkic mercenaries changed sides.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Attaleiates 20; Psellos, Chronographia 7b; Bryennios 1.13-17; Skylitzes Continuatus; Aristakes 25; Ibn al-Athir; en.wikipedia Battle of Manzikert", "note": "Andronikos Doukas withdrew the reserve; the emperor was captured but released on terms." }, { "id": 1460, "key": "1071-bari-sea", "name": "Bari (sea)", "year": 1071, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "early 1071", "type": "sea", "war": "Norman conquest of southern Italy", "theatre": "Adriatic", "place": "off Bari", "lat": 41.16, "lon": 16.9, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Normans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Roger of Hauteville", "commanders_b": "Gocelin (Joscelin of Molfetta), Stephen Pateranos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Normans", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "A relief squadron of about 20 ships sent by Romanos IV, commanded by the Norman exile Gocelin.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The squadron came from Dyrrhachium and the Adriatic commands, with Italian sailors.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "William of Apulia 3; Malaterra 2.43; en.wikipedia Siege of Bari", "note": "Gocelin's ship was captured; Pateranos reached Bari, which surrendered soon after." }, { "id": 1461, "key": "1071-belgrade-siege", "name": "Belgrade (siege)", "year": 1071, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1071 (about three months)", "type": "land", "war": "Hungarian war of 1071-1072", "theatre": "Danube", "place": "Belgrade", "lat": 44.82, "lon": 20.45, "loc": "known", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Hungary" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Pechenegs" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "King Solomon, Duke Geza, Duke Ladislaus", "commanders_b": "Niketas, doux (captured); Kazar (Pecheneg relief force)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Hungary", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The garrison of Belgrade under Niketas, including Muslim ('Saracen') units that made sorties; a Pecheneg relief force under Kazar was destroyed by the ispan of Sopron.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Arabic", "Turkic", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A frontier garrison of Roman troops with Muslim mercenaries and local Slavs.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Chronicon Pictum; en.wikipedia, the article on the Hungarian war of 1071-1072", "note": "The siege opened with the Roman flotilla throwing 'sulphurous fires' at the Hungarian boats crossing the Sava, which the Hungarians nevertheless got across (formerly entered separately as 1071-sava). The town was sacked and the garrison surrendered the citadel to Geza; the Romans may have retaken Belgrade by a stratagem in 1072." }, { "id": 1462, "key": "1071-dokeia", "name": "Dokeia", "year": 1071, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 1071", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of 1071-1072", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "near Dokeia (Tokat)", "lat": 40.31, "lon": 36.55, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Michael VII (Doukas)", "faction_b": "Romanos IV", "commanders_a": "Constantine Doukas", "commanders_b": "Theodore Alyates (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Not a standard named battle; named here from its site.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Doukas army: troops raised for Michael VII, with Frankish mercenaries. Romanos' army: the survivors of Manzikert and eastern levies.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "French" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both sides were regular Roman regiments of Anatolia, with Frankish mercenaries on the Doukas side.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Attaleiates 21; Psellos, Chronographia 7b; Bryennios 1.20-21", "note": "Romanos withdrew to Tyropoion and then Cilicia." }, { "id": 1463, "key": "1072-paun-taonios", "name": "Paun (Taonios)", "year": 1072, "month": 12, "day": null, "date": "December 1072", "type": "land", "war": "Uprising of Georgi Voiteh", "theatre": "Kosovo", "place": "Taonios (Paun), in southern Kosovo Polje", "lat": 42.55, "lon": 21.1, "loc": "region", "country": "Kosovo", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Serbia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Michael Saronites", "commanders_b": "Constantine Bodin (captured), Georgi Voiteh (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The army under Saronites that had retaken Skopje; no units or numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Slavic", "French" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A western Roman army of the period, probably with Frankish mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes Continuatus; Bryennios 1.7; en.wikipedia Uprising of Georgi Voiteh", "note": "Nikephoros Bryennios suppressed the remaining rebels in 1073." }, { "id": 1464, "key": "1072-cilicia", "name": "Cilicia", "year": 1072, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 1072", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of 1071-1072", "theatre": "Cilicia", "place": "the Cilician plain near Adana", "lat": 37.0, "lon": 35.32, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Michael VII (Doukas)", "faction_b": "Romanos IV", "commanders_a": "Andronikos Doukas, Robert Crispin", "commanders_b": "Khatatourios (Khachatur), doux of Antioch", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No conventional name.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Doukas army with Crispin's Frankish heavy cavalry against Romanos' army raised in Cilicia and Antioch, largely Armenian.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "French" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Romanos' last army came from the Armenian-dominated south-east; the Doukas army was regular Roman troops and Franks.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Attaleiates 21; Bryennios 1.22; en.wikipedia Romanos IV Diogenes", "note": "Romanos surrendered at Adana and was blinded at Kotyaion on 29 June 1072." }, { "id": 1465, "key": "1072-skopje", "name": "Skopje", "year": 1072, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1072", "type": "land", "war": "Uprising of Georgi Voiteh", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "near Skopje (Skoupoi)", "lat": 42.0, "lon": 21.43, "loc": "approx", "country": "North Macedonia", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Serbia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Constantine Bodin, Petrilo, Georgi Voiteh", "commanders_b": "Damianos Dalassenos (captured), Nikephoros Karantenos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "An army sent from Constantinople to the doux of Skopje; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The western armies were Greek-speaking with Bulgarian and other Balkan soldiers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes Continuatus; Bryennios 1.7; en.wikipedia Uprising of Georgi Voiteh", "note": "The rebels were Bulgarian nobles joined by Serbs of Duklja under Bodin, proclaimed tsar as Peter III." }, { "id": 1466, "key": "1072-kastoria", "name": "Kastoria", "year": 1072, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1072", "type": "land", "war": "Uprising of Georgi Voiteh", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Kastoria", "lat": 40.52, "lon": 21.27, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Serbia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the imperial commanders at Kastoria (with the loyal Bulgarian noble Boris David)", "commanders_b": "Petrilo", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The garrison and local troops of Kastoria; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Local Greek and Bulgarian troops loyal to the empire.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Skylitzes Continuatus; en.wikipedia Uprising of Georgi Voiteh", "note": "Petrilo had taken Ohrid and Devol before he was beaten here." }, { "id": 1467, "key": "1074-zompos-bridge", "name": "Zompos Bridge", "year": 1074, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1074", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Roussel de Bailleul", "theatre": "Phrygia", "place": "the Zompos bridge over the Sangarios", "lat": 39.9, "lon": 31.4, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Normans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Roussel de Bailleul", "commanders_b": "the Caesar John Doukas (captured), Nikephoros Botaneiates, Andronikos Doukas (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Normans", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "An army raised in the capital and the western provinces under the Caesar, with Frankish mercenaries under Papas who stood by the emperor, against Roussel's 3,000 Franks.", "languages": [ "Greek", "French" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Regular Roman troops with a Frankish contingent; Botaneiates' eastern rearguard fled.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Attaleiates 23; Bryennios 2.14-16; Psellos, Chronographia 7c", "note": "Dated 1073 or 1074. Roussel then proclaimed the captured Caesar emperor." }, { "id": 1468, "key": "1077-constantinople", "name": "Constantinople", "year": 1077, "month": 11, "day": null, "date": "November 1077", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Nikephoros Bryennios", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "the land walls of Constantinople", "lat": 41.03, "lon": 28.93, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Michael VII", "faction_b": "Nikephoros Bryennios", "commanders_a": "Michael VII", "commanders_b": "John Bryennios", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A demonstration and attack on the suburbs rather than a full siege.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Rebels: the Macedonian and Thracian regiments of Bryennios' western army. Defenders: the Varangians and the troops in the capital.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The rebels were the Macedonian tagmata of the West.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Attaleiates 26; Bryennios 3.11-12", "note": "John Bryennios burned the suburbs and withdrew." }, { "id": 1469, "key": "1078-kalavrye", "name": "Kalavrye", "year": 1078, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 1078", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Nikephoros Bryennios", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Kalavrye (Yolcati), by the Halmyros river between Herakleia and Selymbria", "lat": 41.11, "lon": 28.1, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Seljuks" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Nikephoros III Botaneiates", "faction_b": "Nikephoros Bryennios", "commanders_a": "Alexios Komnenos", "commanders_b": "Nikephoros Bryennios (captured), John Bryennios, Tarchaneiotes Katakalon", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Alexios' army of 5,500-6,500 (Haldon; 8,000-10,000 Birkenmeier): a few hundred Frankish knights from Italy, the newly raised Athanatoi, 2,000 Chomatenoi from Asia Minor and 2,000 Turkish horse-archers sent by Sulayman. Bryennios' army of about 12,000: 3,000 Macedonians from Thrace and Macedonia, Thessalian cavalry and infantry, the Hetaireia, Frankish mercenaries and an allied Pecheneg detachment.", "languages": [ "Greek", "French", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Bryennios the Younger names the western tagmata (Greek-speaking) on the rebel side and Franks, Turks and new native units on Alexios' side.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Bryennios 4.4-15; Anna Komnene, Alexiad 1.4-6; Attaleiates 33; en.wikipedia Battle of Kalavrye", "note": "The Pechenegs on Bryennios' side turned to plunder his camp." }, { "id": 1470, "key": "1078-vardar", "name": "Vardar", "year": 1078, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1078", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Nikephoros Basilakes", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "by the Vardar (Axios) near Thessalonica", "lat": 40.7, "lon": 22.75, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Nikephoros III Botaneiates", "faction_b": "Nikephoros Basilakes", "commanders_a": "Alexios Komnenos", "commanders_b": "Nikephoros Basilakes", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Alexios' small army of Chomatenoi, Franks and Turks against Basilakes' army from Dyrrhachium of Romans, Franks and Bulgarians; Alexios won by a night attack on Basilakes' camp.", "languages": [ "Greek", "French", "Turkic", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Anna and Bryennios list Roman, Frankish and Bulgarian troops for Basilakes and native and Turkish troops for Alexios.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 1.7-9; Bryennios 4.18-27; Attaleiates 35", "note": "Basilakes fled to Thessalonica and was handed over." }, { "id": 1471, "key": "1081-dyrrhachium-siege", "name": "Dyrrhachium (siege)", "year": 1081, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 1081 - February 1082", "type": "land", "war": "Norman war of 1081-1085", "theatre": "Illyria", "place": "Dyrrhachium (Durres)", "lat": 41.32, "lon": 19.45, "loc": "known", "country": "Albania", "side_a": [ "Normans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Venice" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Robert Guiscard, Bohemond", "commanders_b": "George Palaiologos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Normans", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The garrison of Dyrrhachium under George Palaiologos, with the Venetian fleet at sea (victorious over the Norman fleet in July 1081).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The garrison was Roman troops with local Albanian-Illyrian and Amalfitan-Venetian townsmen.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 3.12, 4.1-8, 5.1; William of Apulia 4; Malaterra 3.24-27; en.wikipedia Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)", "note": "The city was betrayed to the Normans in February 1082. The Venetian naval victory off the city is not entered separately: no Roman ships are said to have fought." }, { "id": 1472, "key": "1081-dyrrhachium", "name": "Dyrrhachium", "year": 1081, "month": 10, "day": 18, "date": "18 October 1081", "type": "land", "war": "Norman war of 1081-1085", "theatre": "Illyria", "place": "before Dyrrhachium (Durres)", "lat": 41.33, "lon": 19.47, "loc": "approx", "country": "Albania", "side_a": [ "Normans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Seljuks", "Serbia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Robert Guiscard, Bohemond, Sichelgaita", "commanders_b": "Alexios I Komnenos, Nabites (Varangians), Gregory Pakourianos, Nikephoros Melissenos, Constantine Bodin (did not engage)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Normans", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Perhaps 20,000 (modern estimate): the Varangian Guard (largely English), the Exkoubitoi and Vestiaritai, Macedonian and Thessalian units, the Paulician 'Manichaeans' under Xantas and Kouleon, the Frankish guard of Humbertopoulos, Turkish horse sent by Sulayman, and the Serbs of Bodin, who stood aside.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English", "Armenian", "Turkic", "French", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Anna names native Macedonian and Thessalian units and the old tagmata beside the Varangians, Paulicians, Turks and Franks.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 4.4-7; William of Apulia 4; Malaterra 3.27; Orderic Vitalis 7; en.wikipedia Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081)", "note": "The Varangians broke the Norman right but were cut off and destroyed at a church." }, { "id": 1473, "key": "1082-ioannina", "name": "Ioannina", "year": 1082, "month": 5, "day": null, "date": "May 1082", "type": "land", "war": "Norman war of 1081-1085", "theatre": "Epirus", "place": "outside Ioannina", "lat": 39.66, "lon": 20.85, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Normans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Bohemond", "commanders_b": "Alexios I Komnenos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Normans", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The new army Alexios raised after Dyrrhachium from the survivors, new native recruits, Paulician and Turkish troops, with light wagons fitted with poles to break the Norman charge.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "After the loss of the Varangians the army was rebuilt mainly from native recruits of the Balkan provinces, with Turkish mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 5.4; William of Apulia 5", "note": "Bohemond avoided the wagons and attacked the flanks; the Roman infantry suffered heavily." }, { "id": 1474, "key": "1082-arta", "name": "Arta", "year": 1082, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1082", "type": "land", "war": "Norman war of 1081-1085", "theatre": "Epirus", "place": "near Arta", "lat": 39.16, "lon": 20.99, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Normans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Bohemond", "commanders_b": "Alexios I Komnenos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Normans", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The same rebuilt field army as at Ioannina; Alexios scattered caltrops before his centre, but Bohemond again attacked the wings.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Native recruits of the Balkan provinces with Turkish and Paulician contingents.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 5.4; en.wikipedia, the article on the Norman wars of the empire", "note": "Bohemond had besieged Arta; the siege was lifted when Alexios approached." }, { "id": 1475, "key": "1083-larissa", "name": "Larissa", "year": 1083, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "November 1082 - spring 1083", "type": "land", "war": "Norman war of 1081-1085", "theatre": "Thessaly", "place": "Larissa and the plain around it", "lat": 39.64, "lon": 22.42, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Normans" ], "allies_a": [ "Seljuks" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Alexios I Komnenos, Nikephoros Melissenos, Basil Kourtikios, Leo Kephalas (defender)", "commanders_b": "Bohemond, Count Brienne", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Normans", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The garrison of Larissa under Leo Kephalas, and a relief army of native troops and 7,000 Turks sent by Sulayman under Kamyres; Alexios drew Bohemond off with a feigned flight of his main body under the imperial standards and struck the Norman camp.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Anna describes a native army with a large Seljuk contingent.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 5.5-7; en.wikipedia, the article on the Norman wars of the empire", "note": "One entry for the six-month siege and the relief battle (spring or July 1083); the Normans fell back to Trikala and Kastoria." }, { "id": 1476, "key": "1083-kastoria", "name": "Kastoria", "year": 1083, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 1083", "type": "land", "war": "Norman war of 1081-1085", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Kastoria", "lat": 40.52, "lon": 21.27, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Normans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Alexios I Komnenos, George Palaiologos", "commanders_b": "Count Brienne (Bryennios)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Normans", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Alexios' field army with siege engines; troops were ferried across the lake to attack the town from behind.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Mainly native troops of the Balkan provinces.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 6.1", "note": "The Norman garrison surrendered after the assault." }, { "id": 1477, "key": "1084-corfu-sea", "name": "Corfu (sea)", "year": 1084, "month": 11, "day": null, "date": "November - December 1084", "type": "sea", "war": "Norman war of 1081-1085", "theatre": "Ionian Sea", "place": "off Corfu (Kassiope)", "lat": 39.75, "lon": 19.93, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Normans" ], "side_b": [ "Venice" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Rome" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "ally", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Robert Guiscard, Roger Borsa, Bohemond", "commanders_b": "the Venetian commanders; the Roman squadron", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Three engagements; the Romans were a secondary ally of the Venetians.", "main_enemy": "Normans", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "A Roman squadron fighting beside the Venetian fleet; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Roman ships were crewed from the Aegean naval themes; the Venetians were the main force.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 6.5; William of Apulia 5; Dandolo", "note": "The Venetians and Romans won the first two actions; Guiscard destroyed their fleet in the third." }, { "id": 1478, "key": "1086-beliatoba", "name": "Beliatoba", "year": 1086, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1086", "type": "land", "war": "Pecheneg war of 1086-1091", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Beliatoba, in the region of Philippopolis", "lat": 42.15, "lon": 24.75, "loc": "region", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Pechenegs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Pecheneg chiefs, with the Paulician rebel Traulos", "commanders_b": "Gregory Pakourianos (killed), Branas (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Site unidentified.", "main_enemy": "Pechenegs", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "The western field army under the domestic of the West, Gregory Pakourianos.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian", "Georgian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of the West, with Pakourianos' Georgian and Armenian retainers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 6.14", "note": "" }, { "id": 1479, "key": "1087-dristra", "name": "Dristra", "year": 1087, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August 1087", "type": "land", "war": "Pecheneg war of 1086-1091", "theatre": "Paristrion", "place": "before Dristra (Dorostolon, Silistra)", "lat": 44.12, "lon": 27.26, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Pechenegs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tzelgu and other Pecheneg chiefs", "commanders_b": "Alexios I Komnenos, George Palaiologos, Nikephoros Melissenos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pechenegs", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "Alexios' field army, including the new regiment of Archontopouloi (sons of fallen officers, 300 of whom were killed), the Varangians and Frankish mercenaries.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English", "French" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Anna stresses the native Archontopouloi beside the foreign guards.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 7.3; en.wikipedia Battle of Dristra", "note": "The emperor barely escaped." }, { "id": 1480, "key": "1090-oinousses-islands", "name": "Oinousses Islands", "year": 1090, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 1090", "type": "sea", "war": "Wars with Tzachas", "theatre": "Aegean", "place": "off the Oinousses islands, between Chios and the Anatolian coast", "lat": 38.51, "lon": 26.22, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Turkish beyliks" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tzachas, emir of Smyrna", "commanders_b": "Niketas Kastamonites", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Turkish beyliks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "An imperial fleet under Niketas Kastamonites; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial fleet was manned in the capital and the Aegean islands.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 7.8; en.wikipedia Tzachas", "note": "Tzachas' emirate of Smyrna is counted under 'Turkish beyliks'." }, { "id": 1481, "key": "1090-chios", "name": "Chios", "year": 1090, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1090 or 1091", "type": "land", "war": "Wars with Tzachas", "theatre": "Aegean", "place": "Chios", "lat": 38.37, "lon": 26.14, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Turkish beyliks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Constantine Dalassenos, Opos", "commanders_b": "Tzachas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Turkish beyliks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "A fleet and landing force under Dalassenos, with troops under Opos; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The fleet and marines were raised in the Aegean themes.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 7.8; en.wikipedia Tzachas", "note": "A siege of the citadel with a fight against Tzachas' relieving fleet; the main arm was the landing force." }, { "id": 1482, "key": "1091-choirobakchoi", "name": "Choirobakchoi", "year": 1091, "month": 2, "day": null, "date": "February 1091", "type": "land", "war": "Pecheneg war of 1086-1091", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Choirobakchoi, west of Constantinople", "lat": 41.05, "lon": 28.6, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pechenegs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Alexios I Komnenos", "commanders_b": "a Pecheneg raiding force", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A small action; named only from its site.", "main_enemy": "Pechenegs", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "A small force of the emperor's household troops and the men he could gather in the capital.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Troops of the capital and the imperial household.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 8.1-2", "note": "" }, { "id": 1483, "key": "1091-levounion", "name": "Levounion", "year": 1091, "month": 4, "day": 29, "date": "29 April 1091", "type": "land", "war": "Pecheneg war of 1086-1091", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "the hill of Levounion near the mouth of the Hebros, by Ainos", "lat": 40.8, "lon": 26.2, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pechenegs" ], "allies_a": [ "Cumans" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Alexios I Komnenos, George Palaiologos, Constantine Dalassenos, Constantine Humbertopoulos, Monastras, Ouzas, Tugorkhan and Boniak (Cumans)", "commanders_b": "Pecheneg chiefs", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pechenegs", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "About 13,000 Roman troops (infantry in the centre, cavalry wings under Alexios, George Palaiologos and Constantine Dalassenos), about 5,000 volunteers from the mountains (Vlachs and Bulgarians), 500 Flemish knights sent by Robert of Flanders and Latin horse under Humbertopoulos, and Turkic units under Monastras and Ouzas; the Cuman host (10,000-40,000) fought beside them as a separate allied army.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic", "Vlach (Romance)", "Slavic", "French" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Anna names the native army, the hill volunteers and the Flemings; the Cumans were a separate allied army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 8.4-6; en.wikipedia Battle of Levounion", "note": "The Pechenegs were annihilated as a people; the survivors were settled as a tagma in Moglena." }, { "id": 1484, "key": "1092-mytilene", "name": "Mytilene", "year": 1092, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1092", "type": "land", "war": "Wars with Tzachas", "theatre": "Aegean", "place": "Mytilene, Lesbos", "lat": 39.11, "lon": 26.56, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Turkish beyliks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Constantine Dalassenos, John Doukas (megas doux)", "commanders_b": "Tzachas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Turkish beyliks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "John Doukas' land army and Dalassenos' fleet; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The fleet and army of the Aegean command.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 9.1-3; en.wikipedia Tzachas", "note": "After three months Tzachas gave up the fortress; Dalassenos then attacked and nearly destroyed his fleet." }, { "id": 1485, "key": "1095-adrianople", "name": "Adrianople", "year": 1095, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1095", "type": "land", "war": "Cuman invasion of 1095", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Adrianople", "lat": 41.68, "lon": 26.56, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Cumans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Nikephoros Bryennios (the Younger)", "commanders_b": "Cuman chiefs with the pretender 'Pseudo-Diogenes'", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A defended siege of 48 days; not a standard named battle.", "main_enemy": "Cumans", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Adrianople under Bryennios.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Thracian town garrison.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 10.3-4", "note": "The Cuman invasion ended with the capture of the pretender and a Roman victory near Taurokomos." }, { "id": 1486, "key": "1096-nis", "name": "Nis", "year": 1096, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "early July 1096", "type": "land", "war": "First Crusade (People's Crusade)", "theatre": "Moesia", "place": "Naissus (Nis)", "lat": 43.32, "lon": 21.9, "loc": "known", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Crusaders" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Niketas, doux of Bulgaria", "commanders_b": "Peter the Hermit", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Crusaders", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The garrison of Nis under Niketas, with Pecheneg and other mercenaries.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Balkan frontier garrison of Roman troops and Turkic mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Albert of Aachen 1.10-12; en.wikipedia People's Crusade", "note": "The fighting broke out after Germans burned mills; the crusaders lost heavily and their baggage." }, { "id": 1487, "key": "1097-constantinople", "name": "Constantinople", "year": 1097, "month": 4, "day": 2, "date": "2 April 1097", "type": "land", "war": "First Crusade", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "before the walls of Constantinople, by Blachernai", "lat": 41.04, "lon": 28.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Crusaders" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Alexios I Komnenos, Nikephoros Bryennios", "commanders_b": "Godfrey of Bouillon", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A clash on Holy Thursday rather than a named battle.", "main_enemy": "Crusaders", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Archers on the walls under Bryennios and a sortie of household troops.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The defenders were the imperial household troops and garrison.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 10.9; Albert of Aachen 2.12-14", "note": "Godfrey took the oath soon after." }, { "id": 1488, "key": "1097-rodosto", "name": "Rodosto", "year": 1097, "month": 4, "day": null, "date": "April 1097", "type": "land", "war": "First Crusade", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "near Rodosto (Rhaidestos, Tekirdag)", "lat": 40.98, "lon": 27.51, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Crusaders" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "imperial commanders of Thrace", "commanders_b": "the army of Raymond IV of Toulouse", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A clash with Raymond's Provencal army while he was in the capital; minor.", "main_enemy": "Crusaders", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Imperial troops of Thrace with Pecheneg mercenaries.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Thracian regulars and Pecheneg horse.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Raymond of Aguilers 2; Gesta Francorum 2", "note": "" }, { "id": 1489, "key": "1097-nicaea-siege", "name": "Nicaea (siege)", "year": 1097, "month": 5, "day": 14, "date": "14 May - 19 June 1097", "type": "land", "war": "First Crusade", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "Nicaea (Iznik), on Lake Askania", "lat": 40.43, "lon": 29.72, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Crusaders", "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Seljuks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Godfrey of Bouillon, Bohemond, Raymond of Toulouse, Adhemar of Le Puy; Tatikios, Manuel Boutoumites", "commanders_b": "Kilij Arslan I (relief army); the Turkish garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "About 2,000 peltasts under Tatikios beside the crusaders, and boats hauled overland to Lake Askania under Manuel Boutoumites, who negotiated the surrender.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Tatikios' peltasts were native light infantry; Turcopoles served with him.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 11.1-2; Gesta Francorum 2; en.wikipedia Siege of Nicaea", "note": "Kilij Arslan's relief army was beaten off on 16 or 21 May; the city surrendered to the Romans, not the crusaders." }, { "id": 1490, "key": "1097-dorylaeum", "name": "Dorylaeum", "year": 1097, "month": 7, "day": 1, "date": "1 July 1097", "type": "land", "war": "First Crusade", "theatre": "Phrygia", "place": "near Dorylaeum (Eskisehir)", "lat": 39.78, "lon": 30.52, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Crusaders" ], "side_b": [ "Seljuks" ], "allies_a": [ "Rome" ], "allies_b": [ "Danishmends" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "ally", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Bohemond, Godfrey of Bouillon, Raymond of Toulouse, Adhemar; Tatikios", "commanders_b": "Kilij Arslan I, Danishmend Gazi", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Tatikios' Roman detachment marched with the vanguard (Bohemond's division) that bore the Turkish attack, but its part in the fighting is not recorded.", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "Tatikios' small Roman detachment of guides and soldiers marching with the crusader army.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Tatikios' men were imperial troops, some of them Turcopoles.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Gesta Francorum 3; Fulcher of Chartres 1.11; Anna Komnene, Alexiad 11.3; en.wikipedia Siege of Nicaea", "note": "" }, { "id": 1491, "key": "1097-antioch-siege", "name": "Antioch (siege)", "year": 1097, "month": 10, "day": 20, "date": "20 October 1097 - 28 June 1098", "type": "land", "war": "First Crusade", "theatre": "Northern Syria", "place": "Antioch on the Orontes", "lat": 36.2, "lon": 36.16, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Crusaders" ], "side_b": [ "Seljuks" ], "allies_a": [ "Rome" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "ally", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Bohemond, Raymond of Toulouse, Godfrey of Bouillon, Adhemar; Tatikios (to February 1098)", "commanders_b": "Yaghi-Siyan; Kerbogha (relief army)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Tatikios left in February 1098; the Romans took no part in the capture (3 June) or the defeat of Kerbogha (28 June).", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "Tatikios' Roman detachment, present for the first four months of the siege.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Tatikios' small corps of imperial soldiers and Turcopoles.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Gesta Francorum 5-9; Raymond of Aguilers; Anna Komnene, Alexiad 11.4-6", "note": "Alexios turned back at Philomelion in June 1098 without fighting." }, { "id": 1492, "key": "1097-ephesus", "name": "Ephesus", "year": 1097, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 1097", "type": "land", "war": "Campaign of John Doukas in western Asia Minor", "theatre": "Ionia", "place": "near Ephesus", "lat": 37.94, "lon": 27.34, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Turkish beyliks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John Doukas (megas doux)", "commanders_b": "Tangripermes and Marakes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known from Anna only; part of a campaign of recovery rather than a famous battle.", "main_enemy": "Turkish beyliks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "John Doukas' army and fleet, which took Smyrna and then routed the Turks near Ephesus.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "An army of the Aegean and western Anatolian commands.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 11.5", "note": "The same campaign recovered Sardis, Philadelphia, Laodicea and Choma and ended with a victory at Polybotos." }, { "id": 1493, "key": "1099-rhodes-sea", "name": "Rhodes (sea)", "year": 1099, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1099", "type": "sea", "war": "First Crusade (Pisan fleet)", "theatre": "Aegean", "place": "between Rhodes and Patara", "lat": 36.35, "lon": 28.6, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Crusaders" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tatikios, Landulph", "commanders_b": "Daimbert, archbishop of Pisa", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known from Anna; the Pisan crusade fleet is counted as Crusaders.", "main_enemy": "Crusaders", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "An imperial fleet whose ships carried bronze fire-throwing heads at the prows; Landulph was a Latin in imperial service.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial fleet was crewed from the Aegean themes.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 11.10", "note": "" }, { "id": 1494, "key": "1101-mersivan", "name": "Mersivan", "year": 1101, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August 1101", "type": "land", "war": "Crusade of 1101", "theatre": "Paphlagonia", "place": "near Mersivan (Merzifon)", "lat": 40.87, "lon": 35.46, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Seljuks", "Danishmends" ], "side_b": [ "Crusaders" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Rome" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "ally", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Kilij Arslan I, Danishmend Gazi, Ridwan of Aleppo", "commanders_b": "Raymond of Toulouse, Stephen of Blois, Stephen of Burgundy, Conrad; Tzitas (Roman contingent)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The Roman contingent was small and left the field.", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "A Roman contingent under Tzitas with Pecheneg horse, who deserted during the battle.", "languages": [ "Turkic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The sources describe the imperial contingent as Pechenegs under a Roman officer.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Albert of Aachen 8.18-23; Anna Komnene, Alexiad 11.8; en.wikipedia Battle of Mersivan", "note": "About four-fifths of the crusader army was lost." }, { "id": 1495, "key": "1107-dyrrhachium-siege", "name": "Dyrrhachium (siege)", "year": 1107, "month": 10, "day": null, "date": "October 1107 - September 1108", "type": "land", "war": "War with Bohemond (1107-1108)", "theatre": "Illyria", "place": "Dyrrhachium (Durres)", "lat": 41.32, "lon": 19.45, "loc": "known", "country": "Albania", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Normans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Alexios I Komnenos, Alexios Komnenos (doux of Dyrrhachium), Isaac Kontostephanos, Marianos Maurokatakalon (fleet)", "commanders_b": "Bohemond", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Normans", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The garrison of Dyrrhachium, the fleet that cut Bohemond off from Italy, and Alexios' field army of native troops with Turkish, Pecheneg and Cuman mercenaries holding the passes.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Alexios' later armies combined native regiments and Turkic mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 12.9, 13.2-12; en.wikipedia List of battles of the Roman Empire (East)", "note": "Bohemond's army, starving and blockaded, accepted the Treaty of Devol." }, { "id": 1496, "key": "1113-nicaea", "name": "Nicaea", "year": 1113, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1113", "type": "land", "war": "Seljuk wars", "theatre": "Bithynia and Mysia", "place": "Nicaea and the country west of it toward Poimanenon", "lat": 40.43, "lon": 29.72, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Seljuks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Alexios I Komnenos, Constantine Gabras", "commanders_b": "Turkish emirs sent by the sultan Malik Shah", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison of Nicaea and Alexios' field army, which caught the raiders on their return.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Native regiments with Turkic mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 14.5; en.wikipedia List of battles of the Roman Empire (East)", "note": "The Turks failed to take Nicaea and were defeated as they withdrew with their plunder." }, { "id": 1497, "key": "1116-philomelion", "name": "Philomelion", "year": 1116, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 1116", "type": "land", "war": "Seljuk wars", "theatre": "Phrygia", "place": "near Philomelion (Aksehir)", "lat": 38.36, "lon": 31.42, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Seljuks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Alexios I Komnenos, Nikephoros Bryennios", "commanders_b": "Malik Shah (Shahanshah), sultan of Rum", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "Alexios' field army in his new marching formation (the parataxis), infantry and archers enclosing the baggage and refugees, with cavalry on the wings.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic", "French" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Alexios' last years was largely native recruits drilled by the emperor, with mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Anna Komnene, Alexiad 15.4-6; en.wikipedia Battle of Philomelion", "note": "Sometimes dated 1117. Malik Shah sued for peace." }, { "id": 1498, "key": "1119-laodicea", "name": "Laodicea", "year": 1119, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1119", "type": "land", "war": "Seljuk wars", "theatre": "Phrygia", "place": "Laodicea on the Lycus", "lat": 37.84, "lon": 29.11, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Seljuks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John II Komnenos, John Axouch", "commanders_b": "the emir Alp-Kara", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A capture with fighting; not a standard named battle.", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "John II's field army; no units are named.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Komnenian field army was native regiments plus mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (John II); Kinnamos 1.2", "note": "" }, { "id": 1499, "key": "1120-sozopolis", "name": "Sozopolis", "year": 1120, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1120", "type": "land", "war": "Seljuk wars", "theatre": "Pisidia", "place": "Sozopolis (Uluborlu)", "lat": 38.08, "lon": 30.45, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Seljuks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John II Komnenos, Paktiarios", "commanders_b": "the Turkish garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A capture by ruse with fighting outside the walls.", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "John II's army; a cavalry detachment under Paktiarios drew the garrison out by a feigned flight.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Komnenian native and mercenary cavalry.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (John II); Kinnamos 1.2", "note": "" }, { "id": 1500, "key": "1122-beroia", "name": "Beroia", "year": 1122, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1122", "type": "land", "war": "Pecheneg war of 1122", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "near Beroia (Stara Zagora)", "lat": 42.42, "lon": 25.63, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Pechenegs" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John II Komnenos, John Axouch (wounded)", "commanders_b": "Pecheneg chiefs", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Pechenegs", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "The field army brought over from Asia Minor; the Varangian Guard, axe-bearing and largely English, broke the Pecheneg wagon laager.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English", "French", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Choniates and Kinnamos stress the Varangians; the rest was native and mercenary horse.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (John II); Kinnamos 1.3; en.wikipedia Battle of Beroia", "note": "Sometimes dated 1121. The emperor instituted a feast of the Pechenegs to mark the victory." }, { "id": 1501, "key": "1122-corfu-siege", "name": "Corfu (siege)", "year": 1122, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 1122 - spring 1123", "type": "land", "war": "Venetian war of 1122-1126", "theatre": "Ionian Sea", "place": "Corfu", "lat": 39.62, "lon": 19.92, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Venice" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the imperial garrison of Corfu", "commanders_b": "Doge Domenico Michiel", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege known mainly from Venetian sources; scale of fighting uncertain.", "main_enemy": "Venice", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The garrison of the citadel of Corfu; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "An island garrison of the western themes.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kinnamos 6.10; Andrea Dandolo, Chronicle; Historia ducum Veneticorum", "note": "The doge raised the siege and sailed to the Holy Land; Venetian raids on Rhodes, Chios, Samos and Kefalonia followed." }, { "id": 1502, "key": "1128-haram", "name": "Haram", "year": 1128, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1128", "type": "land", "war": "Hungarian war of 1127-1129", "theatre": "Danube", "place": "Haram (Banatska Palanka), at the confluence of the Karas and the Danube", "lat": 44.83, "lon": 21.33, "loc": "approx", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Hungary" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Serbia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John II Komnenos, John Axouch", "commanders_b": "Setephel (Stephen II was ill and absent)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Hungary", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "John II's field army with Lombard ('Ligurian') mercenary knights sent to threaten an upstream crossing, Turkish horse-archers, and a Danube flotilla with bolt-throwers and incendiaries.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Italian", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Choniates and Kinnamos describe the native army with Lombard and Turkish contingents and the river fleet.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (John II); Kinnamos 1.4; en.wikipedia Battle of Haram", "note": "Date disputed (1128; or 1125-26, or 1127-29); the Hungarians had sacked Belgrade, Branicevo and Nis in 1127." }, { "id": 1503, "key": "1128-frangochorion", "name": "Frangochorion", "year": 1128, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1128", "type": "land", "war": "Hungarian war of 1127-1129", "theatre": "Srem", "place": "Frangochorion (Fruska Gora region of Srem)", "lat": 45.15, "lon": 19.75, "loc": "region", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Hungary" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John II Komnenos", "commanders_b": "Setephel", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege and occupation of the district; many fleeing Hungarians died when a bridge over the Karas collapsed.", "main_enemy": "Hungary", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "John II's army after Haram, with Lombard and Turkish mercenaries.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Italian", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The same Komnenian field army as at Haram.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kinnamos 1.4; Choniates, Historia (John II); en.wikipedia, the article on the Hungarian war of 1127-1129", "note": "" }, { "id": 1504, "key": "1129-branicevo", "name": "Branicevo", "year": 1129, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1129", "type": "land", "war": "Hungarian war of 1127-1129", "theatre": "Danube", "place": "Branicevo (near Kostolac)", "lat": 44.72, "lon": 21.17, "loc": "approx", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Hungary" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Stephen II, with Bohemian troops under Vaclav of Olomouc", "commanders_b": "Kourtikios", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Hungary", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The garrison of Branicevo under Kourtikios.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Danube frontier garrison.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kinnamos 1.4; Choniates, Historia (John II); en.wikipedia, the article on the Hungarian war of 1127-1129", "note": "The fort was stormed and destroyed; John II rebuilt it and blamed Kourtikios." }, { "id": 1505, "key": "1129-zdrelo", "name": "Zdrelo", "year": 1129, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1129", "type": "land", "war": "Hungarian war of 1127-1129", "theatre": "Danube", "place": "the Zdrelo gorge of the Mlava", "lat": 44.27, "lon": 21.49, "loc": "approx", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Hungary" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hungarian commanders of Stephen II", "commanders_b": "the rearguard of John II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A rearguard defeat recorded mainly by Kinnamos and the Hungarian chronicles.", "main_enemy": "Hungary", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The rearguard of John II's army withdrawing up the Mlava valley.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Part of the Komnenian field army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kinnamos 1.4; en.wikipedia, the article on the Hungarian war of 1127-1129", "note": "Peace followed in October 1129 (Makk), with Branicevo, Belgrade and Zemun left to the empire." }, { "id": 1506, "key": "1133-kastamon", "name": "Kastamon", "year": 1133, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1132-1133", "type": "land", "war": "Danishmend war of John II", "theatre": "Paphlagonia", "place": "Kastamon (Kastamonu)", "lat": 41.38, "lon": 33.78, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Danishmends" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John II Komnenos", "commanders_b": "the Danishmend garrison of Gazi Gumushtigin", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A capture celebrated with a triumph; scale of fighting not recorded.", "main_enemy": "Danishmends", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "John II's field army with siege engines.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Native regiments with mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (John II); Kinnamos 1.5; en.wikipedia John II Komnenos", "note": "The Turks retook Kastamon soon after and John recaptured it in 1134-35." }, { "id": 1507, "key": "1135-gangra", "name": "Gangra", "year": 1135, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1134-1135", "type": "land", "war": "Danishmend war of John II", "theatre": "Paphlagonia", "place": "Gangra (Cankiri)", "lat": 40.6, "lon": 33.62, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Danishmends" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John II Komnenos", "commanders_b": "the Danishmend garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege ending in surrender after a winter blockade and bombardment.", "main_enemy": "Danishmends", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "John II's army with siege engines; no units named.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Native regiments and mercenaries of the Komnenian army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (John II); Kinnamos 1.5", "note": "Gangra was lost again soon after." }, { "id": 1508, "key": "1137-antioch", "name": "Antioch", "year": 1137, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August 1137", "type": "land", "war": "Cilician and Syrian campaigns of John II", "theatre": "Northern Syria", "place": "Antioch on the Orontes", "lat": 36.2, "lon": 36.16, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Crusaders" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John II Komnenos", "commanders_b": "Raymond of Poitiers, prince of Antioch", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A short siege with bombardment ending in Raymond's submission.", "main_enemy": "Crusaders", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "John II's expeditionary army with siege engines.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic", "Norse/English" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Native regiments with Pecheneg and Varangian contingents.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kinnamos 1.8; Choniates, Historia (John II); William of Tyre 14.30", "note": "The Principality of Antioch is counted under 'Crusaders'." }, { "id": 1509, "key": "1137-anazarbus", "name": "Anazarbus", "year": 1137, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1137", "type": "land", "war": "Cilician and Syrian campaigns of John II", "theatre": "Cilicia", "place": "Anazarbus", "lat": 37.26, "lon": 35.9, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Armenia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John II Komnenos", "commanders_b": "the garrison of Leo I, Rubenid lord of Cilicia", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Armenia", "opponent_group": "Caucasus", "roman_force": "John II's expeditionary army with siege engines; the sources mention Macedonian and Pecheneg contingents in this campaign.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic", "Norse/English" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of the 1137-38 expedition combined native regiments (Macedonians) with Pechenegs, Varangians and Latins.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (John II); Kinnamos 1.7; Gregory the Priest", "note": "Taken after a siege of about 37 days; Tarsus, Adana and Mopsuestia fell earlier in the campaign." }, { "id": 1510, "key": "1138-shaizar-siege", "name": "Shaizar (siege)", "year": 1138, "month": 4, "day": 28, "date": "28 April - 21 May 1138", "type": "land", "war": "Cilician and Syrian campaigns of John II", "theatre": "Central Syria", "place": "Shaizar, on the Orontes", "lat": 35.27, "lon": 36.57, "loc": "known", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Arabs" ], "allies_a": [ "Crusaders" ], "allies_b": [ "Zengids" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John II Komnenos, Raymond of Poitiers, Joscelin II of Edessa", "commanders_b": "Sultan ibn Munqidh; Zengi (relief army)", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Arabs", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "John II's army with a siege train of trebuchets, drawn up in three divisions by nation: Macedonians (native Romans), 'Kelts' (Normans and other Franks) and Pechenegs; the emperor led the assaults while the Latin princes sat dicing.", "languages": [ "Greek", "French", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The sources name a Macedonian (native) division beside the Frankish and Pecheneg divisions.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kinnamos 1.8; Choniates, Historia (John II); Usama ibn Munqidh, Kitab al-Itibar; Ibn al-Qalanisi; en.wikipedia Siege of Shaizar", "note": "The lower town fell but not the citadel; the emir paid an indemnity and became tributary, so the result is entered as a draw rather than a defender's win." }, { "id": 1511, "key": "1138-buza-a", "name": "Buza'a", "year": 1138, "month": 4, "day": null, "date": "April 1138", "type": "land", "war": "Cilician and Syrian campaigns of John II", "theatre": "Northern Syria", "place": "Buza'a, northeast of Aleppo", "lat": 36.4, "lon": 37.56, "loc": "approx", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Zengids" ], "allies_a": [ "Crusaders" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John II Komnenos, Raymond of Poitiers, Joscelin II of Edessa", "commanders_b": "the garrison of Aleppo's governor", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A seven-day siege ending in capitulation.", "main_enemy": "Zengids", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "John II's expeditionary army with siege engines, with the Antiochene and Edessene allies.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic", "Norse/English" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Native regiments with Pecheneg and Varangian contingents.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kinnamos 1.8; Ibn al-Qalanisi; Kemal ad-Din", "note": "Buza'a belonged to Zengi's Aleppo." }, { "id": 1512, "key": "1140-neocaesarea-siege", "name": "Neocaesarea (siege)", "year": 1140, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "winter 1139 - 1140", "type": "land", "war": "Danishmend war of John II", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "Neocaesarea (Niksar)", "lat": 40.59, "lon": 36.95, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Danishmends" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Malik Muhammad Gazi", "commanders_b": "John II Komnenos, Manuel Komnenos, John Komnenos (deserted to the Turks)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Danishmends", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "John II's field army with Latin heavy cavalry; it lost many horses in the winter.", "languages": [ "Greek", "French", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Native regiments with Latin and Turkic mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kinnamos 1.6; Choniates, Historia (John II)", "note": "The young Manuel distinguished himself in a rescue; the siege was abandoned." }, { "id": 1513, "key": "1144-antioch", "name": "Antioch", "year": 1144, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1144", "type": "land", "war": "War with the Principality of Antioch", "theatre": "Cilicia and northern Syria", "place": "the coast and country of Antioch", "lat": 36.2, "lon": 36.0, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Crusaders" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John and Andronikos Kontostephanos, Prosouch, Demetrios Branas (fleet)", "commanders_b": "Raymond of Poitiers", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A punitive campaign with fighting on land and sea, not a single named battle.", "main_enemy": "Crusaders", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "An army under the Kontostephanos brothers and Prosouch with a fleet under Demetrios Branas, which retook the Cilician forts, ravaged the land round Antioch and burned Raymond's ships.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Native regiments and fleet crews with Turkish troops of Prosouch.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kinnamos 2.3; en.wikipedia Manuel I Komnenos", "note": "Raymond came to Constantinople and submitted in 1145." }, { "id": 1514, "key": "1146-akroinon", "name": "Akroinon", "year": 1146, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1146", "type": "land", "war": "Seljuk war of Manuel I", "theatre": "Phrygia", "place": "near Akroinon (Afyonkarahisar)", "lat": 38.76, "lon": 30.54, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Seljuks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Manuel I Komnenos", "commanders_b": "Mas'ud I, sultan of Rum", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "Manuel's field army on its march to Konya; no units named.", "languages": [ "Greek", "French", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Native regiments with Latin and Turkic mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kinnamos 2.5-7; Choniates, Historia (Manuel I); en.wikipedia Manuel I Komnenos", "note": "Manuel then destroyed Philomelion, was nearly trapped in a charge near Konya, held off an attack on his camp at Tzibrelitzemani and withdrew without besieging Konya." }, { "id": 1515, "key": "1147-constantinople", "name": "Constantinople", "year": 1147, "month": 9, "day": null, "date": "September 1147", "type": "land", "war": "Second Crusade", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "the outskirts of Constantinople", "lat": 41.03, "lon": 28.9, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Crusaders" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Prosouch, Basil Tzikandyles (for Manuel I)", "commanders_b": "a division of Conrad III's German army (Conrad not present)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Crusaders", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "A smaller imperial force drawn up with infantry in front, heavy cataphracts behind them, lighter koursores next and Cuman, Turkish and Roman archers in the rear.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Kinnamos describes Roman infantry and cataphracts with Cuman and Turkish archers.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kinnamos 2.15; en.wikipedia Battle of Constantinople (1147)", "note": "The Germans lost heavily and agreed to be ferried across the Bosporus." }, { "id": 1516, "key": "1148-corfu-siege", "name": "Corfu (siege)", "year": 1148, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 1148 - summer 1149", "type": "land", "war": "Norman war of 1147-1158", "theatre": "Ionian Sea", "place": "the citadel of Corfu", "lat": 39.62, "lon": 19.92, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sicily" ], "allies_a": [ "Venice" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Manuel I Komnenos, Stephen Kontostephanos (killed), John Axouch", "commanders_b": "the Sicilian garrison of Roger II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sicily", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Manuel's army and a large fleet (Kinnamos and Choniates give hundreds of ships), with the Venetian fleet as allies; the assaults by ladder failed and the garrison surrendered after a long blockade.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Italian", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The fleet and much of the army were raised in the Aegean and Balkan provinces.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kinnamos 2.19, 3.2; Choniates, Historia (Manuel I) 2", "note": "Roger II had seized Corfu in 1147; the fleet took part in the siege, but the main arm was the land assault." }, { "id": 1517, "key": "1150-tara", "name": "Tara", "year": 1150, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 1150", "type": "land", "war": "Hungarian war of 1149-1155", "theatre": "Serbia", "place": "by the river Tara", "lat": 43.85, "lon": 19.45, "loc": "region", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Serbia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Hungary" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Manuel I Komnenos, John Kantakouzenos (wounded), John Doukas Komnenos", "commanders_b": "Uros II, grand zupan of Raska; Bagyon (Bakchinus), Hungarian commander (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Serbia", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Manuel's field army, native regiments with Latin and Turkic mercenaries; the emperor fought Bakchinus hand to hand.", "languages": [ "Greek", "French", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Komnenian field army of native and mercenary troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kinnamos 3.7-8; Choniates, Historia (Manuel I); en.wikipedia Battle of Tara", "note": "The exact site on the Tara (or Drina) is uncertain. Uros II submitted." }, { "id": 1518, "key": "1151-zemun", "name": "Zemun", "year": 1151, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 1150 or early 1151", "type": "land", "war": "Hungarian war of 1149-1155", "theatre": "Danube", "place": "Zemun (Zimony), opposite Belgrade", "lat": 44.84, "lon": 20.41, "loc": "known", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Hungary" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Theodore Vatatzes (siege), Manuel I Komnenos (raiding Srem)", "commanders_b": "the Hungarian garrison of Geza II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Hungary", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Part of Manuel's field army with siege engines under Theodore Vatatzes, while the emperor raided Srem.", "languages": [ "Greek", "French", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Native regiments with mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kinnamos 3.11; en.wikipedia, the article on the Hungarian war of 1149-1155", "note": "Some date it to mid-1152. Over 10,000 people were carried off from Srem." }, { "id": 1519, "key": "1152-mopsuestia", "name": "Mopsuestia", "year": 1152, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1152", "type": "land", "war": "Wars with Cilician Armenia", "theatre": "Cilicia", "place": "before Mopsuestia (Mamistra)", "lat": 36.96, "lon": 35.62, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Armenia" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Thoros II, Rubenid lord of Cilicia", "commanders_b": "Andronikos Komnenos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A sally of Thoros routed the besieging army; not a standard named battle.", "main_enemy": "Armenia", "opponent_group": "Caucasus", "roman_force": "The imperial army of Cilicia under Andronikos; no units named.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Cilician command mixed Roman regulars with local Greek and Armenian troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kinnamos 4.17; Gregory the Priest", "note": "Rubenid Cilicia is counted under 'Armenia'." }, { "id": 1520, "key": "1154-branicevo-siege", "name": "Branicevo (siege)", "year": 1154, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 1154", "type": "land", "war": "Hungarian war of 1149-1155", "theatre": "Danube", "place": "Branicevo (near Kostolac)", "lat": 44.72, "lon": 21.17, "loc": "approx", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Hungary" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Cumans" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the garrison of Branicevo (Manuel I marching to relieve it)", "commanders_b": "Geza II, Ban Boric of Bosnia", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Hungary", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The garrison of Branicevo; Manuel's relief army was delayed at Pelagonia.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Danube frontier garrison.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kinnamos 3.18-19; en.wikipedia Siege of Branicevo", "note": "Geza, with Bohemian, Saxon and Bosnian troops and Cuman or Pecheneg horse, lifted the siege when Andronikos Komnenos' plot was discovered." }, { "id": 1521, "key": "1154-belgrade", "name": "Belgrade", "year": 1154, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 1154", "type": "land", "war": "Hungarian war of 1149-1155", "theatre": "Danube", "place": "on the road to Belgrade (near Svilajnac or Paracin by some accounts)", "lat": 44.6, "lon": 20.9, "loc": "region", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Hungary" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Geza II", "commanders_b": "Basil Tzintziloukes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Site uncertain.", "main_enemy": "Hungary", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "A pursuing force under Basil Tzintziloukes, with a Hungarian exile contingent under Stephen, son of Geza, which was beaten first.", "languages": [ "Greek", "other" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Roman cavalry with a Hungarian exile unit.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kinnamos 3.19; en.wikipedia Siege of Branicevo", "note": "Peace was made on the Danube in 1155 on the status quo." }, { "id": 1522, "key": "1155-bari", "name": "Bari", "year": 1155, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 1155", "type": "land", "war": "Norman war of 1147-1158 (Italian expedition of Manuel I)", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Bari", "lat": 41.13, "lon": 16.87, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sicily" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Michael Palaiologos, John Doukas, Robert of Loritello", "commanders_b": "the Sicilian garrison of William I", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sicily", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "A small Roman force sent with money, Italian mercenaries hired on the spot and the rebel barons of Robert of Loritello; the citizens rose and the citadel was stormed.", "languages": [ "Italian", "Greek", "French" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Kinnamos says the Romans were few and relied on hired Italians and rebel Norman barons.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kinnamos 4.1-5; Romuald of Salerno; Hugo Falcandus", "note": "Trani, Giovinazzo and other towns followed." }, { "id": 1523, "key": "1155-andria", "name": "Andria", "year": 1155, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 1155", "type": "land", "war": "Norman war of 1147-1158 (Italian expedition of Manuel I)", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "near Andria", "lat": 41.23, "lon": 16.29, "loc": "approx", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sicily" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John Doukas, Robert of Loritello", "commanders_b": "Count Richard of Andria (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sicily", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "John Doukas' small Roman force with hired Italians, Pechenegs and the knights of the rebel barons.", "languages": [ "Italian", "Greek", "French", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Kinnamos says the Roman element was small and the army mostly hired or rebel Latins.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kinnamos 4.6-7; Romuald of Salerno", "note": "Andria surrendered afterwards." }, { "id": 1524, "key": "1156-brindisi", "name": "Brindisi", "year": 1156, "month": 5, "day": 28, "date": "28 May 1156", "type": "land", "war": "Norman war of 1147-1158 (Italian expedition of Manuel I)", "theatre": "Apulia", "place": "Brindisi, the town and harbour", "lat": 40.64, "lon": 17.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Sicily" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "William I of Sicily", "commanders_b": "John Doukas (captured), Alexios Bryennios Komnenos (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sicily", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The Roman force besieging the citadel of Brindisi with a fleet in the harbour; its hired Italian mercenaries deserted when their pay was refused, leaving a few hundred Roman soldiers and the ships.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "After the mercenaries left, the remaining force was the Roman contingent and fleet crews.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kinnamos 4.13; Choniates, Historia (Manuel I) 2; Romuald of Salerno; en.wikipedia, the article on the Norman wars of the empire", "note": "A combined land and sea defeat that ended the Roman venture in Italy." }, { "id": 1525, "key": "1164-harim", "name": "Harim", "year": 1164, "month": 8, "day": 12, "date": "12 August 1164", "type": "land", "war": "Crusader-Zengid wars", "theatre": "Northern Syria", "place": "near Harim (Harenc)", "lat": 36.2, "lon": 36.52, "loc": "approx", "country": "Syria", "side_a": [ "Zengids" ], "side_b": [ "Crusaders" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Rome", "Armenia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "ally", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Nur ad-Din", "commanders_b": "Bohemond III of Antioch, Raymond III of Tripoli, Joscelin III, Hugh VIII of Lusignan; Konstantinos Kalamanos (doux of Cilicia); Thoros II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The Romans were a secondary allied contingent.", "main_enemy": "Zengids", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The troops of the doux of Cilicia, Konstantinos Kalamanos, who was captured; the whole Christian army was about 600 knights and 12,000 foot.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Cilician command held imperial troops with local Greek and Armenian soldiers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "William of Tyre 19.9; Michael the Syrian; Ibn al-Athir", "note": "Ibn al-Athir claims 10,000 Christian dead; Bohemond III, Raymond III and Kalamanos were imprisoned at Aleppo." }, { "id": 1526, "key": "1165-zemun-siege", "name": "Zemun (siege)", "year": 1165, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1165", "type": "land", "war": "Hungarian war of 1162-1167", "theatre": "Danube", "place": "Zemun (Semlin)", "lat": 44.84, "lon": 20.41, "loc": "known", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Hungary" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Manuel I Komnenos", "commanders_b": "the Hungarian garrison of Stephen III", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Hungary", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Manuel's field army and Danube flotilla with siege engines; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Greek", "French", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Native regiments with Latin and Turkic mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kinnamos 5.8; Choniates, Historia (Manuel I) 4", "note": "Stormed after a hard siege; Sirmium and Dalmatia were then occupied." }, { "id": 1527, "key": "1167-sirmium", "name": "Sirmium", "year": 1167, "month": 7, "day": 8, "date": "8 July 1167", "type": "land", "war": "Hungarian war of 1162-1167", "theatre": "Srem", "place": "near Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica), between the Sava and the Danube", "lat": 44.97, "lon": 19.61, "loc": "approx", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Hungary" ], "allies_a": [ "Serbia" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Andronikos Kontostephanos, Andronikos Lapardas, Joseph Bryennios", "commanders_b": "Dionysius, ispan of Bacs", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Hungary", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "About 15,000, two-thirds native and one-third foreign: Turkish and Cuman horse-archers in the screen; the Varangians, the Hetaireia, the imperial oikeioi, Lombard lancers and 500 armoured Serbian infantry in the centre; native taxiarchies under the Branas brothers, Tatikios Aspietes and Kogh Vasil on the left; elite Roman units, German mercenaries and Turks on the right; native infantry and archers in reserve.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic", "Norse/English", "Italian", "Germanic", "Slavic", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Choniates' order of battle shows native Roman regiments making up about two-thirds of the army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (Manuel I) 5; Kinnamos 6.7; en.wikipedia Battle of Sirmium", "note": "A Danube flotilla cut down the fleeing Hungarians; Hungary ceded Srem, Bosnia, Dalmatia and Croatia south of the Krka." }, { "id": 1528, "key": "1167-pantino", "name": "Pantino", "year": 1167, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1167", "type": "land", "war": "Serbian civil war of 1166-1168", "theatre": "Kosovo", "place": "Pantino, on the Sitnica near Zvecan", "lat": 42.88, "lon": 20.87, "loc": "approx", "country": "Kosovo", "side_a": [ "Serbia" ], "side_b": [ "Serbia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Rome" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "ally", "faction_a": "Stefan Nemanja", "faction_b": "Tihomir and his brothers", "commanders_a": "Stefan Nemanja", "commanders_b": "Tihomir (drowned in the Sitnica), Stracimir, Miroslav", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A Serbian dynastic war in which the Romans were the allies of one side.", "main_enemy": "Serbia", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "An imperial army assembled at Skopje to restore Tihomir (its commander is not named), with Greeks, Franks and Turks among the foreigners serving on Tihomir's side.", "languages": [ "Greek", "French", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The Lives of Nemanja describe the imperial army as Greeks with Frankish and Turkish soldiers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Stefan Nemanjic, Life of Simeon; Domentijan; en.wikipedia Battle of Pantino", "note": "Dated 1166, 1167 or 1168. Nemanja was then recognised as ruler of all Serbia." }, { "id": 1529, "key": "1169-damietta-siege", "name": "Damietta (siege)", "year": 1169, "month": 10, "day": 27, "date": "27 October - 19 December 1169", "type": "land", "war": "Egyptian expedition of 1169", "theatre": "Egypt", "place": "Damietta, in the Nile Delta", "lat": 31.42, "lon": 31.81, "loc": "known", "country": "Egypt", "side_a": [ "Fatimids" ], "side_b": [ "Rome", "Crusaders" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Saladin (vizier of the Fatimid caliph)", "commanders_b": "Andronikos Kontostephanos (megas doux), Amalric I of Jerusalem", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Fatimids", "opponent_group": "Arabs and Berbers", "roman_force": "A fleet of about 230 ships (150 galleys, 60 horse transports, 10-20 large dromons) with an army aboard under Kontostephanos, besieging the city beside Amalric's army.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic", "French" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Choniates describes the fleet and its marines, raised in the Aegean provinces; the army included Latin and Turkic mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (Manuel I) 5; Kinnamos 6.9; William of Tyre 20.15-17", "note": "The allies quarrelled and the siege was given up; much of the Roman fleet was lost in storms on the way home." }, { "id": 1530, "key": "1176-myriokephalon", "name": "Myriokephalon", "year": 1176, "month": 9, "day": 17, "date": "17 September 1176", "type": "land", "war": "Seljuk war of 1176-1180", "theatre": "Pisidia", "place": "the Tzivritze pass near the fort of Myriokephalon, west of Konya (site debated)", "lat": 38.05, "lon": 31.05, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Seljuks" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Hungary", "Serbia", "Crusaders" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Kilij Arslan II", "commanders_b": "Manuel I Komnenos, Andronikos Kontostephanos, Baldwin of Antioch (killed), John Kantakouzenos (killed), Theodore Mavrozomes, Andronikos Lapardas, Constantine Makrodoukas; Ampud and Leustach Ratot (Hungarians)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "25,000-40,000 (Haldon 25,000-30,000; Birkenmeier about 35,000, of whom about 25,000 Romans) with a long siege train for Konya: the eastern and western tagmata in mixed divisions, a right wing of Antiochenes and other Westerners under Baldwin, Hungarians sent by Bela III and Serbian tributary troops.", "languages": [ "Greek", "French", "Slavic", "other", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The eastern and western tagmata formed the main divisions; modern estimates make native Romans about 25,000 of some 35,000.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (Manuel I) 6; Manuel I's letter to Henry II (in Roger of Hoveden); Michael the Syrian; en.wikipedia Battle of Myriokephalon", "note": "The army was ambushed in the pass; Manuel extracted a truce and the army survived, but the campaign against Konya was abandoned." }, { "id": 1531, "key": "1176-neocaesarea", "name": "Neocaesarea", "year": 1176, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1176", "type": "land", "war": "Seljuk war of 1176-1180", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "near Neocaesarea (Niksar)", "lat": 40.59, "lon": 36.95, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Seljuks" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the Seljuk commanders of Kilij Arslan II", "commanders_b": "Andronikos Vatatzes (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Not a standard named battle.", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "A northern army drawn from Paphlagonia and Pontus, sent to support the Danishmend prince Dhu'l-Nun.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Raised in the Paphlagonian and Pontic provinces.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (Manuel I) 6; Kinnamos 7.1", "note": "Vatatzes' head was sent to the sultan." }, { "id": 1532, "key": "1177-hyelion-and-leimocheir", "name": "Hyelion and Leimocheir", "year": 1177, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1177", "type": "land", "war": "Seljuk war of 1176-1180", "theatre": "Meander valley", "place": "the crossings of the Meander at Hyelion and Leimocheir", "lat": 37.9, "lon": 28.6, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Seljuks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John Komnenos Vatatzes, Constantine Doukas, Michael Aspietes (killed)", "commanders_b": "Atapakos (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "An army that marched from Constantinople under John Vatatzes and picked up provincial reinforcements on the way; it split into two corps on either side of the river, with light troops on the heights, against a Turkish army of 20,000-24,000.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Troops of the capital and of the western Anatolian provinces.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (Manuel I) 6; en.wikipedia Battle of Hyelion and Leimocheir", "note": "The Turkish raiding army was almost destroyed." }, { "id": 1533, "key": "1178-charax", "name": "Charax", "year": 1178, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1178", "type": "land", "war": "Seljuk war of 1176-1180", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "Charax (Hereke), on the Gulf of Nicomedia", "lat": 40.79, "lon": 29.62, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Seljuks" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Turkish raiders", "commanders_b": "imperial commanders (unnamed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A minor engagement; the Romans withdrew and the Turks drove off the flocks.", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "A Roman army of Bithynia; no units named.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Local Bithynian forces.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (Manuel I) 7", "note": "" }, { "id": 1534, "key": "1179-claudiopolis", "name": "Claudiopolis", "year": 1179, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1179", "type": "land", "war": "Seljuk war of 1176-1180", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "Claudiopolis (Bolu)", "lat": 40.73, "lon": 31.61, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Seljuks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Manuel I Komnenos", "commanders_b": "Turkish besiegers", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A relieved siege; the Turks withdrew on Manuel's approach.", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison of Claudiopolis and a relief force led by Manuel in person by forced marches.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Garrison and relief troops of the capital and Bithynia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (Manuel I) 7", "note": "" }, { "id": 1535, "key": "1182-philadelphia", "name": "Philadelphia", "year": 1182, "month": 5, "day": null, "date": "May 1182 (a few days before 16 May)", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of John Komnenos Vatatzes against Andronikos I", "theatre": "Western Asia Minor (Thrakesion)", "place": "Near Philadelphia (Alaşehir), Lydia", "lat": 38.35, "lon": 28.52, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "John Komnenos Vatatzes (rebels)", "faction_b": "Andronikos I Komnenos", "commanders_a": "John Komnenos Vatatzes, with his sons Manuel and Alexios", "commanders_b": "Andronikos Lapardas", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No battle article or list entry; an engagement known from Choniates.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Both armies were imperial troops: the rebels had the substantial army John Komnenos Vatatzes raised in the Thrakesion region, which he arrayed from a litter, being mortally ill; Andronikos I sent a large force under Andronikos Lapardas (Choniates). No numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were raised in the Thrakesion and neighbouring Anatolian districts, a Greek-speaking region, with the usual foreign mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (reign of Andronikos I); en.wikipedia John Komnenos Vatatzes", "note": "Lapardas's army was routed and pursued; Vatatzes died on 16 May 1182 and the revolt collapsed, his sons being captured and blinded." }, { "id": 1536, "key": "1184-nicaea-siege", "name": "Nicaea (siege)", "year": 1184, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1184 (spring-summer)", "type": "land", "war": "Revolts against Andronikos I", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "Nicaea (İznik), Bithynia", "lat": 40.43, "lon": 29.72, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Andronikos I Komnenos", "faction_b": "Rebels of Nicaea (Isaac Angelos, Theodore Kantakouzenos)", "commanders_a": "Andronikos I Komnenos", "commanders_b": "Isaac Angelos, Theodore Kantakouzenos (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Siege narrated by Choniates; no separate article or list entry.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Andronikos I led the imperial field army with siege engines (on one of which he placed Euphrosyne Kastamonitissa, Isaac Angelos's mother, as a shield); the city was defended by its citizens and the rebels' followers (Choniates).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Imperial army of the Angelan-Komnenian type, largely native troops of Anatolia and the Balkans, against the Greek townsmen of Nicaea.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (Andronikos I); en.wikipedia Andronikos I Komnenos", "note": "Theodore Kantakouzenos was killed in a sortie; the city then surrendered on terms and Isaac Angelos was spared." }, { "id": 1537, "key": "1184-prusa-siege", "name": "Prusa (siege)", "year": 1184, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1184", "type": "land", "war": "Revolts against Andronikos I", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "Prusa (Bursa), Bithynia", "lat": 40.19, "lon": 29.06, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Andronikos I Komnenos", "faction_b": "Rebels of Prusa (Theodore Angelos)", "commanders_a": "Andronikos I Komnenos", "commanders_b": "Theodore Angelos, Lachanas", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Siege narrated by Choniates; no separate article or list entry.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Andronikos I's field army, which went on from Nicaea and took Prusa by storm; the defenders were the townsmen and the rebels' followers (Choniates).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Native imperial troops against Greek townsmen of Bithynia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (Andronikos I); en.wikipedia Andronikos I Komnenos", "note": "Choniates reports harsh reprisals on the defenders after the city fell." }, { "id": 1538, "key": "1185-thessalonica-siege", "name": "Thessalonica (siege)", "year": 1185, "month": 8, "day": 24, "date": "9-24 August 1185", "type": "land", "war": "Norman invasion of 1185", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Thessalonica", "lat": 40.64, "lon": 22.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Sicily" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Count Baldwin, Richard of Acerra, Tancred of Lecce", "commanders_b": "David Komnenos (governor), John Maurozomes, Theodore Choumnos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sicily", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The garrison under the governor David Komnenos with Alan and Georgian mercenaries and the armed citizens; relief forces under John Maurozomes and Theodore Choumnos were sent by Andronikos I (Eustathios of Thessalonica; Choniates).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Iranian", "Georgian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Eustathios describes the defence by the Greek citizens and garrison, with Alan and Georgian mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Eustathios of Thessalonica, The Capture of Thessaloniki; Choniates; en.wikipedia Sack of Thessalonica (1185)", "note": "The Normans undermined the eastern wall and stormed the city, which was sacked; 7,000-8,000 dead are reported. The infobox figure of 80,000 men and 200 ships for the Norman army is not reliable." }, { "id": 1539, "key": "1185-demetritzes", "name": "Demetritzes", "year": 1185, "month": 11, "day": 7, "date": "7 November 1185", "type": "land", "war": "Norman invasion of 1185", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Demetritzes, on the Strymon north-west of Serres", "lat": 41.23, "lon": 23.38, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sicily" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Alexios Branas", "commanders_b": "Count Baldwin (captured), Richard of Acerra (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sicily", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The field army of Alexios Branas, reinforced by Anatolian volunteers whom Isaac II armed and paid (4,000 lb of gold were sent for pay and donative), with Alan troops (Choniates).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Iranian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Choniates names the Anatolian volunteers sent by Isaac II and Alan mercenaries; the core was the native Balkan field army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (Isaac II); en.wikipedia Battle of Demetritzes", "note": "More than 4,000 Norman prisoners were sent to Constantinople; Thessalonica was abandoned by the Normans, and Dyrrhachium was recovered in 1186." }, { "id": 1540, "key": "1185-mosynopolis", "name": "Mosynopolis", "year": 1185, "month": 11, "day": null, "date": "late October or early November 1185", "type": "land", "war": "Norman invasion of 1185", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Mosynopolis, near Komotini, western Thrace", "lat": 41.13, "lon": 25.33, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sicily" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Alexios Branas", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Prelude to Demetritzes, described in its article; no separate article.", "main_enemy": "Sicily", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Alexios Branas's field army, reinforced by Anatolian volunteers armed and paid by Isaac II, routed the Norman advance guard, defeated it outside the walls and stormed the town (Choniates).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Iranian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The reinforcements were Anatolian volunteers paid by Isaac II; Alan troops also served in this army.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (Isaac II); en.wikipedia Battle of Demetritzes", "note": "" }, { "id": 1541, "key": "1186-cyprus", "name": "Cyprus", "year": 1186, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1186 (or 1187)", "type": "sea", "war": "Revolt of Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus", "theatre": "Cyprus", "place": "Coast of Cyprus (site not recorded)", "lat": 35.0, "lon": 33.5, "loc": "region", "country": "Cyprus", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Sicily" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus", "faction_b": "Isaac II Angelos", "commanders_a": "Isaac Komnenos, Margaritus of Brindisi (Sicilian admiral)", "commanders_b": "John Kontostephanos (captured), Alexios Komnenos (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Isaac Komnenos was a self-proclaimed emperor ruling a breakaway Roman province; the engagement has no name in the lists.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Isaac II sent 70 ships with an expeditionary army under John Kontostephanos and Alexios Komnenos; after the troops landed, Margaritus of Brindisi seized the fleet and the landed force was defeated by Isaac Komnenos's Cypriot troops (Choniates).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial expedition came from Constantinople; Isaac Komnenos's troops were Cypriot Greeks and Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (Isaac II); en.wikipedia Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus", "note": "Combined action: the Sicilian fleet took the ships while the troops ashore were defeated; the commanders were taken to Sicily." }, { "id": 1542, "key": "1187-constantinople", "name": "Constantinople", "year": 1187, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1187", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Alexios Branas", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Before the land walls of Constantinople", "lat": 41.03, "lon": 28.92, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Isaac II Angelos", "faction_b": "Alexios Branas", "commanders_a": "Isaac II Angelos, Conrad of Montferrat", "commanders_b": "Alexios Branas (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Isaac II's troops in the capital, led out by Conrad of Montferrat with Latin knights and heavy infantry, against the large field army that Branas had been given for the war against the Vlachs and Bulgarians and that proclaimed him at Adrianople (Choniates).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Italian", "French" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Branas's army was the Balkan field army, recruited mainly in Thrace and Macedonia; Isaac's sortie was spearheaded by Conrad's Latins.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (Isaac II); en.wikipedia Alexios Branas", "note": "Branas was unhorsed by Conrad and beheaded; many survivors joined Asen and Peter. Some date the revolt to late 1186." }, { "id": 1543, "key": "1187-lovech-siege", "name": "Lovech (siege)", "year": 1187, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 1187 (three months)", "type": "land", "war": "Uprising of Asen and Peter", "theatre": "Moesia (Haemus)", "place": "Lovech, northern Bulgaria", "lat": 43.13, "lon": 24.72, "loc": "known", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "", "commanders_b": "Isaac II Angelos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Isaac II's field army of the Balkan and Anatolian provinces with foreign mercenaries; the sources give no composition or numbers.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Angelan field army was recruited chiefly in Anatolia, Thrace and Macedonia, with Latin, Alan and Turkic mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (Isaac II); en.wikipedia Siege of Lovech", "note": "The siege failed after three months, though an imperial ambush captured Asen's wife; Isaac accepted a truce that tacitly recognised the restored Bulgarian state." }, { "id": 1544, "key": "1189-philadelphia-siege", "name": "Philadelphia (siege)", "year": 1189, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 1189", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Theodore Mangaphas", "theatre": "Western Asia Minor", "place": "Philadelphia (Alaşehir), Lydia", "lat": 38.35, "lon": 28.52, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Isaac II Angelos", "faction_b": "Theodore Mangaphas", "commanders_a": "Isaac II Angelos", "commanders_b": "Theodore Mangaphas", "outcome": "draw", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Siege known from Choniates only; the extent of the fighting is unclear.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Isaac II's field army, led by the emperor in person, against the Philadelphians and the local following of the rebel Theodore Mangaphas, who had taken the imperial title and minted coins; there were skirmishes before the siege (Choniates).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both sides were raised in western Asia Minor and the imperial heartland.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (Isaac II); en.wikipedia Theodore Mangaphas", "note": "Hurried by Frederick Barbarossa's approach, Isaac pardoned Mangaphas, who gave up the imperial insignia and hostages but kept Philadelphia as governor; he held it again as an independent lord in 1204-05." }, { "id": 1545, "key": "1189-prousenos", "name": "Prousenos", "year": 1189, "month": 11, "day": 22, "date": "about 22 November 1189", "type": "land", "war": "Third Crusade (Frederick Barbarossa's march through the empire)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Prousenos, near Philippopolis (Plovdiv)", "lat": 42.15, "lon": 24.75, "loc": "region", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Crusaders" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Frederick I Barbarossa's commanders", "commanders_b": "Manuel Kamytzes (protostrator)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A clash rather than a named battle; described in the Third Crusade article.", "main_enemy": "Crusaders", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "About 2,000 horsemen under the protostrator Manuel Kamytzes, lying in wait for the crusaders' supply train, met 5,000 German cavalry and were routed (Choniates, an eyewitness).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The cavalry of the western army under Kamytzes was largely native Balkan troops, with mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (Isaac II); en.wikipedia Third Crusade", "note": "An earlier skirmish near Philippopolis on 29 August 1189 (about fifty killed) is not entered separately." }, { "id": 1546, "key": "1190-tryavna", "name": "Tryavna", "year": 1190, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 1190", "type": "land", "war": "Uprising of Asen and Peter", "theatre": "Haemus (Balkan Mountains)", "place": "Pass near Tryavna, Balkan Mountains", "lat": 42.95, "lon": 25.6, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ivan Asen I", "commanders_b": "Isaac II Angelos, John Doukas, Manuel Kamytzes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Isaac II's field army marching back from the siege of Tarnovo, with vanguard, main body and a long baggage train; the emperor's guard cut a way out of the rout; the soldiers' pay was in arrears (Choniates).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army was the regular Angelan field army of the Balkan and Anatolian provinces with foreign guards and mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (Isaac II); en.wikipedia Battle of Tryavna", "note": "The Bulgarians captured the imperial treasure and the imperial cross. Some date it to 1189 or 1191." }, { "id": 1547, "key": "1191-limassol", "name": "Limassol", "year": 1191, "month": 5, "day": 6, "date": "6-7 May 1191", "type": "land", "war": "Third Crusade (Richard I's conquest of Cyprus)", "theatre": "Cyprus", "place": "Limassol (Lemesos), southern Cyprus", "lat": 34.68, "lon": 33.04, "loc": "known", "country": "Cyprus", "side_a": [ "Crusaders" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Richard I of England", "commanders_b": "Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Isaac Komnenos ruled Cyprus as a breakaway self-proclaimed Roman emperor (1184-91), not a recognised successor state; no separate battle article.", "main_enemy": "Crusaders", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Isaac Komnenos's Cypriot troops and household guard opposing the English landing on the beach at Limassol; Richard followed with a dawn attack on Isaac's camp near Kolossi (Itinerarium Peregrinorum; Ambroise). No figures.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Isaac's army was raised among the Greek population of Cyprus, with Armenians and some Latin mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Itinerarium Peregrinorum et Gesta Regis Ricardi 2.31-41; Ambroise, Estoire de la guerre sainte; en.wikipedia Conquest of Cyprus by Richard I", "note": "Richard landed against opposition and took Limassol; Wikipedia's article gives the conquest only in outline." }, { "id": 1548, "key": "1191-tremetousia", "name": "Tremetousia", "year": 1191, "month": 5, "day": null, "date": "May 1191", "type": "land", "war": "Third Crusade (Richard I's conquest of Cyprus)", "theatre": "Cyprus", "place": "Tremetousia, between Larnaca and Nicosia", "lat": 35.08, "lon": 33.61, "loc": "approx", "country": "Cyprus", "side_a": [ "Crusaders" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Richard I of England, Guy of Lusignan", "commanders_b": "Isaac Komnenos of Cyprus", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Breakaway regime of Isaac Komnenos (see Limassol); the battle is named in narrative histories of the Third Crusade but has no Wikipedia article.", "main_enemy": "Crusaders", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Isaac Komnenos's remaining field force of Cypriot troops, deserted by most of the island's magnates; no figures in the sources.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Armenian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Raised among the Greek population of Cyprus, with Armenians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Itinerarium Peregrinorum 2.37-40; Ambroise; en.wikipedia Conquest of Cyprus by Richard I", "note": "Isaac fled and surrendered at the end of May 1191 near Cape Apostolos Andreas; the island passed to the Lusignans in 1192." }, { "id": 1549, "key": "1191-south-morava", "name": "South Morava", "year": 1191, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 1191 (often given as 1190)", "type": "land", "war": "Roman-Serbian war of 1190-1191", "theatre": "Upper Moesia", "place": "South Morava river, near Niš", "lat": 43.33, "lon": 21.9, "loc": "region", "country": "Serbia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Serbia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Isaac II Angelos", "commanders_b": "Stefan Nemanja", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Serbia", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "A large, well-prepared army that Isaac II gathered at Constantinople (Choniates); no composition is given.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army was raised from the Thracian, Macedonian and Anatolian provinces, as other Angelan field armies were.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (Isaac II); en.wikipedia Battle of South Morava (1191)", "note": "Nemanja withdrew to the mountains; a peace treaty followed, sealed by the marriage of Stefan Nemanjic to Eudokia Angelina." }, { "id": 1550, "key": "1194-arcadiopolis", "name": "Arcadiopolis", "year": 1194, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1194", "type": "land", "war": "Uprising of Asen and Peter", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Near Arcadiopolis (Lüleburgaz), eastern Thrace", "lat": 41.44, "lon": 27.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Cumans" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ivan Asen I", "commanders_b": "Alexios Gidos, Basil Vatatzes (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The two field armies of the empire: the eastern (Anatolian) army under Alexios Gidos and the western (Balkan) army under the domestic of the Schools Basil Vatatzes (Choniates).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Choniates names the armies of the East and the West, recruited in Anatolia and in Thrace and Macedonia.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (Isaac II); en.wikipedia Battle of Arcadiopolis (1194)", "note": "Both armies were destroyed; Gidos fled and Vatatzes fell." }, { "id": 1551, "key": "1196-serres", "name": "Serres", "year": 1196, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1196", "type": "land", "war": "Uprising of Asen and Peter", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Near Serres", "lat": 41.08, "lon": 23.55, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Cumans" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ivan Asen I", "commanders_b": "Sebastokrator Isaac Komnenos (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "A field army under the sebastokrator Isaac Komnenos, son-in-law of Alexios III, whose cavalry was drawn into an ambush and surrounded (Choniates).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The western field army of the 1190s was raised in Macedonia and Thrace, with mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (Alexios III); en.wikipedia Battle of Serres (1196)", "note": "Asen was murdered by his cousin Ivanko on his return to Tarnovo." }, { "id": 1552, "key": "1197-prosek-siege", "name": "Prosek (siege)", "year": 1197, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1197 (two months; some date it to 1199)", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Dobromir Chrysos", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Prosek (Prosakos), on the Vardar near Demir Kapija", "lat": 41.4, "lon": 22.25, "loc": "approx", "country": "North Macedonia", "side_a": [ "Vlachs" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Dobromir Chrysos", "commanders_b": "Alexios III Angelos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Chrysos, a Vlach by birth (Choniates), was a rebel imperial commander of Strumica who made himself independent of both the empire and Kaloyan; siege known from Choniates, no article.", "main_enemy": "Vlachs", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Alexios III's field army, led by the emperor, besieged the rock fortress for two months with siege engines and failed assaults (Choniates); no figures.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Imperial field army of the Balkan and Anatolian provinces.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (Alexios III); en.wikipedia Dobromir Chrysos", "note": "After the failed campaign Alexios III recognised Chrysos's lands between the Strymon and the Vardar, including Strumica and Prosek." }, { "id": 1553, "key": "1201-varna-siege", "name": "Varna (siege)", "year": 1201, "month": 3, "day": 24, "date": "21-24 March 1201", "type": "land", "war": "Kaloyan's war with the empire", "theatre": "Black Sea coast of Moesia", "place": "Varna", "lat": 43.21, "lon": 27.92, "loc": "known", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Kaloyan", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "A large garrison that included western (Latin) mercenaries, 'the bravest in the army' (Choniates).", "languages": [ "Greek", "other" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The garrison of a Greek coastal city with a Latin mercenary contingent; their proportions are not given.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia (Alexios III); Akropolites 13; en.wikipedia Siege of Varna (1201)", "note": "Kaloyan's siege tower bridged the moat and the city was stormed on the third day, Easter Saturday; the defenders were thrown into the moat and buried alive." }, { "id": 1554, "key": "1203-constantinople-siege", "name": "Constantinople (siege)", "year": 1203, "month": 7, "day": 17, "date": "5-18 July 1203 (main assault 17 July)", "type": "land", "war": "Fourth Crusade", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Constantinople: Galata, the Golden Horn and the walls of Blachernae", "lat": 41.04, "lon": 28.95, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Crusaders", "Venice" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Boniface of Montferrat, Baldwin of Flanders, Enrico Dandolo", "commanders_b": "Alexios III Angelos, Theodore Laskaris", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Crusaders", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The Varangian Guard (mostly English and Danes), Pisan and other Latin mercenaries, the garrison of the Galata tower and the city troops; Alexios III led about 17 divisions out of the Gate of St Romanos but withdrew without fighting (Villehardouin; Choniates); about 15,000 men and 20 ships are estimated.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The walls were held chiefly by the Varangians and Pisans, but the field army and the city militia were Greek.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Villehardouin, Conquest of Constantinople; Robert of Clari; Choniates; en.wikipedia Siege of Constantinople (1203)", "note": "The crusaders landed at Galata on 5-6 July and took the tower holding the chain; after the assault of 17 July Alexios III fled and Isaac II was restored with Alexios IV as co-emperor (1 August)." }, { "id": 1555, "key": "1203-athens-siege", "name": "Athens (siege)", "year": 1203, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1203", "type": "land", "war": "Expansion of Leo Sgouros", "theatre": "Attica", "place": "Acropolis of Athens", "lat": 37.97, "lon": 23.73, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Athenians (Michael Choniates)", "faction_b": "Leo Sgouros", "commanders_a": "Michael Choniates, metropolitan of Athens", "commanders_b": "Leo Sgouros", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Fighting between a local magnate and a city of the empire; no article or list entry.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "The Athenians held the Acropolis under their metropolitan Michael Choniates against Sgouros, lord of Nauplia, Argos and Corinth, who brought siege engines and had earlier raided Attica with pirates from Salamis and Aigina (Michael and Niketas Choniates).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Both sides were Greek provincials of central Greece and the Peloponnese.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Niketas Choniates, Historia; Michael Choniates, letters; en.wikipedia Leo Sgouros", "note": "Sgouros took and burned the lower town but could not take the Acropolis and moved on to Thebes and Thessaly. Some date it to early 1204." }, { "id": 1556, "key": "1204-philea", "name": "Philea", "year": 1204, "month": 2, "day": null, "date": "early February 1204", "type": "land", "war": "Fourth Crusade", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Near Philea (Karaburun), on the Black Sea coast north-west of Constantinople", "lat": 41.35, "lon": 28.68, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Crusaders" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Henry of Flanders", "commanders_b": "Alexios V Doukas Mourtzouphlos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A skirmish named in crusade histories; no article.", "main_enemy": "Crusaders", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Alexios V's mounted force from the capital ambushed Henry of Flanders's foraging column on its way back from Philea and was routed (Villehardouin; Choniates). No figures.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Imperial troops from the capital under Alexios V.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Villehardouin 225-228; Robert of Clari; Choniates", "note": "Alexios V lost the imperial standard and an icon of the Virgin carried before the army." }, { "id": 1557, "key": "1204-constantinople-siege", "name": "Constantinople (siege)", "year": 1204, "month": 4, "day": 12, "date": "9-13 April 1204 (city stormed 12 April)", "type": "land", "war": "Fourth Crusade", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Constantinople: the sea walls of the Golden Horn", "lat": 41.03, "lon": 28.95, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Crusaders", "Venice" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Boniface of Montferrat, Baldwin of Flanders, Enrico Dandolo", "commanders_b": "Alexios V Doukas Mourtzouphlos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Crusaders", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The Varangian Guard, which fought hard on the walls against the Venetians, with other mercenaries, the city garrison and militia under Alexios V; no reliable numbers.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Norse/English" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Varangians bore the brunt of the fighting, but most defenders were the Greek troops and citizens of the capital.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Villehardouin; Robert of Clari; Choniates; en.wikipedia Siege of Constantinople (1204)", "note": "The first assault (9 April) failed; on 12 April the Venetian ships reached the towers and Alexios V fled; the city was sacked for three days and the Latin Empire founded." }, { "id": 1558, "key": "1204-poimanenon", "name": "Poimanenon", "year": 1204, "month": 12, "day": 6, "date": "6 December 1204", "type": "land", "war": "Nicaean-Latin wars", "theatre": "Mysia", "place": "Poimanenon, south of Cyzicus, near Lake Manyas", "lat": 40.08, "lon": 27.89, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Latin Empire" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Nicaea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Peter of Bracieux, Payen of Orleans", "commanders_b": "Theodore I Laskaris", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latin Empire", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The army Theodore Laskaris had gathered from the towns of Bithynia and Mysia in the months after the fall of Constantinople; Villehardouin speaks only of great numbers of Greeks.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The first Nicaean army was raised among the Greek population of north-western Asia Minor.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Villehardouin 310-311; Choniates; en.wikipedia Theodore I Laskaris", "note": "After the victory the Latins took most of the Bithynian forts, though not Prusa." }, { "id": 1559, "key": "1205-adramyttion", "name": "Adramyttion", "year": 1205, "month": 3, "day": 19, "date": "19 March 1205", "type": "land", "war": "Nicaean-Latin wars", "theatre": "Mysia (Troad)", "place": "Adramyttion (Edremit)", "lat": 39.6, "lon": 27.02, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Latin Empire" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Nicaea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Henry of Flanders, Thierry de Loos", "commanders_b": "Constantine Laskaris, Theodore Mangaphas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latin Empire", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "A large army that Theodore Laskaris gathered around Nicaea and sent under his brother Constantine (Villehardouin); Choniates names Theodore Mangaphas, whose cavalry fled and left the infantry to be cut down.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Raised in Bithynia and western Asia Minor; Mangaphas brought the men of Philadelphia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Villehardouin 321-322; Choniates; en.wikipedia Battle of Adramyttion (1205)", "note": "Villehardouin and Choniates describe different actions; modern historians assume two attempts to dislodge Henry in early 1205. Mangaphas then held Philadelphia as an independent lord allied with Laskaris." }, { "id": 1560, "key": "1205-nicomedia", "name": "Nicomedia", "year": 1205, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1205 (or 1206)", "type": "land", "war": "Nicaean-Trapezuntine war", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "A pass near Nicomedia (İzmit)", "lat": 40.72, "lon": 29.95, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Nicaea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Nicaea (Theodore I Laskaris)", "faction_b": "Trebizond (David Komnenos)", "commanders_a": "Theodore I Laskaris", "commanders_b": "Synadenos", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Unnamed engagement in a pass near Nicomedia; no article.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Laskaris's Nicaean troops outflanked and surprised the army that David Komnenos had sent west under his young general Synadenos (Choniates); David's forces had been raised with Georgian troops and local mercenaries.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Georgian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Nicaea's troops were Bithynian Greeks; David's army mixed Pontic and Paphlagonian Greeks with Georgians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia; en.wikipedia David Komnenos; en.wikipedia Theodore I Laskaris", "note": "Latin troops under Thierry de Loos then occupied Nicomedia, halting Laskaris's pursuit. Laskaris's general Andronikos Gidos later destroyed about 300 Frankish auxiliaries of David in the passes near Nicomedia (not entered separately)." }, { "id": 1561, "key": "1205-olive-grove-of-kountouras", "name": "Olive Grove of Kountouras", "year": 1205, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 1205", "type": "land", "war": "Latin conquest of the Morea", "theatre": "Peloponnese", "place": "Olive grove of Kountouras, north-eastern Messenia", "lat": 37.25, "lon": 22.05, "loc": "region", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Crusaders" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Epirus", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "William of Champlitte, Geoffrey I of Villehardouin", "commanders_b": "Michael (perhaps Michael I Komnenos Doukas)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The Greek army was local Moreote resistance; its leader Michael is identified with Michael I of Epirus by older scholarship but doubted by Loenertz. Counts only if that identification holds.", "main_enemy": "Crusaders", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "4,000 (Chronicle of the Morea) or over 5,000 (Villehardouin) foot and horse: contingents of the Greeks of Nikli, Veligosti and Lakedaimonia, most of the infantry being Melingoi Slavs from Taygetos.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The Chronicle of the Morea says most of the infantry were Melingoi Slavs; the archontic contingents and cavalry were Greek.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Chronicle of the Morea; Villehardouin 325-326; en.wikipedia Battle of the Olive Grove of Kountouras", "note": "About 500-700 Franks routed the Greeks; the victory founded the Principality of Achaea." }, { "id": 1562, "key": "1205-trebizond-siege", "name": "Trebizond (siege)", "year": 1205, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1205-1206", "type": "land", "war": "Trapezuntine-Seljuk wars", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "Trebizond (Trabzon)", "lat": 41.0, "lon": 39.73, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Seljuks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Trebizond", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Alexios I of Trebizond", "commanders_b": "Kaykhusraw I", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Trebizond, with the people of the Pontic Alps who harassed the Seljuks in the passes; the new state had been founded in 1204 with Georgian troops sent by Queen Tamar.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Georgian", "other" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The defenders were Pontic Greeks, with Laz and Georgian elements in the Trapezuntine forces.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn al-Athir; en.wikipedia Siege of Trebizond (1205-1206)", "note": "Theodore Laskaris is said to have encouraged the sultan's attack." }, { "id": 1563, "key": "1205-acrocorinth-siege", "name": "Acrocorinth (siege)", "year": 1205, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1205-1210", "type": "land", "war": "Latin conquest of the Morea", "theatre": "Peloponnese", "place": "Acrocorinth, citadel of Corinth", "lat": 37.89, "lon": 22.87, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Principality of Achaea" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Epirus", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Boniface of Montferrat (1205), Geoffrey I of Villehardouin, Otto de la Roche", "commanders_b": "Leo Sgouros (died 1208), then a Theodore, usually identified with Theodore Komnenos Doukas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Defended 1205-08 by Leo Sgouros, an independent Greek lord, not a listed successor state; Epirus applies only to the last phase if the defender Theodore was Theodore Komnenos Doukas. No siege article.", "main_enemy": "Principality of Achaea", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The garrison of Leo Sgouros, lord of Nauplia, Argos and Corinth, which made energetic sorties against the Frankish siege forts; after Sgouros's death in 1208 the defence was led by a Theodore.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Sgouros's men were Greeks of the Argolid and Corinthia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Villehardouin; Chronicle of the Morea; en.wikipedia Leo Sgouros", "note": "The citadel fell in 1210 to the Achaeans and Otto de la Roche of Athens; Nauplia and Argos held out until 1211-12." }, { "id": 1564, "key": "1208-herakleia-pontike-siege", "name": "Herakleia Pontike (siege)", "year": 1208, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1208 (or 1206)", "type": "land", "war": "Nicaean-Trapezuntine war", "theatre": "Paphlagonia", "place": "Herakleia Pontike (Karadeniz Ereğli)", "lat": 41.28, "lon": 31.42, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Latin Empire" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Trebizond", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Trebizond (David Komnenos)", "faction_b": "Nicaea (Theodore I Laskaris)", "commanders_a": "David Komnenos; Henry of Flanders (diversion)", "commanders_b": "Theodore I Laskaris", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No article or list entry.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Laskaris's Nicaean field army besieged David Komnenos's city; David's ally Henry of Flanders crossed to Nicomedia and forced Laskaris to lift the siege, and the Nicaeans lost about 1,000 men crossing the flooded Sangarios (Choniates; Villehardouin's continuation).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both sides' forces were Greeks of north-western and northern Asia Minor.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Choniates, Historia; en.wikipedia David Komnenos; en.wikipedia Theodore I Laskaris", "note": "Dated 1208 in the article on David Komnenos and 1206 in that on Theodore I. Laskaris took Herakleia and Amastris without resistance in 1214." }, { "id": 1565, "key": "1211-antioch-on-the-maeander", "name": "Antioch on the Maeander", "year": 1211, "month": 6, "day": 17, "date": "probably 17 June 1211", "type": "land", "war": "Nicaean-Seljuk war of 1211", "theatre": "Western Asia Minor (Maeander valley)", "place": "Antioch on the Maeander, near Yamalak (Kuyucak)", "lat": 37.87, "lon": 28.55, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Seljuks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Nicaea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Theodore I Laskaris", "commanders_b": "Kaykhusraw I (killed); the former emperor Alexios III Angelos (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "About 2,000 men (Akropolites, Gregoras; 3,000 in George of Pelagonia), of whom some 800 were Latin mercenary cavalry, most of whom fell; the rest were Nicaean Greek troops.", "languages": [ "Greek", "other" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "About 800 of the 2,000 were Latin mercenaries; the remaining 1,200 or so were Nicaean Greeks.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Akropolites 9-10; Gregoras 1.8; Choniates, Orations; en.wikipedia Battle of Antioch on the Meander", "note": "Laskaris is said to have killed the sultan in single combat; the victory was costly. Alexios III fought on the Seljuk side but does not make the battle civil." }, { "id": 1566, "key": "1211-rhyndakos", "name": "Rhyndakos", "year": 1211, "month": 10, "day": 15, "date": "15 October 1211", "type": "land", "war": "Nicaean-Latin wars", "theatre": "Mysia", "place": "Rhyndakos river, near Lopadion", "lat": 40.21, "lon": 28.4, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Latin Empire" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Nicaea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Henry of Flanders", "commanders_b": "Theodore I Laskaris", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latin Empire", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "A Nicaean army larger than the Latins' 260 knights but with only a handful of Latin mercenaries, most having fallen at Antioch on the Maeander; it lay in ambush at the river and was scattered in a day-long fight (Henry's letter).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "With the Latin mercenaries lost at Antioch, the army was almost wholly Nicaean Greek.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Henry of Flanders, letter of 1212; Akropolites 15; en.wikipedia Battle of the Rhyndacus (1211)", "note": "Henry advanced unopposed to Nymphaion; the Treaty of Nymphaion (1214) fixed the border." }, { "id": 1567, "key": "1214-sinope-siege", "name": "Sinope (siege)", "year": 1214, "month": 11, "day": 1, "date": "autumn 1214 (surrender 1 November)", "type": "land", "war": "Trapezuntine-Seljuk wars", "theatre": "Paphlagonia (Black Sea coast)", "place": "Sinope", "lat": 42.03, "lon": 35.15, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Seljuks" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Trebizond", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Kaykaus I, Behram", "commanders_b": "Alexios I of Trebizond (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Sinope, Greeks and some western Europeans; Alexios I, marching to relieve the city, was captured with a hunting party of about 500 men (Ibn Bibi).", "languages": [ "Greek", "other" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Ibn Bibi describes the defenders as Greeks with some Franks.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ibn Bibi; en.wikipedia Siege of Sinope", "note": "After a blockade by sea under Behram, the city surrendered to obtain Alexios's release; Trebizond became tributary to the Seljuks." }, { "id": 1568, "key": "1217-dyrrhachium", "name": "Dyrrhachium", "year": 1217, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1217", "type": "land", "war": "Epirote-Latin wars", "theatre": "Epirus Nova (Albania)", "place": "Dyrrhachium (Durrës) and the mountain road east towards Thessalonica", "lat": 41.32, "lon": 19.45, "loc": "approx", "country": "Albania", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latin Empire" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Venice" ], "roman_state": "Epirus", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Theodore Komnenos Doukas", "commanders_b": "Peter II of Courtenay (captured), Cardinal Giovanni Colonna (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The siege and the ambush are not a named battle in the lists; entered as one engagement.", "main_enemy": "Latin Empire", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Theodore Komnenos Doukas's Epirote army held Dyrrhachium against Peter of Courtenay's 160 knights and 5,500 men and then ambushed his column in the Albanian mountains; no figures are given for Theodore's troops.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian", "Vlach (Romance)" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Epirote army was raised in Epirus and Albania: Greeks with Albanian and Vlach highlanders.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Akropolites 14; Richard of San Germano; en.wikipedia Theodore Komnenos Doukas; en.wikipedia Peter II of Courtenay", "note": "Most accounts say the siege of Dyrrhachium failed (others that the city fell and was quickly retaken); Peter was captured after accepting Theodore's offer of safe conduct and died in captivity." }, { "id": 1569, "key": "1223-trebizond-siege", "name": "Trebizond (siege)", "year": 1223, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1222-1223 (main operations February-September 1223)", "type": "land", "war": "Trapezuntine-Seljuk wars", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "Trebizond (Trabzon) and the passes to the south", "lat": 41.0, "lon": 39.73, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Seljuks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Trebizond", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Andronikos I Gidos, Theodore Polemarches, George Tornikes (killed)", "commanders_b": "Melik (perhaps Mughith al-Din Tughrilshah)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "Armoured cavalry (an initial force of 500 horse), the watch of the Narrow Pass under Theodore Polemarches, Laz horsemen and light-armed Matzoukan highlanders, with the citizens of Trebizond (John Lazaropoulos).", "languages": [ "Greek", "other" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Lazaropoulos names the Matzoukan highlanders and the citizens, both Pontic Greek, and Laz horsemen.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "John Lazaropoulos, Synopsis of the Miracles of St Eugenios; Panaretos; Ibn al-Athir; en.wikipedia Siege of Trebizond (1222-1223)", "note": "The main account is hagiographic and its details may be embellished; the Seljuk prince was captured at Kouratoreion and released on terms ending Trebizond's vassalage. A Trapezuntine naval raid on Sinope preceded the siege." }, { "id": 1570, "key": "1224-serres", "name": "Serres", "year": 1224, "month": 4, "day": null, "date": "spring 1224", "type": "land", "war": "Epirote-Latin wars", "theatre": "Macedonia-Thrace", "place": "On the road from Serres towards Constantinople", "lat": 41.09, "lon": 23.55, "loc": "region", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latin Empire" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Epirus", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Theodore Komnenos Doukas's commanders", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An interception rather than a named battle; no article.", "main_enemy": "Latin Empire", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Epirote troops of Theodore Komnenos Doukas intercepted the Latin army that had lifted its siege of Serres on news of Poimanenon and killed or captured most of it (Akropolites).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian", "Vlach (Romance)" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Theodore's army was raised in Epirus, Thessaly and western Macedonia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Akropolites 24; en.wikipedia Theodore Komnenos Doukas", "note": "" }, { "id": 1571, "key": "1224-thessalonica-siege", "name": "Thessalonica (siege)", "year": 1224, "month": 12, "day": null, "date": "early 1223 - December 1224", "type": "land", "war": "Epirote-Latin wars", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Thessalonica", "lat": 40.64, "lon": 22.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Kingdom of Thessalonica" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Epirus", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Theodore Komnenos Doukas", "commanders_b": "Guy Pallavicini (regent), Oberto II of Biandrate", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Kingdom of Thessalonica", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Theodore Komnenos Doukas's Epirote army, recruited in Epirus, Thessaly and western Macedonia; no figures in the sources.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian", "Vlach (Romance)", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Epirote army drew on the Greek towns and countryside of Epirus and Thessaly, with Albanians, Vlachs and Slavs.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Akropolites 21, 24; en.wikipedia Theodore Komnenos Doukas", "note": "The city surrendered about December 1224 after a long blockade; Theodore was crowned emperor there (1225-27), founding the Empire of Thessalonica. A relief crusade under William VI of Montferrat (1225) failed." }, { "id": 1572, "key": "1224-poimanenon", "name": "Poimanenon", "year": 1224, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "early 1224 (or late 1223)", "type": "land", "war": "Nicaean-Latin wars", "theatre": "Mysia", "place": "Near Poimanenon, south of Cyzicus", "lat": 40.08, "lon": 27.89, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latin Empire" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Nicaea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John III Doukas Vatatzes", "commanders_b": "Alexios and Isaac Laskaris (captured), Nicholas of Mainvault (killed), Thierry of Walcourt", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latin Empire", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "John III Vatatzes's Nicaean field army; Akropolites says only that he won 'by storm'. No figures.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Nicaea was raised in western Anatolia, with Latin and Cuman mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Akropolites 22; Gregoras 2.2; en.wikipedia Battle of Poimanenon", "note": "The Laskaris brothers, rivals of Vatatzes, fought with the Latins and were blinded after capture; the Latins lost almost all of Asia Minor (treaty of 1225)." }, { "id": 1573, "key": "1230-klokotnitsa", "name": "Klokotnitsa", "year": 1230, "month": 3, "day": 9, "date": "9 March 1230", "type": "land", "war": "Thessalonian-Bulgarian war of 1230", "theatre": "Thrace (upper Hebros valley)", "place": "Near Klokotnitsa, west of Haskovo", "lat": 41.98, "lon": 25.5, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Cumans" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Thessalonica", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ivan Asen II", "commanders_b": "Theodore Komnenos Doukas (captured), Manuel Komnenos Doukas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "A large army of the Empire of Thessalonica, raised in Macedonia, Thessaly and Epirus, with western (Latin) mercenaries (Akropolites); the infobox figures are unreliable.", "languages": [ "Greek", "other", "Albanian", "Vlach (Romance)" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Theodore's army came from the Greek lands of Epirus, Thessaly and Macedonia, with Latin mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Akropolites 25; en.wikipedia Battle of Klokotnitsa", "note": "Theodore was captured and later blinded; Ivan Asen released the prisoners and took Thrace and Macedonia; Thessalonica passed to Manuel as a Bulgarian vassal. Some accounts give April 1230." }, { "id": 1574, "key": "1235-gallipoli", "name": "Gallipoli", "year": 1235, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 1235", "type": "land", "war": "Nicaean-Latin wars", "theatre": "Thrace (Hellespont)", "place": "Kallipolis (Gelibolu)", "lat": 40.41, "lon": 26.67, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Venice" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Nicaea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John III Doukas Vatatzes", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The capture opened the 1235 campaign; how much fighting there was is not clear in the Wikipedia account.", "main_enemy": "Venice", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "John III Vatatzes's army, ferried across the Hellespont, took the Venetian-held town (Akropolites).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Nicaean field army of western Anatolia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Akropolites 33; en.wikipedia Siege of Constantinople (1235)", "note": "" }, { "id": 1575, "key": "1235-constantinople-siege", "name": "Constantinople (siege)", "year": 1235, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1235-1236", "type": "land", "war": "Nicaean-Bulgarian war against the Latin Empire", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Constantinople and the Golden Horn", "lat": 41.02, "lon": 28.95, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Latin Empire" ], "side_b": [ "Rome", "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [ "Venice", "Genoa", "Principality of Achaea" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Nicaea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John of Brienne, Geoffrey II of Villehardouin", "commanders_b": "John III Doukas Vatatzes, Ivan Asen II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latin Empire", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "John III's Nicaean army and fleet, alongside Ivan Asen II's Bulgarians; the fleet tried to force the Golden Horn and lost 24 ships to a Venetian squadron of 25 galleys. A source's 50,000 for the allied army is exaggerated.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Nicaean contingent and fleet were raised in western Anatolia and the islands, with Latin and Cuman mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Akropolites 34-37; Philippe Mouskes; en.wikipedia Siege of Constantinople (1235)", "note": "Pisan ships also helped the defence. The siege was renewed in 1236 before Ivan Asen changed sides. The naval defeat is counted within this entry." }, { "id": 1576, "key": "1238-brescia-siege", "name": "Brescia (siege)", "year": 1238, "month": 10, "day": 7, "date": "11 July - 7 October 1238", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines (Frederick II against the Lombard League)", "theatre": "Lombardy", "place": "Brescia", "lat": 45.54, "lon": 10.22, "loc": "known", "country": "Italy", "side_a": [ "Lombard League" ], "side_b": [ "Holy Roman Empire" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Rome" ], "roman_state": "Nicaea", "rome_role": "ally", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Oberto de Iniquitate", "commanders_b": "Frederick II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A small allied contingent far from Roman lands; the Wikipedia infobox lists the Empire of Nicaea as a belligerent beside Frederick II.", "main_enemy": "Lombard League", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Nicaean troops sent by John III Vatatzes, which joined Frederick II's army at Verona in April 1238; their size and role are not recorded.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Troops sent from Nicaea would have been Nicaean Greeks or the empire's mercenaries; no details survive.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "en.wikipedia John III Doukas Vatatzes; en.wikipedia Siege of Brescia (1238)", "note": "A successful sortie by the Brescians in early October forced Frederick to lift the siege." }, { "id": 1577, "key": "1239-tzurulum-siege", "name": "Tzurulum (siege)", "year": 1239, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1239 (or 1240)", "type": "land", "war": "Nicaean-Latin wars", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Tzurulum (Çorlu), eastern Thrace", "lat": 41.16, "lon": 27.8, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Latin Empire" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Crusaders" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Nicaea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Baldwin II", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Siege mentioned only in passing in Wikipedia; no article.", "main_enemy": "Latin Empire", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The Nicaean garrison of Tzurulum, placed there in the 1235 campaign; no figures.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A garrison of the Nicaean army in Thrace.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Akropolites 37; en.wikipedia Siege of Constantinople (1235)", "note": "Taken by Baldwin II with the western knights of his crusade of 1239, who then dispersed; Vatatzes recovered the town in 1247." }, { "id": 1578, "key": "1242-thessalonica-siege", "name": "Thessalonica (siege)", "year": 1242, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring-summer 1242", "type": "land", "war": "Nicaean-Thessalonian conflict", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Thessalonica", "lat": 40.64, "lon": 22.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Thessalonica", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Thessalonica (John Komnenos Doukas)", "faction_b": "Nicaea (John III Vatatzes)", "commanders_a": "John Komnenos Doukas", "commanders_b": "John III Doukas Vatatzes", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Vatatzes's Nicaean army, without heavy siege engines, with a fleet; the defenders were the garrison and citizens of Thessalonica (Akropolites).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Nicaean Anatolian troops against the Greek garrison and citizens of Thessalonica.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Akropolites 40; en.wikipedia Theodore Komnenos Doukas", "note": "The city held and the siege was broken off on news of the Mongol invasion of Asia Minor, but after 40 days of talks John Komnenos Doukas renounced the imperial title and became a Nicaean vassal despot, so politically Nicaea gained its aim." }, { "id": 1579, "key": "1243-kose-dag", "name": "Köse Dağ", "year": 1243, "month": 6, "day": 26, "date": "26 June 1243", "type": "land", "war": "Mongol invasion of Anatolia", "theatre": "Eastern Anatolia", "place": "Köse Dağ mountain, between Erzincan and Sivas", "lat": 40.28, "lon": 39.6, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Mongols" ], "side_b": [ "Seljuks" ], "allies_a": [ "Georgia", "Armenia" ], "allies_b": [ "Rome", "Georgia" ], "roman_state": "Trebizond", "rome_role": "ally", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Baiju Noyan", "commanders_b": "Kaykhusraw II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The Roman part was a small allied contingent; the battle article's infobox omits it, and Greek mercenaries in Seljuk pay would not count.", "main_enemy": "Mongols", "opponent_group": "Steppe peoples", "roman_force": "A Trapezuntine army sent by Manuel I of Trebizond, then a Seljuk vassal, is recorded with the sultan's army; numbers unknown. Kaykhusraw II's treaty with John III Vatatzes is not known to have produced Nicaean troops, and Greek nobles serving as Seljuk mercenaries do not count.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Contingents of Trebizond and Nicaea, both Greek-speaking states.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Ibn Bibi; Bar Hebraeus; en.wikipedia Manuel I of Trebizond; en.wikipedia Battle of Köse Dağ", "note": "Georgian troops fought on both sides. Trebizond submitted to the Mongols after the battle." }, { "id": 1580, "key": "1247-tzurulum-siege", "name": "Tzurulum (siege)", "year": 1247, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1247", "type": "land", "war": "Nicaean-Latin wars", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Tzurulum (Çorlu), eastern Thrace", "lat": 41.16, "lon": 27.8, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latin Empire" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Nicaea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John III Doukas Vatatzes", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No article or list entry.", "main_enemy": "Latin Empire", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "John III Vatatzes's Nicaean field army with siege engines, which took Tzurulum and Vizye from the Latins (Akropolites).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Nicaean army of the 1240s was raised in western Anatolia, with Cuman settlers and Latin mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Akropolites 47", "note": "The capture left the Latins only the immediate surroundings of Constantinople." }, { "id": 1581, "key": "1249-rhodes-siege", "name": "Rhodes (siege)", "year": 1249, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1249-1250", "type": "land", "war": "Nicaean-Genoese war over Rhodes", "theatre": "Dodecanese", "place": "Rhodes (town and citadel)", "lat": 36.44, "lon": 28.22, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Genoa" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Principality of Achaea" ], "roman_state": "Nicaea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John Kantakouzenos, Theodore Kontostephanos", "commanders_b": "William II of Villehardouin, Hugh IV of Burgundy (Achaean relief)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Genoa", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "A small army, perhaps only the Thrakesian troops of the pinkernes and doux John Kantakouzenos, with a fleet, reinforced by the protosebastos Theodore Kontostephanos with 300 horse from Smyrna; they destroyed the 100 Achaean knights left to help the Genoese and besieged the city again (Akropolites).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The troops were those of the Thrakesion theme and Smyrna in western Anatolia.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Akropolites 48; en.wikipedia Genoese occupation of Rhodes", "note": "The Genoese seized Rhodes by a night attack in 1248; the Nicaean blockade (late 1248-1249) was interrupted when William of Villehardouin arrived in May 1249, and the Genoese surrendered for safe passage in late 1249 or early 1250." }, { "id": 1582, "key": "1251-thessalonica", "name": "Thessalonica", "year": 1251, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1251", "type": "land", "war": "Nicaean-Epirote wars", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Thessalonica", "lat": 40.64, "lon": 22.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Nicaea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Nicaea (John III Vatatzes)", "faction_b": "Epirus (Michael II Komnenos Doukas)", "commanders_a": "", "commanders_b": "Michael II Komnenos Doukas, Theodore Komnenos Doukas", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An attack rather than a siege; the extent of fighting is not recorded.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "The Nicaean garrison and citizens of Thessalonica repelled the Epirote army of Michael II, urged on by the blind Theodore Komnenos Doukas (Akropolites).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Greek garrison and citizens against an Epirote army of Greeks and Albanians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Akropolites 49; en.wikipedia Theodore Komnenos Doukas", "note": "Michael II then took Prilep and Veles; Vatatzes's counter-campaign of 1252 forced him to terms." }, { "id": 1583, "key": "1254-sinope", "name": "Sinope", "year": 1254, "month": 6, "day": 24, "date": "24 June 1254", "type": "land", "war": "Trapezuntine-Seljuk wars", "theatre": "Paphlagonia (Black Sea coast)", "place": "Sinope", "lat": 42.03, "lon": 35.15, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Seljuks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Trebizond", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Manuel I of Trebizond", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Recapture recorded briefly; whether there was real fighting is unknown.", "main_enemy": "Seljuks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "Manuel I's Trapezuntine forces, probably with the fleet; the sources give no details.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army of Trebizond was Pontic Greek with Laz and Georgian elements.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Panaretos; en.wikipedia Manuel I of Trebizond", "note": "Trebizond held Sinope until about 1265." }, { "id": 1584, "key": "1254-adrianople", "name": "Adrianople", "year": 1254, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1254 (the counter-offensive is often dated February 1255)", "type": "land", "war": "Nicaean-Bulgarian war of 1254-1256", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Near Adrianople (Edirne)", "lat": 41.68, "lon": 26.56, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Bulgaria" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Nicaea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Theodore II Laskaris", "commanders_b": "Michael Asen", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Akropolites describes a counter-offensive in which the Bulgarians withdrew rather than a set battle; the Wikipedia article is a stub.", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Theodore II's field army, assembled with difficulty and led by the emperor in person, which caught the Bulgarians unprepared and drove them out of Thrace (Akropolites).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic", "other" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Theodore II favoured native Anatolian troops, with Cuman and Latin mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Akropolites 54; en.wikipedia Battle of Adrianople (1254)", "note": "The article gives 1,000-3,000 Bulgarian losses." }, { "id": 1585, "key": "1255-tzepaina", "name": "Tzepaina", "year": 1255, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1255", "type": "land", "war": "Nicaean-Bulgarian war of 1254-1256", "theatre": "Rhodope Mountains", "place": "Passes below the fortress of Tzepaina (Tsepina), western Rhodopes", "lat": 42.03, "lon": 24.13, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Nicaea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "", "commanders_b": "Alexios Strategopoulos, Constantine (or Demetrios) Tornikes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Akropolites describes a rout with little or no fighting; no article.", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "A Nicaean detachment under Alexios Strategopoulos and a Tornikes sent against Tzepaina, which fled in panic, abandoning its baggage and horses (Akropolites).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A detachment of the Nicaean field army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Akropolites 58; en.wikipedia Alexios Strategopoulos; en.wikipedia Theodore II Laskaris", "note": "Theodore II dismissed both commanders. His own attempt on Tzepaina in late 1255 was stopped by the snow-bound passes." }, { "id": 1586, "key": "1257-edessa", "name": "Edessa", "year": 1257, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1257", "type": "land", "war": "Nicaean-Epirote wars", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Near Edessa (Vodena)", "lat": 40.8, "lon": 22.05, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Epirus", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Epirus (Michael II Komnenos Doukas)", "faction_b": "Nicaea (Theodore II Laskaris)", "commanders_a": "", "commanders_b": "", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Named only as a place-battle in the Theodore II article, which does not name the victor; no article.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "A newly raised Nicaean army of Anatolian peasants was routed near Edessa by the forces of Michael II (Akropolites).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Akropolites calls the Nicaean levies Anatolian peasants; the Epirote side was Greeks with Albanians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Akropolites 70; en.wikipedia Theodore II Laskaris", "note": "The victors are taken to be Michael II's Epirotes, whose offensive of 1257 it belongs to; Serbian troops of Stefan Uros I also defeated a Nicaean force near Prilep in the same war (not entered)." }, { "id": 1587, "key": "1257-prilep-siege", "name": "Prilep (siege)", "year": 1257, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1257 (or early 1258)", "type": "land", "war": "Nicaean-Epirote wars", "theatre": "Macedonia (Pelagonia)", "place": "Prilep", "lat": 41.35, "lon": 21.55, "loc": "known", "country": "North Macedonia", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Epirus", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Epirus (Michael II Komnenos Doukas)", "faction_b": "Nicaea (Theodore II Laskaris)", "commanders_a": "Michael II Komnenos Doukas", "commanders_b": "George Akropolites (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No article or list entry.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Michael II's Epirote army besieged and took Prilep, held for Nicaea by a garrison under the governor George Akropolites, after the Nicaean field army under Michael Palaiologos had been ordered to withdraw (Akropolites).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both sides' forces were Greek-speaking, the Epirotes with Albanian contingents.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Akropolites 70-71; en.wikipedia Theodore II Laskaris", "note": "Akropolites was freed after Pelagonia in 1259." }, { "id": 1588, "key": "1259-pelagonia", "name": "Pelagonia", "year": 1259, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer or early autumn 1259", "type": "land", "war": "Pelagonia campaign (Nicaea against the Epirote-Achaean-Sicilian league)", "theatre": "Macedonia (Pelagonia)", "place": "Plain of Pelagonia, probably near Vevi between Florina and Kaimakchalan", "lat": 40.82, "lon": 21.57, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Principality of Achaea", "Sicily" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Nicaea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John Palaiologos (sebastokrator), Alexios Strategopoulos, Nikephoros Rimpsas", "commanders_b": "William II of Villehardouin (captured), Geoffrey of Briel (captured); Michael II Komnenos Doukas (withdrew)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Epirus was a principal of the coalition but its army fled the night before the battle and John Doukas went over to Nicaea; entered as not civil, but could be treated as civil.", "main_enemy": "Principality of Achaea", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "John Palaiologos's army of 27 allagia (Chronicle of the Morea): Greek contingents from Asia Minor, Macedonia and Thrace with 300 German knights, 1,500 Hungarian mounted archers, 600 Serbian horse, Bulgarian cavalry, 1,500 Turkish and 2,000 Cuman horsemen; John Doukas's Thessalians changed sides to Nicaea.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic", "other", "Slavic", "Germanic", "Vlach (Romance)" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The Chronicle of the Morea lists some 6,000 foreign horsemen beside the native Greek contingents, whose number is not given.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Akropolites 79-81; Pachymeres 1.30-31; Gregoras 3.5; Chronicle of the Morea; en.wikipedia Battle of Pelagonia", "note": "Also called the battle of Kastoria. The Duchy of Athens, the triarchs of Euboea and the Duchy of the Archipelago also sent troops to the league. Date July (Nicol) or September (Geanakoplos)." }, { "id": 1589, "key": "1260-trikorphon", "name": "Trikorphon", "year": 1260, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1260", "type": "land", "war": "Nicaean-Epirote wars", "theatre": "Aetolia", "place": "Trikorphon pass, near Naupaktos", "lat": 38.43, "lon": 21.9, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Epirus", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Epirus (Michael II Komnenos Doukas)", "faction_b": "Nicaea (Michael VIII Palaiologos)", "commanders_a": "Michael II Komnenos Doukas", "commanders_b": "Alexios Strategopoulos (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Michael II, returning from Cephalonia with his sons and Italian mercenaries and joined by the local population, routed the Nicaean occupation army of Alexios Strategopoulos (Pachymeres).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Italian", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were mainly Greek: the Epirote levies of Aetolia-Acarnania with Italian mercenaries, and the Nicaean army of Anatolia and Macedonia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Pachymeres 2.11; en.wikipedia Alexios Strategopoulos", "note": "Michael II retook Arta; Strategopoulos was released after a few months and recovered Constantinople in July 1261." }, { "id": 1590, "key": "1260-constantinople-siege", "name": "Constantinople (siege)", "year": 1260, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1260 (Michael VIII crossed into Thrace in January; truce in August)", "type": "land", "war": "Nicaean-Latin wars", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Galata, across the Golden Horn from Constantinople", "lat": 41.03, "lon": 28.97, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Latin Empire" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Nicaea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Baldwin II", "commanders_b": "Michael VIII Palaiologos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Latin Empire", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Michael VIII's army, with siege engines and miners, attacked Galata after a plot to open a gate failed; Akropolites thought the force too small for a serious assault, while other chroniclers describe a large operation. No figures.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Nicaean army of Anatolia and Thrace, with Cuman and Latin mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Akropolites 81; Pachymeres 2.31; Gregoras; en.wikipedia Siege of Constantinople (1260)", "note": "The defenders of Galata, reinforced by boat from the city, held; Michael accepted a one-year truce. Outlying places such as Selymbria were taken in the same campaign." }, { "id": 1591, "key": "1261-reconquest-of-constantinople", "name": "Reconquest of Constantinople", "year": 1261, "month": 7, "day": 25, "date": "night of 24/25 July 1261", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of Nicaea against the Latin Empire", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Constantinople, the land walls near the Gate of the Spring (Pege)", "lat": 41.01, "lon": 28.92, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Latin Empire" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Venice" ], "roman_state": "Nicaea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the Caesar Alexios Strategopoulos", "commanders_b": "Baldwin II (in the city, not at the walls)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A surprise entry with only a short fight at the walls; the Latin garrison and the Venetian fleet were away raiding Daphnousia.", "main_enemy": "Latin Empire", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "About 800 soldiers, most of them Cumans, under Alexios Strategopoulos, guided by local Greek farmers (thelematarioi) who led a detachment through a passage under the walls to open the gate (Akropolites, Pachymeres).", "languages": [ "Turkic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Most of the 800 were Cuman mercenaries, but the Nicaean officers and the thelematarioi who opened the gate were Greek.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "George Akropolites 85-88; Pachymeres book 2; Gregoras book 4; en.wikipedia Reconquest of Constantinople", "note": "Michael VIII entered the city on 15 August 1261." }, { "id": 1592, "key": "1263-prinitza", "name": "Prinitza", "year": 1263, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1263 (spring or summer)", "type": "land", "war": "War of Michael VIII against the Principality of Achaea (1262-1267)", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "the defile of Prinitza, near Ancient Olympia, Elis", "lat": 37.65, "lon": 21.67, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Principality of Achaea" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John of Katavas", "commanders_b": "the sebastokrator Constantine Palaiologos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Principality of Achaea", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The expeditionary army of the Morea under Constantine Palaiologos: Turkish (Seljuk) mercenaries (about 1,500 by modern reckoning), Greek troops from Anatolia under John Makrenos, and local recruits from the Tsakonians, Kinsterna and the Slavs of Taygetos; the Chronicle of the Morea's 15,000-20,000 is much exaggerated.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Besides the Turkish mercenaries the army included some 2,000 Anatolian Greeks under Makrenos and Greek-speaking Tsakonian and Laconian levies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Chronicle of the Morea; Pachymeres; Gregoras (briefly); Marino Sanudo Torsello; en.wikipedia Battle of Prinitza", "note": "The Achaean force was only about 300 men; the Chronicle of the Morea, the only detailed account, is hostile to the imperial side." }, { "id": 1593, "key": "1263-settepozzi", "name": "Settepozzi", "year": 1263, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "first half of 1263 (perhaps May-July)", "type": "sea", "war": "War of Saint Sabas (Venice against Genoa and Michael VIII)", "theatre": "Aegean", "place": "off Settepozzi (Spetses), at the mouth of the Argolic Gulf", "lat": 37.25, "lon": 23.1, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Venice" ], "side_b": [ "Genoa", "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gilberto Dandolo", "commanders_b": "Pietro Avvocato (killed), Lanfranco Spinola", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The principal belligerent was Genoa, fighting as Michael VIII's ally and in his pay; direct participation of imperial ships is not securely attested.", "main_enemy": "Venice", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "A Genoese fleet of 38 galleys and 10 saettiae in Michael VIII's pay under the Treaty of Nymphaeum (1261), sailing from the imperial base at Monemvasia; only about 14 galleys engaged.", "languages": [ "Italian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Martino da Canal says one of the two admirals who stayed out of the fight was a Greek; the crews were essentially Genoese.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Annales Ianuenses; Martino da Canal; Pachymeres; en.wikipedia Battle of Settepozzi", "note": "Venice took four Genoese galleys; the defeat led Michael VIII to dismiss the Genoese fleet." }, { "id": 1594, "key": "1264-makryplagi", "name": "Makryplagi", "year": 1264, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1264 (or 1263)", "type": "land", "war": "War of Michael VIII against the Principality of Achaea (1262-1267)", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "the pass of Makryplagi, near Gardiki, between Messenia and the Megalopolis basin", "lat": 37.28, "lon": 22.02, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Principality of Achaea" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "William II of Villehardouin, Ancelin de Toucy", "commanders_b": "Alexios Philes and John Makrenos (both captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Principality of Achaea", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The imperial army of the Morea, chiefly Greek troops from Asia Minor, after its unpaid Turkish mercenaries (over 1,000 horse under Melik and Salik) had gone over to the Achaeans.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "With the Turks gone over to William, the army that fought was mostly the Anatolian Greek contingent and local levies.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Chronicle of the Morea; Pachymeres; en.wikipedia Battle of Makryplagi", "note": "Date 1263 or 1264. Constantine Palaiologos had left; the megas konostaulos Michael Kantakouzenos was killed earlier in a skirmish at Saint Nicholas of Mesiskli (not listed separately). The Turkish deserters fought on the Achaean side." }, { "id": 1595, "key": "1275-neopatras", "name": "Neopatras", "year": 1275, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1274/75 (or 1272/73)", "type": "land", "war": "Michael VIII's war against Thessaly and the Latins of Greece", "theatre": "Thessaly", "place": "before Neopatras (Ypati), Phthiotis", "lat": 38.91, "lon": 22.24, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Duchy of Athens" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "John I Doukas of Thessaly", "faction_b": "Michael VIII", "commanders_a": "John I Doukas; John I de la Roche, Duke of Athens", "commanders_b": "the despot John Palaiologos, Alexios Kaballarios (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Thessaly (John I Doukas, son of Michael II of Epirus) is treated here as an Epirote, Roman successor principality, making the battle civil; if Thessaly is not counted as Roman, this is an imperial defeat by Thessaly and Athens.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Imperial side: a large, mostly mercenary army of mixed peoples under the despot John Palaiologos (Pachymeres' 40,000 with the fleet is exaggerated), including Cumans who changed sides in the battle. Thessalian side: John Doukas's men, with 300-500 Latin horse from Athens.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Pachymeres stresses the mercenary, many-peopled imperial army (Cumans among them); the Thessalian force was Greek, with Latin cavalry from Athens.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Pachymeres; Gregoras; en.wikipedia Battle of Neopatras", "note": "Dated 1271 (Poussines), 1272/73 (Failler, ODB) or late 1274/early 1275 (Geanakoplos, Nicol). Fought just before the sea battle of Demetrias. roman_state gives the imperial side; the other side is Thessaly." }, { "id": 1596, "key": "1275-demetrias", "name": "Demetrias", "year": 1275, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1274/75 (or 1272/73)", "type": "sea", "war": "Michael VIII's war against Thessaly and the Latins of Greece", "theatre": "Thessaly", "place": "off Demetrias, near Volos, Pagasetic Gulf", "lat": 39.35, "lon": 22.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Lordship of Negroponte" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Venice" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Alexios Doukas Philanthropenos (wounded); the despot John Palaiologos", "commanders_b": "Guglielmo II da Verona (killed), Filippo Sanudo (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Lordship of Negroponte", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Michael VIII's fleet of 50-80 ships (Gregoras 'over 50', Sanudo 80), in this period manned by Gasmouloi, Tzakones and Prosalentai (Pachymeres), reinforced during the battle by the despot John Palaiologos with troops brought from Neopatras.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Pachymeres names the Gasmouloi (Greek-Latin, Greek-speaking), the Laconian Tzakones and the Prosalentai as the crews of Michael VIII's navy.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Pachymeres; Gregoras; Marino Sanudo Torsello; en.wikipedia Battle of Demetrias", "note": "Dated 1271, 1272/73 (Failler, ODB) or 1275 (Geanakoplos, Nicol, Fine). The Lombard triarchs of Negroponte with Venetian ships from Crete and Euboea (Venice officially neutral); all but two Latin ships were taken." }, { "id": 1597, "key": "1279-devina", "name": "Devina", "year": 1279, "month": 7, "day": 17, "date": "17 July 1279", "type": "land", "war": "Michael VIII's intervention in the Bulgarian rising of Ivailo (1277-1280)", "theatre": "Balkan Mountains", "place": "near the fortress of Devina, at the Kotel pass, Balkan Mountains", "lat": 42.92, "lon": 26.45, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ivailo", "commanders_b": "Murin", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "An army of about 10,000 sent by Michael VIII under Murin to support Ivan Asen III (Pachymeres); its composition is not recorded. Michael VIII's field armies normally combined Greek soldiers of Thrace and Macedonia with Cuman, Turkish and Latin mercenaries.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Inferred from the make-up of Michael VIII's Balkan field armies, raised mainly in Thrace and Macedonia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Pachymeres; en.wikipedia Battle of Devina", "note": "A few weeks later Ivailo destroyed a second imperial army of about 5,000 under Aprenos before it reached the Balkan passes (not listed separately: no name)." }, { "id": 1598, "key": "1279-vatondas", "name": "Vatondas", "year": 1279, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 1279 or early 1280", "type": "land", "war": "Licario's campaigns in Euboea and the Aegean", "theatre": "Euboea", "place": "Vatondas, northeast of Negroponte (Chalkis), Euboea", "lat": 38.56, "lon": 23.66, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Lordship of Negroponte", "Duchy of Athens" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Licario (megas doux)", "commanders_b": "Giberto II da Verona (killed or captured), John I de la Roche, Duke of Athens (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Lordship of Negroponte", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Licario's imperial forces on Euboea, which included Spanish and Catalan mercenaries and former followers of Manfred of Sicily (Marino Sanudo); the rest of the force is not described.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Catalan", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Only the Latin mercenaries are named; the imperial garrisons Licario raised on Euboea were presumably largely local Greeks.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Marino Sanudo Torsello, Istoria del Regno di Romania; Gregoras; en.wikipedia Licario", "note": "Licario then besieged Negroponte without success. Gregoras says Giberto da Verona died in Constantinople on seeing Licario; Sanudo says he was killed." }, { "id": 1599, "key": "1280-berat-siege", "name": "Berat (siege)", "year": 1280, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late summer 1280 - spring 1281 (relief battle March/April 1281)", "type": "land", "war": "War against Charles of Anjou", "theatre": "Albania", "place": "Berat (Belgrade), on the Osum", "lat": 40.71, "lon": 19.95, "loc": "known", "country": "Albania", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Sicily" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Michael Tarchaneiotes (megas domestikos), John Synadenos, Michael Komnenos Doukas, Andronikos Eonopolites", "commanders_b": "Hugh of Sully (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Sicily", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The garrison of Berat and a relief army sent by Michael VIII under Michael Tarchaneiotes, including Turkish mercenaries who ambushed and captured Hugh of Sully; troops from the citadel joined the attack. The Angevins had about 2,000 knights and 6,000 foot.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The relief army was the western field army of Michael VIII, raised mostly in Macedonia and Thrace, with a Turkish mercenary contingent named in the sources.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Pachymeres; Gregoras; en.wikipedia Siege of Berat (1280-1281)", "note": "The Angevin army fled toward Valona after Sully's capture and lost its siege train; Sully was paraded in triumph in Constantinople." }, { "id": 1600, "key": "1282-trebizond-siege", "name": "Trebizond (siege)", "year": 1282, "month": 4, "day": null, "date": "April 1282", "type": "land", "war": "Georgian (Imeretian) invasion of Trebizond", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "Trebizond", "lat": 41.0, "lon": 39.72, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Georgia" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Trebizond", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the defenders of Trebizond (John II was away in Constantinople)", "commanders_b": "David VI Narin, king of Imereti", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "No details of the fighting at the walls are recorded.", "main_enemy": "Georgia", "opponent_group": "Caucasus", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Trebizond; the sources give no details. The army of Trebizond in this period was raised from the Greek archons and towns of the Pontus with Laz troops.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Georgian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The defenders were the people of the capital, a Greek-speaking city, perhaps with Laz (Kartvelian) troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Miller, Trebizond (1926) 30; Rayfield, Edge of Empires (2012) 132; en.wikipedia Siege of Trebizond (1282)", "note": "The city held, but the Georgians occupied several provinces, including Chaneti (Lazia)." }, { "id": 1601, "key": "1283-demetrias-siege", "name": "Demetrias (siege)", "year": 1283, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1283/84", "type": "land", "war": "Andronikos II's war against Thessaly", "theatre": "Thessaly", "place": "Demetrias, near Volos", "lat": 39.35, "lon": 22.95, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Andronikos II", "faction_b": "John I Doukas of Thessaly", "commanders_a": "Michael Tarchaneiotes (died of disease); fleet under Alexios Raoul and John Synadenos", "commanders_b": "the garrison of John I Doukas", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Thessaly treated as a Roman (Epirote) successor principality, so civil; little is recorded of the fighting.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Imperial side: a land army under Michael Tarchaneiotes supported by a fleet under Alexios Raoul and John Synadenos; Thessalian side: John Doukas's garrison. Composition otherwise not recorded.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were raised mainly in Greek lands (Macedonia, Thrace, Thessaly), with mercenaries in unknown numbers.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Pachymeres; en.wikipedia Andronikos II Palaiologos; en.wikipedia Michael Tarchaneiotes", "note": "The town was taken, but an epidemic killed Tarchaneiotes and much of the army, which withdrew from Thessaly. roman_state gives the imperial side; the other side is Thessaly." }, { "id": 1602, "key": "1284-mount-armenia-ermeni-beli", "name": "Mount Armenia (Ermeni Beli)", "year": 1284, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 1284 or 1285", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of Osman with the Roman lords of Bithynia", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "the Ermeni Beli pass (Mount Armenia), in the hills of the Bithynian frontier near İnegöl", "lat": 40.0, "lon": 29.7, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Osman", "commanders_b": "the tekfurs (Roman lords) of Bursa and of İnegöl (Aya Nikola)", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "Known only from fifteenth-century Ottoman chronicles; no Roman source mentions it.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The retainers and garrison troops of the local Roman lords of Bursa and İnegöl, according to the Ottoman chronicles; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The Bithynian lordships were Greek-speaking frontier districts of the empire.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Aşıkpaşazade; Neşri; en.wikipedia Osman I; en.wikipedia Siege of Kulaca Hisar", "note": "An ambush of Osman's band; he withdrew with losses (his nephew Bayhoca was killed). No clear winner." }, { "id": 1603, "key": "1284-tralles-siege", "name": "Tralles (siege)", "year": 1284, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1284", "type": "land", "war": "Turkish conquest of the Maeander valley", "theatre": "Caria", "place": "Tralles (Andronikopolis), modern Aydın", "lat": 37.86, "lon": 27.84, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Turkish beyliks" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the Turks of Menteşe (leader uncertain)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A siege known from Pachymeres' narrative, without a battle article; the fighting is not described in detail.", "main_enemy": "Turkish beyliks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison and the settlers of Tralles, rebuilt from 1278 by Michael Tarchaneiotes for the young Andronikos II as Andronikopolis and repopulated with 36,000 people from the region; no relief came (Pachymeres).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The 36,000 settlers were brought from the Greek population of the surrounding districts.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Pachymeres; Vryonis, The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor (1971); en.wikipedia Aydın; en.wikipedia Michael Tarchaneiotes", "note": "Beylik: Menteşe. Short of supplies and water, the city was taken; many inhabitants were massacred and over 20,000 sold as slaves. Nyssa fell about the same time." }, { "id": 1604, "key": "1285-kulaca-hisar-siege", "name": "Kulaca Hisar (siege)", "year": 1285, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1285", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of Osman with the Roman lords of Bithynia", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "the fort of Kulaca Hisar, near İnegöl", "lat": 40.05, "lon": 29.48, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Osman, Turgut Alp, Konur Alp, Akçakoca, Abdurrahman Gazi", "commanders_b": "Aya Nikola, lord of İnegöl", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "Known only from Ottoman tradition; a night attack on a fort rather than a siege.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison of a small fort belonging to the Roman lord of İnegöl (Ottoman tradition; the figure of 1,000 defenders is unverified).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A local Bithynian garrison of the frontier lordships.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Aşıkpaşazade; Neşri; en.wikipedia Siege of Kulaca Hisar", "note": "Called in Ottoman tradition the first castle taken by the Ottomans." }, { "id": 1605, "key": "1287-domanic-ikizce", "name": "Domaniç (İkizce)", "year": 1287, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 1287", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of Osman with the Roman lords of Bithynia", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "İkizce, at the Domaniç pass", "lat": 39.82, "lon": 29.6, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Osman, Savcı Bey (killed)", "commanders_b": "Aya Nikola, lord of İnegöl; the lord of Karacahisar; Kalanoz (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "Known only from Ottoman chronicles, whose versions differ.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The combined forces of the Roman lords of İnegöl and Karacahisar, according to the Ottoman chronicles; no numbers.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Local Greek-speaking frontier troops of the Bithynian lordships.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Aşıkpaşazade; Neşri; Oruç Bey; İnalcık, TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi 'Osman I'; en.wikipedia Battle of Domaniç", "note": "Also called the battle of İkizce (Ekizce); the date is not fixed (1286-1291)." }, { "id": 1606, "key": "1288-karacahisar-siege", "name": "Karacahisar (siege)", "year": 1288, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 1288 (between 1286 and 1291)", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of Osman with the Roman lords of Bithynia", "theatre": "Phrygia", "place": "Karacahisar castle, near Eskişehir", "lat": 39.73, "lon": 30.47, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Osman", "commanders_b": "the lord of Karacahisar", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "Ottoman tradition only; the date and whether the fort was then held by a Roman lord are disputed.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison of the fort, a Roman frontier lordship according to the Ottoman tradition; nothing more is known.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A local Greek-speaking frontier garrison, if the tradition is right that the fort was Roman.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Aşıkpaşazade; Neşri; en.wikipedia Osman I; en.wikipedia Battle of Domaniç (campaign box)", "note": "The Osman I article places it after a battle between Bilecik and İnegöl in which Osman's brother Savcı and the Roman commander 'Pilatos' fell; this may be the same tradition as Domaniç." }, { "id": 1607, "key": "1292-ioannina-siege", "name": "Ioannina (siege)", "year": 1292, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1292", "type": "land", "war": "Andronikos II's war against Epirus (1291-1292)", "theatre": "Epirus", "place": "Ioannina", "lat": 39.67, "lon": 20.85, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Principality of Achaea" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Epirus", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Nikephoros I of Epirus", "faction_b": "Andronikos II", "commanders_a": "Nikephoros I Komnenos Doukas; Florent of Hainaut, Prince of Achaea; Count Riccardo Orsini of Cephalonia", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The imperial army withdrew when the Achaean army approached; how much fighting there was is unclear.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Imperial side: an army sent by Andronikos II (commander and size not recorded), while a hired Genoese fleet with imperial soldiers raided the coast near Arta. Epirote side: the garrison of Ioannina, relieved by Achaean and Cephalonian troops.", "languages": [ "Greek", "French" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both the imperial army and the Epirote defenders were raised mainly in Greek lands; the Achaean relief force was Frankish.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Pachymeres; Chronicle of the Morea; en.wikipedia Andronikos II Palaiologos; en.wikipedia Nikephoros I Komnenos Doukas", "note": "roman_state gives the Epirote (winning) side; the other side is the restored empire. A Genoese fleet hired by Andronikos II raided near Arta at the same time." }, { "id": 1608, "key": "1302-bapheus", "name": "Bapheus", "year": 1302, "month": 7, "day": 27, "date": "27 July 1302", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of Bithynia", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "the plain of Bapheus (Koyunhisar), near Nicomedia", "lat": 40.73, "lon": 29.85, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Osman", "commanders_b": "the megas hetaireiarches George Mouzalon", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "About 2,000 men under George Mouzalon, half of them newly hired Alan mercenaries, who did not join the fighting but covered the retreat to Nicomedia; the rest were imperial troops (Pachymeres).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Iranian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Pachymeres makes the Alans half of the force; the other half were Roman soldiers, presumably Greek-speaking.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Pachymeres; en.wikipedia Battle of Bapheus", "note": "Dated 27 July 1302 after Pachymeres (Failler) and most modern scholars; the en.wikipedia article's infobox now gives 27 July 1299 (Gibbon, Treiyer 2017), and some put it in 1301. Osman had about 5,000 light horse. It followed Osman's blockade of Nicaea (1301)." }, { "id": 1609, "key": "1302-kerasous", "name": "Kerasous", "year": 1302, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1301 or 1302", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of Trebizond with the Turkmen", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "near Kerasous (Giresun)", "lat": 40.92, "lon": 38.39, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Turkish beyliks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Trebizond", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Alexios II of Trebizond", "commanders_b": "a Turkmen emir (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A victory recorded by Panaretos and modern histories of Trebizond, but without a battle article.", "main_enemy": "Turkish beyliks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The army of Alexios II of Trebizond; the sources give no details. Trebizond's armies were raised from its Greek archons and towns, with Laz troops and Georgian mercenaries (attested under Alexios II).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Georgian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Inferred from the recruitment of the Trapezuntine army in the Greek coastal towns of the Pontus.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Michael Panaretos; Miller, Trebizond (1926); en.wikipedia Alexios II of Trebizond", "note": "Turkmen invaders who had taken Chalybia; no beylik is named. Alexios captured their leader and afterwards built a sea fort at Kerasous." }, { "id": 1610, "key": "1303-cyzicus", "name": "Cyzicus", "year": 1303, "month": 10, "day": null, "date": "October 1303", "type": "land", "war": "Campaign of the Catalan Company in Anatolia (1303-1304)", "theatre": "Mysia", "place": "near Cape Artake (Erdek), on the Cyzicus peninsula", "lat": 40.4, "lon": 27.79, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Turkish beyliks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Roger de Flor (megas doux)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The details come from Muntaner and later Catalan accounts; the casualty figures (3,000 horse, 10,000 foot) are surely exaggerated.", "main_enemy": "Turkish beyliks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The Catalan Company in imperial service: Catalan and Aragonese almogavar infantry and cavalry (Muntaner gives the Company about 1,500 horse and 4,000 almogavars on arrival; Gregoras far fewer), in a surprise attack on a Turkish camp.", "languages": [ "Catalan", "other" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Muntaner describes the attack as made by the Company alone ('other' = Aragonese).", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ramon Muntaner, Chronicle; Pachymeres; Moncada, Expedición de los catalanes (1623); en.wikipedia Battle of the Cyzicus", "note": "Beylik: probably Karasi." }, { "id": 1611, "key": "1303-dimbos", "name": "Dimbos", "year": 1303, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring 1303", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of Bithynia", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "the Dimbos pass, on the road from Bursa to Yenişehir", "lat": 40.23, "lon": 29.55, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Osman, Orhan", "commanders_b": "the tekfurs (Roman lords) of Bursa, Kite, Kestel, Adranos and Ulubat; the lord of Kite captured and executed", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": true, "doubt": "Its historicity is doubted: see the note.", "borderline": "Known only from later Ottoman tradition with legendary elements; Aşıkpaşazade may have transferred Bapheus to Dimbos.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "A host of the local garrisons of Adranos, Bidnos, Kestel and Kite gathered at Bursa (Ottoman tradition).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Local Greek-speaking garrison troops of the Bithynian towns.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Aşıkpaşazade; Spandounes; İnalcık (2003), in İznik throughout History; en.wikipedia Battle of Dimbos", "note": "Kestel and Ulubat were then taken." }, { "id": 1612, "key": "1304-germe", "name": "Germe", "year": 1304, "month": 5, "day": null, "date": "May 1304", "type": "land", "war": "Campaign of the Catalan Company in Anatolia (1303-1304)", "theatre": "Lydia", "place": "Germe (near Soma)", "lat": 39.19, "lon": 27.61, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Turkish beyliks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Roger de Flor", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A defeat of a Turkish rearguard known only from Muntaner.", "main_enemy": "Turkish beyliks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The Catalan Company in imperial service, with the Alan mercenaries (about 1,000) who joined the 1304 campaign.", "languages": [ "Catalan", "Iranian" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The 1304 army was the Company with Alans and some imperial troops under Marulles.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ramon Muntaner, Chronicle; en.wikipedia Catalan Company", "note": "Beylik not named (Karasi or Germiyan)." }, { "id": 1613, "key": "1304-tire", "name": "Tire", "year": 1304, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "summer (about July) 1304", "type": "land", "war": "Campaign of the Catalan Company in Anatolia (1303-1304)", "theatre": "Ionia", "place": "Tire (Thyraia), in the Cayster valley", "lat": 38.09, "lon": 27.73, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Turkish beyliks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Roger de Flor; Corbaran d'Alet (killed)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Muntaner.", "main_enemy": "Turkish beyliks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The Catalan Company in imperial service, sallying from Tire, which had a Greek garrison.", "languages": [ "Catalan", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The fighting was done by the Company; Muntaner says the Turks expected to meet only the Greek garrison.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ramon Muntaner, Chronicle; en.wikipedia Catalan Company", "note": "Beyliks: Menteşe, with survivors of Aulax (Aydın). The Turks lost about 700 horse but escaped." }, { "id": 1614, "key": "1304-ania", "name": "Ania", "year": 1304, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "summer 1304", "type": "land", "war": "Campaign of the Catalan Company in Anatolia (1303-1304)", "theatre": "Ionia", "place": "Ania (Anaia), near Kuşadası", "lat": 37.86, "lon": 27.26, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Turkish beyliks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the Catalan Company (Roger de Flor's army; Bernat de Rocafort had just joined)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Muntaner; the figures are exaggerated.", "main_enemy": "Turkish beyliks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The Catalan Company in imperial service, reinforced by Bernat de Rocafort's 200 horse and 1,000 almogavars.", "languages": [ "Catalan", "other" ], "greek_share": "none", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Muntaner describes an almogavar charge by the Company alone ('other' = Aragonese).", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ramon Muntaner, Chronicle; en.wikipedia Catalan Company", "note": "Beylik: Aydın. Placed by Muntaner after Tire." }, { "id": 1615, "key": "1304-kibistra", "name": "Kibistra", "year": 1304, "month": 8, "day": 15, "date": "15 August 1304", "type": "land", "war": "Campaign of the Catalan Company in Anatolia (1303-1304)", "theatre": "Lycaonia", "place": "near Kibistra (Herakleia Kybistra, Ereğli), at the 'Iron Gate' of the Taurus", "lat": 37.51, "lon": 34.05, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Turkish beyliks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Roger de Flor (horse); Bernat de Rocafort and Marulles (foot)", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known only from Muntaner; the site and the scale (20,000 foot and 10,000 horse) are doubted, and some historians doubt the Company went so far east.", "main_enemy": "Turkish beyliks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The Catalan Company in imperial service, with the imperial officer Marulles; Muntaner gives no other contingents.", "languages": [ "Catalan", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Apart from Marulles and his men the force was the Catalan Company.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ramon Muntaner, Chronicle; en.wikipedia Catalan Company", "note": "Beylik not named (Karaman, or the Turks of the Taurus frontier)." }, { "id": 1616, "key": "1304-magnesia-siege", "name": "Magnesia (siege)", "year": 1304, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 1304", "type": "land", "war": "Campaign of the Catalan Company in Anatolia (1303-1304)", "theatre": "Asia Minor", "place": "Magnesia ad Sipylum (Manisa), in the Hermos valley", "lat": 38.61, "lon": 27.43, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Catalan Company" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the townsmen and garrison of Magnesia", "commanders_b": "Roger de Flor", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The Company was still nominally in imperial service, and the siege was lifted on the emperor's order; how much fighting there was is not well recorded.", "main_enemy": "Catalan Company", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The townsmen and imperial garrison of Magnesia, who had killed the Catalan garrison Roger de Flor left there and seized the Company's treasure; no numbers are recorded.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Magnesia was a Greek city of the Hermos valley defended by its own people.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Pachymeres; en.wikipedia Catalan Company", "note": "Roger de Flor gave up the siege when Andronikos II recalled the Company to Europe; the Company then wintered at Gallipoli." }, { "id": 1617, "key": "1304-philadelphia-siege", "name": "Philadelphia (siege)", "year": 1304, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1304 (relief battle at Aulax about May/June 1304)", "type": "land", "war": "Campaign of the Catalan Company in Anatolia (1303-1304)", "theatre": "Lydia", "place": "Philadelphia (Alaşehir); the relief battle at Aulax nearby", "lat": 38.35, "lon": 28.52, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Turkish beyliks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Roger de Flor, Corbaran d'Alet; the metropolitan Theoleptos (in the city)", "commanders_b": "Yakub I of Germiyan (Yakub bin Ali Şir), Mehmed of Aydın", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Turkish beyliks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The Catalan Company (Muntaner about 6,500: horse under Roger de Flor and almogavar foot under Corbaran d'Alet) with Alan and Greek horse in the cavalry division, relieving the city's own defenders organised by the metropolitan Theoleptos.", "languages": [ "Catalan", "Greek", "Iranian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Muntaner places Alan and Greek contingents in the cavalry, and the defence of the city itself was Greek, led by its bishop.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ramon Muntaner, Chronicle; Pachymeres; en.wikipedia First Siege of Philadelphia; en.wikipedia Catalan Company", "note": "Beyliks: Germiyan and Aydın (about 8,000 horse and 12,000 foot in Muntaner). The relief battle is called the battle of Aulax; it is one entry with the siege." }, { "id": 1618, "key": "1304-skafida", "name": "Skafida", "year": 1304, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1304", "type": "land", "war": "War with Bulgaria (Theodore Svetoslav), 1304-1307", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "on the Skafida river, near Sozopolis (Sozopol)", "lat": 42.38, "lon": 27.65, "loc": "approx", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Theodore Svetoslav", "commanders_b": "Michael IX Palaiologos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Michael IX's field army of Thrace; its composition is not recorded. The Thracian armies of the time were Greek soldiers with Alan and Turkish (Tourkopouloi) mercenaries.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Iranian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Inferred from the recruitment of Michael IX's Thracian army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Pachymeres; Gregoras; en.wikipedia Battle of Skafida", "note": "Many of the pursuing imperial troops drowned when the bridge over the Skafida collapsed." }, { "id": 1619, "key": "1305-gallipoli-siege", "name": "Gallipoli (siege)", "year": 1305, "month": 6, "day": 21, "date": "spring 1305; the Catalan sally 21 June 1305", "type": "land", "war": "War with the Catalan Company (1305-1310)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Gallipoli, on the Hellespont", "lat": 40.41, "lon": 26.67, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Catalan Company" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ramon Muntaner (captain of Gallipoli), Bernat de Rocafort", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The details of the sally come mainly from Muntaner.", "main_enemy": "Catalan Company", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The imperial army that blockaded the Company in Gallipoli after the murder of Roger de Flor (April 1305): Greek troops with Alans and Turcopoles (Muntaner).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Iranian", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Muntaner names Greeks, Alans and Turcopoles in the besieging army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ramon Muntaner, Chronicle; Pachymeres; en.wikipedia Catalan Company", "note": "The besiegers were routed with heavy loss, a few weeks before Apros." }, { "id": 1620, "key": "1305-apros", "name": "Apros", "year": 1305, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "July 1305", "type": "land", "war": "War with the Catalan Company (1305-1310)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "near Apros (Kermeyan), between Rhaidestos and Kypsela", "lat": 40.79, "lon": 27.13, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Catalan Company" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Bernat de Rocafort", "commanders_b": "Michael IX Palaiologos; the Bulgarian Vojsil (wings)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Catalan Company", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Michael IX's army of about 6,000 or more, mostly horse: Roman (Greek) troops of Thrace and Macedonia, with Alan cavalry and Turcopoles (Tourkopouloi) on the wings under the Bulgarian Vojsil; the Alans withdrew and the Turcopoles deserted to the Catalans.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Iranian", "Turkic", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The sources (Pachymeres, Muntaner; Bartusis) name the Alan and Turcopole wings; the rest of the army was Roman troops of Thrace and Macedonia.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Pachymeres; Gregoras; Ramon Muntaner, Chronicle; Bartusis (1997) 79-82; en.wikipedia Battle of Apros", "note": "The Catalans (about 2,500) had Turkish mercenaries from Anatolia; Michael IX was unhorsed and carried from the field." }, { "id": 1621, "key": "1306-rhodes-siege", "name": "Rhodes (siege)", "year": 1306, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "September 1306 - 15 August 1310", "type": "land", "war": "Hospitaller conquest of Rhodes", "theatre": "Dodecanese", "place": "the city of Rhodes and the castles of the island (Filerimos, Lindos, Feraklos)", "lat": 36.44, "lon": 28.22, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Knights Hospitaller" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Genoa" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Foulques de Villaret (grand master), Vignolo de' Vignoli", "commanders_b": "unknown local commanders; relief fleets sent by Andronikos II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The assaults of 1306 and the siege of 1307 failed; the city surrendered in 1310 rather than being stormed.", "main_enemy": "Knights Hospitaller", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The imperial garrisons of Rhodes, including about 300 Turkish soldiers at Filerimos, with relief fleets of 8 and then 20 galleys sent by Andronikos II in 1307.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The defenders of the city were the Greek population and garrison (about 80 Greeks fell in 1307); the garrison of Filerimos was Turkish.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Pachymeres; biographies of Clement V; Templar of Tyre; Luttrell in Setton (ed.), A History of the Crusades III (1975); en.wikipedia Hospitaller conquest of Rhodes", "note": "The year of the city's fall is disputed (1306-1310); 15 August 1310 is the usual date. Filerimos was betrayed in November 1306 and its Turkish garrison massacred." }, { "id": 1622, "key": "1310-philadelphia-siege", "name": "Philadelphia (siege)", "year": 1310, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "winter 1310/11 - spring 1311", "type": "land", "war": "Germiyanid attacks on Philadelphia", "theatre": "Lydia", "place": "Philadelphia (Alaşehir)", "lat": 38.35, "lon": 28.52, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Turkish beyliks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Manuel Tagaris (governor), the metropolitan Theoleptos", "commanders_b": "Yakub I of Germiyan", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Mainly a blockade, ended by a negotiated peace.", "main_enemy": "Turkish beyliks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison of Philadelphia under the governor Manuel Tagaris, with the citizens; no relief came from Constantinople.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "An isolated Greek city defended by its own garrison and people.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Gregoras; Theoleptos of Philadelphia; en.wikipedia Second Siege of Philadelphia", "note": "Beylik: Germiyan. The walls were not breached; the siege ended in spring 1311 with a peace that probably included tribute." }, { "id": 1623, "key": "1312-gallipoli", "name": "Gallipoli", "year": 1312, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "end of 1312 or 1313", "type": "land", "war": "War with the Turks of Halil in Thrace (1311-1313)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "the fortified Turkish camp on the Gallipoli peninsula", "lat": 40.41, "lon": 26.67, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Turkish beyliks" ], "allies_a": [ "Serbia", "Genoa" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Michael IX Palaiologos (per modern accounts); Serbian cavalry sent by Stefan Milutin", "commanders_b": "Halil (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Turkish beyliks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "An imperial army with 2,000 cavalry sent by Stefan Milutin of Serbia (Serbian or Cuman horse; the sources disagree), while a Genoese fleet blockaded the Turks by sea.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Slavic", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial troops of Thrace were mainly Greek; the Serbian (or Cuman) horse and the Genoese crews were allies.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Gregoras book 7; Manuel Philes (poem); Nicol (1993) 139; Bartusis (1997) 83; en.wikipedia Battle of Gallipoli (1312)", "note": "Halil's band (fewer than 2,000 Turks and Turcopoles) had served with the Catalan Company; not a beylik. Earlier in 1312 the protostrator Philes Palaiologos had defeated part of them in Thrace (Gregoras)." }, { "id": 1624, "key": "1316-manolada", "name": "Manolada", "year": 1316, "month": 7, "day": 5, "date": "5 July 1316", "type": "land", "war": "War of the Achaean succession (1315-1316)", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "Manolada, on the plain of Elis, northeast of Glarentza", "lat": 38.05, "lon": 21.36, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Principality of Achaea", "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Majorca" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Louis of Burgundy; troops sent by Michael Kantakouzenos, the imperial governor of Mystras", "commanders_b": "Ferdinand of Majorca (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The Roman contingent from Mystras is stated in the English Wikipedia article without a citation; its presence and role in the battle are not securely attested.", "main_enemy": "Majorca", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "A contingent of imperial troops from the province of the Morea, sent by its governor Michael Kantakouzenos to reinforce Louis of Burgundy's Burgundian and Achaean army; its size is not recorded.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial province of the Morea raised its soldiers among the Greek-speaking Moreots of Laconia and Arcadia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Ramon Muntaner, Chronicle; en.wikipedia Battle of Manolada", "note": "Fought between Louis of Burgundy, husband of Matilda of Hainaut, and the Infante Ferdinand of Majorca, claimant through his wife Isabella of Sabran; Ferdinand's death ended the Majorcan claim. 'Majorca' stands for Ferdinand's Catalan and Majorcan troops with his Achaean partisans (new short name)." }, { "id": 1625, "key": "1317-bursa-siege", "name": "Bursa (siege)", "year": 1317, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1317 (or 1320) - 6 April 1326", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of Bithynia", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "Prusa (Bursa)", "lat": 40.18, "lon": 29.06, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Osman, Orhan, Köse Mihal", "commanders_b": "Saroz (commander of the garrison)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A long blockade that ended in surrender, with little recorded fighting.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Prusa, cut off by Ottoman forts and never relieved during the civil war of 1321-28.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Greek city of Bithynia defended by its own garrison.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Gregoras; Chalkokondyles 1; Aşıkpaşazade; en.wikipedia Siege of Bursa", "note": "Start dated 1317 (Wikipedia article), 1320 (Wikipedia list) or even c. 1302 in Ottoman tradition." }, { "id": 1626, "key": "1320-saint-george", "name": "Saint George", "year": 1320, "month": 9, "day": 9, "date": "9 September 1320", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of the imperial province of the Morea against Achaea", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "below the castle of Saint George in Skorta, Arcadia", "lat": 37.44, "lon": 22.02, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Principality of Achaea" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Andronikos Asen (governor of the Morea at Mystras)", "commanders_b": "Frederick Trogisio (bailli); Bartholomew II Ghisi (captured); James, Bishop of Olena (captured); the commanders of the Teutonic Knights (killed) and of the Hospitallers in Achaea", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Principality of Achaea", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The forces of the imperial province of the Morea under Andronikos Asen; the sources give no composition. The Morea's armies were raised from its Greek archons and Tsakonians, with mercenaries.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Inferred from the recruitment of the Mystras province's troops among the Peloponnesian Greeks.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Chronicle of the Morea (French and Aragonese versions); Topping in Setton (ed.), A History of the Crusades III (1975) 117-118; Bon, La Morée franque (1969); en.wikipedia Battle of Saint George", "note": "Asen took the castle (its Greek castellan surrendered) and kept the Achaean banners flying to ambush the relief army. Imperial Morea before the despotate of 1349." }, { "id": 1627, "key": "1322-philadelphia-siege", "name": "Philadelphia (siege)", "year": 1322, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 1322 - early 1324", "type": "land", "war": "Germiyanid attacks on Philadelphia", "theatre": "Lydia", "place": "Philadelphia (Alaşehir)", "lat": 38.35, "lon": 28.52, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Turkish beyliks" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Alexios Philanthropenos", "commanders_b": "Yakub I of Germiyan", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "How much fighting there was is unclear; Gregoras credits the relief largely to Philanthropenos's reputation among the Turks.", "main_enemy": "Turkish beyliks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Philadelphia; the blind Alexios Philanthropenos, sent from Constantinople with few men, raised the siege (Gregoras).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "An isolated Greek city defended by its own people, under a Greek general.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Gregoras book 8; en.wikipedia Second Siege of Philadelphia (on the third siege)", "note": "Beylik: Germiyan." }, { "id": 1628, "key": "1323-philippopolis-siege", "name": "Philippopolis (siege)", "year": 1323, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1323 (a four-month siege, into the summer)", "type": "land", "war": "War with Bulgaria (George Terter II and Michael Shishman), 1322-1324", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Philippopolis (Plovdiv)", "lat": 42.15, "lon": 24.75, "loc": "known", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ivan the Russian, his deputy Inas; the Alan chiefs Itil and Temir", "commanders_b": "Andronikos III; the Bulgarian despot Voysil of Kopsis (ally)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Andronikos III's army, with the Bulgarian despot Voysil of Kopsis as an ally and German specialists who built a siege engine from which crossbowmen shot at the defenders (Kantakouzenos).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Slavic", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Andronikos III's army of the civil-war years was raised in Thrace; the sources name only the Bulgarian ally and the German engineers as foreign elements.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kantakouzenos book 1; Gregoras book 8; en.wikipedia Ivan the Russian", "note": "The defenders had about 1,000 Alan horse and 2,000 foot, with Bulgarian (perhaps also Hungarian) troops. The siege failed, but the city was taken soon afterwards when pro-imperial citizens opened the gates to a hidden detachment as the garrison was being relieved (no battle)." }, { "id": 1629, "key": "1328-nicaea-siege", "name": "Nicaea (siege)", "year": 1328, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1328 - 2 March 1331", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of Bithynia", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "Nicaea (İznik)", "lat": 40.43, "lon": 29.72, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Orhan", "commanders_b": "unknown; Andronikos III led the relief attempt of 1329", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A blockade that ended in surrender; the main fighting was the relief battle of Pelekanon (separate entry).", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Nicaea, supplied for a time across the lake; the relief army of 1329 is the Pelekanon entry.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Greek city of Bithynia defended by its own garrison.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Kantakouzenos; Gregoras; en.wikipedia Siege of Nicaea (1328-1331)", "note": "The inhabitants who wished were allowed to leave." }, { "id": 1630, "key": "1329-pelekanon", "name": "Pelekanon", "year": 1329, "month": 6, "day": 10, "date": "10-11 June 1329", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of Bithynia", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "Pelekanon, near Philokrene, on the road from Chalcedon to Nicomedia", "lat": 40.85, "lon": 29.3, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Orhan", "commanders_b": "Andronikos III, the megas domestikos John Kantakouzenos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "About 4,000 men, the largest force Andronikos III could gather: about 2,000 from Constantinople and somewhat fewer from Thrace (Kantakouzenos).", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Kantakouzenos describes an army raised in Constantinople and Thrace, with no foreign contingents named.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Kantakouzenos book 2; Gregoras; en.wikipedia Battle of Pelekanon", "note": "Pelekanon is placed by Wikipedia at modern Maltepe, by others near Darıca/Eskihisar on the Gulf of Nicomedia; the coordinates are a compromise. The army broke when the wounded emperor was rumoured dead; it was the last imperial field campaign in Asia." }, { "id": 1631, "key": "1332-rusokastro", "name": "Rusokastro", "year": 1332, "month": 7, "day": 18, "date": "18 July 1332", "type": "land", "war": "War with Bulgaria (Ivan Alexander), 1331-1332", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "near Rusokastro, west of Burgas", "lat": 42.47, "lon": 27.2, "loc": "known", "country": "Bulgaria", "side_a": [ "Bulgaria" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Mongols" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Ivan Alexander", "commanders_b": "Andronikos III, John Kantakouzenos, Alexios Tzamplakon, Manuel Asen", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Bulgaria", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "About 3,000 men (Kantakouzenos; other figures up to 8,000) in 16 units, the field army of Thrace under the emperor; no foreign contingents are named.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial army of the 1330s was raised mainly from the Greek pronoia soldiers of Thrace and Macedonia.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Kantakouzenos book 2; Gregoras; en.wikipedia Battle of Rusokastro", "note": "Ivan Alexander had about 8,000 Bulgarians with 2,000 Tatar (Golden Horde) mercenaries, and 3,000 more horse joined him the night before. The imperial army withdrew into Rusokastro, which was then besieged until a peace was agreed." }, { "id": 1632, "key": "1333-nicomedia-siege", "name": "Nicomedia (siege)", "year": 1333, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1333 (or 1331) - 1337", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of Bithynia", "theatre": "Bithynia", "place": "Nicomedia (İzmit)", "lat": 40.77, "lon": 29.92, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Orhan", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A blockade that ended in surrender, with no recorded assaults.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Nicomedia, supplied by sea for some years; Andronikos III visited in 1333 and paid tribute to Orhan.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Greek city of Bithynia defended by its own garrison.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Kantakouzenos; Gregoras; en.wikipedia Siege of Nicomedia", "note": "The garrison, short of food, surrendered and the inhabitants were allowed to leave for Constantinople." }, { "id": 1633, "key": "1340-saint-eugenios-trebizond", "name": "Saint Eugenios (Trebizond)", "year": 1340, "month": 7, "day": 2, "date": "April - 2 July 1340", "type": "land", "war": "Trapezuntine civil war (1340-49)", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "The fortified monastery of Saint Eugenios, inside the walls of Trebizond", "lat": 41.0, "lon": 39.72, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Trebizond", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Irene Palaiologina", "faction_b": "Trapezuntine archons (Tzanichites)", "commanders_a": "Empress Irene Palaiologina; the megas doux John the Eunuch", "commanders_b": "the sebastos Tzanichites (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Irene's party: the Amytzantarioi, her mercenaries from Constantinople and the men of the megas doux John the Eunuch from Limnia, who brought siege engines; against them the native archons holding the monastery. Two months of daily skirmishing preceded the assault.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Panaretos describes a fight between Trapezuntine noble factions and the empress's mercenaries from Constantinople.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Panaretos; en.wikipedia Irene Palaiologina of Trebizond", "note": "The monastery was almost destroyed; Tzanichites was sent to Limnia and executed about a year later." }, { "id": 1634, "key": "1340-arta-siege", "name": "Arta (siege)", "year": 1340, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1340", "type": "land", "war": "Epirote revolt of 1339-40", "theatre": "Epirus", "place": "Arta, with the nearby fortress of Rogoi", "lat": 39.16, "lon": 20.99, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Andronikos III", "faction_b": "Epirote rebels (Nikephoros II Orsini)", "commanders_a": "Andronikos III Palaiologos, John Kantakouzenos", "commanders_b": "Epirote archons in the name of Nikephoros II Orsini", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The revolt was put down mainly by blockade and negotiation; the scale of fighting at Arta and Rogoi is not well recorded.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Imperial side: the field army that Andronikos III and Kantakouzenos brought into Epirus in 1340 (the sources give no numbers; in the Albanian campaign of 1337 the army had included 2,000 Turks sent by Umur of Aydin). Rebel side: the townsmen and archons of Arta and Rogoi, who had seized the governor Theodore Synadenos.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The rebels were the Greek archons and townsmen of Epirus; the imperial army was raised in Thrace and Macedonia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kantakouzenos 2.37-38; Gregoras; Nicol, The Despotate of Epiros 1267-1479 (1984); en.wikipedia Nikephoros II Orsini; en.wikipedia Despotate of Epirus", "note": "The revolt broke out in late 1338 or 1339 at the instigation of Catherine of Valois; Arta and Rogoi submitted to the emperor in 1340 before the siege of Thomokastron." }, { "id": 1635, "key": "1340-thomokastron-siege", "name": "Thomokastron (siege)", "year": 1340, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1340 (surrender late 1340)", "type": "land", "war": "Epirote revolt of 1339-40", "theatre": "Epirus", "place": "Thomokastron (Riniasa), on the Ionian coast of Epirus", "lat": 39.24, "lon": 20.49, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Andronikos III", "faction_b": "Nikephoros II Orsini", "commanders_a": "Andronikos III Palaiologos, John Kantakouzenos", "commanders_b": "Nikephoros II Orsini", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Ended in a negotiated surrender (Kantakouzenos guaranteed Nikephoros's safety); fighting is not described in detail.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Imperial side: Andronikos III's army in Epirus; rebel side: the young despot Nikephoros II and the Epirote garrison of Thomokastron, backed by Catherine of Valois (Angevin Achaea). No numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both armies were drawn from the Greek-speaking provinces of the empire and of Epirus.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kantakouzenos 2.38; Gregoras; Nicol, The Despotate of Epiros (1984); en.wikipedia Nikephoros II Orsini", "note": "Nikephoros surrendered the fortress, married Maria Kantakouzene and was made panhypersebastos." }, { "id": 1636, "key": "1341-trebizond", "name": "Trebizond", "year": 1341, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "July 1341", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of Trebizond with the Turkmen", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "Trebizond and its suburbs", "lat": 41.0, "lon": 39.72, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Aq Qoyunlu" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Trebizond", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Tur Ali Beg (probably)", "commanders_b": "Empress Irene Palaiologina's government", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Aq Qoyunlu", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The army of Trebizond under Irene's regime, demoralized by the civil strife; the sources give no numbers.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Georgian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Trebizond's levies were Greek-speaking Pontic townsmen and archons' retinues, with some Laz.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Panaretos; en.wikipedia Irene Palaiologina of Trebizond; en.wikipedia Aq Qoyunlu", "note": "Panaretos's 'Turks of Amida' are usually identified with Tur Ali Beg's Aq Qoyunlu, who had raided the Bayburt district in 1340. An earlier attack had been beaten off on the Parcharia; this one burned much of the city, which was not taken." }, { "id": 1637, "key": "1342-didymoteicho-siege", "name": "Didymoteicho (siege)", "year": 1342, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1342 - winter 1342/43", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of 1341-47", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Didymoteicho (Demotika), Kantakouzenos's base", "lat": 41.35, "lon": 26.5, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Turkish beyliks" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "John VI Kantakouzenos", "faction_b": "regency", "commanders_a": "Irene Kantakouzene (in the city); Umur Bey of Aydin (relief)", "commanders_b": "the regency's generals", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Defenders: Kantakouzenos's partisans in Didymoteicho under his wife Irene; relief: Umur of Aydin, who came up the Evros with about 300 ships and 29,000 men (Kantakouzenos's figure; Turkish sources 15,000). Besiegers: the regency's Thracian forces.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The garrison and the besiegers were Thracian Romans; the relieving army was Umur's Turks.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kantakouzenos 3; Gregoras; Enveri, Düsturname; en.wikipedia, the article on the civil war of 1341-47", "note": "Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria's troops came, clashed with the regency's forces but pillaged the countryside instead of helping the city. Umur raised the siege and plundered Thrace before withdrawing at the onset of winter." }, { "id": 1638, "key": "1342-serres-siege", "name": "Serres (siege)", "year": 1342, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 1342", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of 1341-47", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Serres", "lat": 41.09, "lon": 23.55, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Serbia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "regency", "faction_b": "John VI Kantakouzenos", "commanders_a": "the regency's garrison", "commanders_b": "John VI Kantakouzenos", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The siege was abandoned because of disease; the amount of fighting is not recorded.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Kantakouzenos's Greek-Serbian army (by now about 2,000 men, half of them Serbs) against the town's regency garrison and citizens; an epidemic forced Kantakouzenos to retreat into Serbia with about 500 men.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The defenders were the Greek citizens of Serres; about half of Kantakouzenos's army was Serbian.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kantakouzenos 3; Gregoras; en.wikipedia, the article on the civil war of 1341-47", "note": "" }, { "id": 1639, "key": "1343-thessalonica-siege", "name": "Thessalonica (siege)", "year": 1343, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "spring - summer 1343", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of 1341-47", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Thessalonica, held by the Zealots", "lat": 40.64, "lon": 22.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Turkish beyliks" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "regency (Zealots of Thessalonica)", "faction_b": "John VI Kantakouzenos", "commanders_a": "the Zealot leaders; Alexios Apokaukos (fleet)", "commanders_b": "John VI Kantakouzenos, Umur Bey of Aydin", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Defenders: the Zealot regime and the people of Thessalonica, for the regency; Apokaukos's fleet fled before Umur's navy, which carried about 6,000 men. Besiegers: Kantakouzenos's Macedonian partisans with Umur's Turks.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The defenders were the citizens of Thessalonica; the besieging army was largely Umur's Turks.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kantakouzenos 3; Gregoras; en.wikipedia, the article on the civil war of 1341-47; en.wikipedia Zealots of Thessalonica", "note": "The siege failed and Kantakouzenos turned back to Thrace. The Zealots held the city until 1349-50." }, { "id": 1640, "key": "1344-komotini", "name": "Komotini", "year": 1344, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "early 1344", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of 1341-47", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Kantakouzenos's camp near Komotini (Gratianoupolis)", "lat": 41.12, "lon": 25.4, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Momchil (for the regency)", "faction_b": "John VI Kantakouzenos", "commanders_a": "Momchil", "commanders_b": "John VI Kantakouzenos", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An attack on a camp that is not usually given a name.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Momchil, then holding imperial titles and siding with the regency, attacked with 1,000 horsemen; Kantakouzenos was guarded by about 60 horsemen, was unhorsed and barely escaped.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Slavic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Momchil's men were Bulgarian and Greek highlanders of the Rhodope; Kantakouzenos's guard was Greek.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kantakouzenos 3; Gregoras; en.wikipedia Momchil", "note": "Momchil had earlier sunk three of fifteen Turkish (Aydinid) ships at Porto Lagos and beaten a Turkish force near Peritheorion." }, { "id": 1641, "key": "1345-peritheorion", "name": "Peritheorion", "year": 1345, "month": 7, "day": 7, "date": "7 July 1345", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of 1341-47", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Before the walls of Peritheorion (Anastasioupolis), on Lake Vistonida", "lat": 41.0, "lon": 25.07, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Turkish beyliks" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "John VI Kantakouzenos", "faction_b": "Momchil", "commanders_a": "John VI Kantakouzenos, Umur Bey of Aydin, John Asen", "commanders_b": "Momchil (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Momchil, a Bulgarian brigand-lord of the Rhodope, held the titles sebastokrator (from Kantakouzenos) and despot (from the regency) but was by 1345 virtually independent; if he is not counted as Roman the battle is a victory over a Bulgarian force.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Kantakouzenos's army with Umur's Aydinid Turks, over 20,000 in all; Umur held the right wing and the Roman noble John Asen the left. Momchil had about 5,000 infantry and 300 cavalry.", "languages": [ "Turkic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Kantakouzenos's own Roman troops fought beside a larger Turkish contingent from Aydin.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 2, "sources": "Kantakouzenos 3; Gregoras; Fine, The Late Medieval Balkans (1987); en.wikipedia Battle of Peritheorion", "note": "The citizens of Peritheorion shut their gates on Momchil; his cavalry was destroyed by Turkish archers and he was killed fighting on foot." }, { "id": 1642, "key": "1345-serres-siege", "name": "Serres (siege)", "year": 1345, "month": 9, "day": 25, "date": "summer - 25 September 1345", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of 1341-47 (Serbian conquest of Macedonia)", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Serres", "lat": 41.09, "lon": 23.55, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Serbia" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Stefan Dušan", "commanders_b": "the regency's governor", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Serbia", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Serres, loyal to the regency; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Greek city of eastern Macedonia defended by its own garrison and townsmen.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kantakouzenos 3; Gregoras; en.wikipedia, the article on the civil war of 1341-47", "note": "Dušan was crowned emperor of the Serbs and Romans in 1346, after the fall of Serres." }, { "id": 1643, "key": "1346-chios-siege", "name": "Chios (siege)", "year": 1346, "month": 6, "day": 15, "date": "15 June - 12 September 1346", "type": "land", "war": "Genoese conquest of Chios", "theatre": "Aegean", "place": "Chios town and its citadel", "lat": 38.37, "lon": 26.14, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Genoa" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Simone Vignoso", "commanders_b": "Kaloioannes Tzybos, governor of the citadel", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Genoa", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The imperial garrison of the citadel under the governor Kaloioannes Tzybos and the Greek islanders, who refused the first summons with the cry 'Death to the Genoese'; no help came from Constantinople, then in civil war. The Genoese came with a private fleet of 29 galleys.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The defenders were the Greek inhabitants of Chios.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Gregoras; Kantakouzenos 3; Argenti, The Occupation of Chios by the Genoese (1958); en.wikipedia Simone Vignoso", "note": "The Genoese landed on 15 June and took most of the island within a week; the citadel held out until 12 September 1346, when Tzybos and the archons capitulated on lenient terms. Vignoso then occupied Old and New Phokaia. The island passed to the Genoese Maona." }, { "id": 1644, "key": "1347-constantinople", "name": "Constantinople", "year": 1347, "month": 2, "day": 3, "date": "3-8 February 1347", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of 1341-47", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "The Blachernae palace, Constantinople", "lat": 41.04, "lon": 28.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "John VI Kantakouzenos", "faction_b": "regency (Anna of Savoy)", "commanders_a": "John VI Kantakouzenos", "commanders_b": "Anna of Savoy", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The city did not resist; the only fighting was a limited storming of part of the palace.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Kantakouzenos entered by the disused Golden Gate with 1,000 men; the regency's palace guards held Blachernae until part of the complex was stormed.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Kantakouzenos's Thracian troops against the palace guard of Constantinople.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kantakouzenos 3-4; Gregoras; en.wikipedia, the article on the civil war of 1341-47", "note": "John V persuaded his mother to accept a settlement; Kantakouzenos became senior emperor." }, { "id": 1645, "key": "1348-trebizond-siege", "name": "Trebizond (siege)", "year": 1348, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1348", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of Trebizond with the Turkmen", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "Trebizond", "lat": 41.0, "lon": 39.72, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Aq Qoyunlu" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Trebizond", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Michael Megas Komnenos's government", "commanders_b": "Tur Ali Beg (Aq Qoyunlu) or Bayram of Chalybia with allied beys", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Aq Qoyunlu", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Trebizond during the civil wars and the Black Death; the sources give no numbers.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Greek city defended by its townsmen and archons.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Panaretos; en.wikipedia Aq Qoyunlu; en.wikipedia Empire of Trebizond", "note": "The Turkmen invasion was defeated in a three-day battle (en.wikipedia Michael of Trebizond, after Miller); en.wikipedia (Emirate of Chalybia) names Bayram of Chalybia and other beys as the besiegers, so the attackers may not be the Aq Qoyunlu. The Turks had taken Oinaion in 1347-48; in the same years the Genoese seized Kerasous." }, { "id": 1646, "key": "1349-golden-horn", "name": "Golden Horn", "year": 1349, "month": 3, "day": null, "date": "early March 1349 (war from August 1348)", "type": "sea", "war": "War with Genoa (1348-49)", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Off Galata, at the mouth of the Golden Horn", "lat": 41.02, "lon": 28.98, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Genoa" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the Genoese of Galata", "commanders_b": "John VI Kantakouzenos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Genoa", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "A newly built fleet of about nine large ships and some 100 smaller craft, paid for by private loans and crewed by inexperienced Constantinopolitans, with the emperor's land army attacking Galata at the same time.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Kantakouzenos and Gregoras describe the crews as the citizens of Constantinople.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kantakouzenos 4; Gregoras; Nicol (1993); en.wikipedia, the article on the Genoese war of 1348-49", "note": "The imperial crews panicked and abandoned their ships, which the Genoese captured; the land attack also broke. In the following weeks the Romans burned Galata's wharves, and peace was made in spring 1349 on terms favourable to Genoa." }, { "id": 1647, "key": "1349-trebizond", "name": "Trebizond", "year": 1349, "month": 5, "day": null, "date": "May 1349", "type": "sea", "war": "Genoese war with Trebizond (1348-1349)", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "off Trebizond", "lat": 41.01, "lon": 39.74, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Genoa" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Trebizond", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown (an expedition from Caffa)", "commanders_b": "the megas doux John Kabazites", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A naval defeat known from brief notices; not usually given a name as a battle.", "main_enemy": "Genoa", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The small fleet of Trebizond under the megas doux John Kabazites; no numbers are recorded.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The fleet was manned in Trebizond, a Greek-speaking city.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Miller, Trebizond (1926) 54, after Panaretos; en.wikipedia Michael of Trebizond", "note": "The Trapezuntine fleet was destroyed, and the people of Trebizond then killed the Westerners in the city; in the peace that followed the Genoese received Leontokastron and gave back Kerasous, which they had seized in 1348." }, { "id": 1648, "key": "1351-galata", "name": "Galata", "year": 1351, "month": 7, "day": 28, "date": "28 July 1351", "type": "sea", "war": "War of the Straits (1350-55)", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Off Galata (Pera), at the mouth of the Golden Horn", "lat": 41.02, "lon": 28.98, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Genoa" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the Genoese of Pera", "commanders_b": "unknown (the fleet of John VI Kantakouzenos)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Genoa", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The imperial fleet of Constantinople, which with a Venetian squadron had blockaded Pera, left alone when the Venetians withdrew to Negroponte on news of the approach of Paganino Doria's Genoese fleet.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial fleet was manned in Constantinople.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Gregoras; Kantakouzenos 4; en.wikipedia War of the Straits", "note": "A sea fight, not a joint attack on Pera: after the Venetian squadron abandoned the blockade, the imperial fleet 'was defeated by the Genoese of Pera on 28 July' 1351 (en.wikipedia War of the Straits). John VI had joined Venice and Aragon against Genoa in May 1351." }, { "id": 1649, "key": "1351-heraclea", "name": "Heraclea", "year": 1351, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 1351", "type": "land", "war": "War of the Straits (1350-55)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Heraclea (Perinthos, Marmara Ereğlisi) on the Sea of Marmara", "lat": 40.97, "lon": 27.96, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Genoa" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Paganino Doria", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A landing for supplies that turned into a fight with the townsmen and a sack; not usually called a battle.", "main_enemy": "Genoa", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The townsmen and garrison of Heraclea, ordered by Kantakouzenos to strengthen their defences.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Greek town of Thrace defended by its inhabitants.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Gregoras; Kantakouzenos 4; en.wikipedia War of the Straits", "note": "In November 1351 the Genoese also sacked Sozopolis on the Black Sea." }, { "id": 1650, "key": "1352-bosporus", "name": "Bosporus", "year": 1352, "month": 2, "day": 13, "date": "13 February 1352", "type": "sea", "war": "War of the Straits (1350-55)", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "The Bosporus, from the Princes' Islands to the narrows at Diplokionion (Beşiktaş)", "lat": 41.04, "lon": 29.01, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Genoa" ], "side_b": [ "Venice", "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Aragon" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Paganino Doria", "commanders_b": "Niccolò Pisani, Pancrazio Giustinian (killed), Pons de Santapau; Constantine Tarchaneiotes (imperial squadron)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The imperial squadron apparently did not engage; Rome was a minor allied belligerent.", "main_enemy": "Genoa", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Fourteen imperial galleys under Constantine Tarchaneiotes in an allied fleet of 89-90 (45 Venetian, 30 Aragonese); the imperial ships withdrew before the main fighting.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial squadron was manned in Constantinople; the Roman share of the whole allied fleet was small.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Gregoras; Kantakouzenos 4; Venetian and Genoese chronicles; en.wikipedia Battle of the Bosporus", "note": "Tactically indecisive (allies lost 23 galleys, Genoa 16) and fought largely at night in a storm, but the Genoese held the field. Kantakouzenos made peace with Genoa on 6 May 1352." }, { "id": 1651, "key": "1352-demotika", "name": "Demotika", "year": 1352, "month": 10, "day": null, "date": "October 1352", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of 1352-57", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Open country near Didymoteicho (Demotika)", "lat": 41.35, "lon": 26.5, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "allies_b": [ "Serbia", "Bulgaria" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "John VI Kantakouzenos", "faction_b": "John V Palaiologos", "commanders_a": "Süleyman Pasha", "commanders_b": "Gradislav Borilović", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Fought by the foreign allies of the two Roman factions; no Roman troops are recorded in the battle itself.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Kantakouzenos's side was represented by about 10,000 Ottoman horsemen sent by Orhan under his son Süleyman; John V's side by 4,000-6,000 Serbian cavalry sent by Stefan Dušan, perhaps with Bulgarians.", "languages": [ "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The sources describe only Ottoman troops on Kantakouzenos's side; any Roman participation was small.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Kantakouzenos 4; Gregoras; Fine, The Late Medieval Balkans (1987); en.wikipedia Battle of Demotika", "note": "Kantakouzenos claimed about 7,000 Serbs killed, Gregoras about 4,000. Often called the first Ottoman victory in Europe; John V fled to Tenedos." }, { "id": 1652, "key": "1352-adrianople-siege", "name": "Adrianople (siege)", "year": 1352, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1352", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of 1352-57", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Adrianople (Edirne), Matthew Kantakouzenos's appanage", "lat": 41.68, "lon": 26.56, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "allies_b": [ "Turkish beyliks", "Serbia" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "John VI Kantakouzenos", "faction_b": "John V Palaiologos", "commanders_a": "Matthew Kantakouzenos (in the citadel), John VI Kantakouzenos (relief)", "commanders_b": "John V Palaiologos", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Details of the fighting are scant.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Matthew held the citadel after the townsmen let John V in; John VI relieved him with about 10,000 Ottoman troops lent by Orhan. John V had Venetian money, Serbian troops and hired Turkish mercenaries.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Matthew's garrison was Roman; the relief army was mostly Ottoman.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kantakouzenos 4; Gregoras; Nicol, The Reluctant Emperor (1996); en.wikipedia, the article on the civil war of 1352-57; en.wikipedia Battle of Demotika", "note": "The Ottomans then plundered the Thracian towns that had declared for John V." }, { "id": 1653, "key": "1353-constantinople", "name": "Constantinople", "year": 1353, "month": 3, "day": null, "date": "March 1353", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of 1352-57", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Constantinople", "lat": 41.01, "lon": 28.97, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "John VI Kantakouzenos", "faction_b": "John V Palaiologos", "commanders_a": "John VI Kantakouzenos", "commanders_b": "John V Palaiologos", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A failed coup attempt; little fighting is recorded.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "John V sailed from Tenedos with a few ships and his partisans, hoping for a rising in the capital; Kantakouzenos's garrison held the city.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A clash between the two imperial factions in the capital.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kantakouzenos 4; Gregoras; en.wikipedia, the article on the civil war of 1352-57", "note": "John V finally entered the capital with Genoese help (Francesco Gattilusio) in November 1354, without a recorded battle, and Kantakouzenos abdicated." }, { "id": 1654, "key": "1354-gallipoli", "name": "Gallipoli", "year": 1354, "month": 3, "day": 2, "date": "2 March 1354 and after", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of Thrace", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Gallipoli (Kallipolis), on the Dardanelles", "lat": 40.41, "lon": 26.67, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Süleyman Pasha", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An occupation of a town ruined by an earthquake, not a battle; included because standard lists treat the fall of Gallipoli as a named event.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The surviving inhabitants and garrison of Gallipoli, whose walls had been thrown down by the earthquake of 2 March 1354.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Greek town of the Thracian Chersonese.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Kantakouzenos 4; Gregoras; en.wikipedia, the list of battles of the Roman Empire (East); en.wikipedia, the article on the civil war of 1352-57", "note": "Süleyman settled Turks there and refused Kantakouzenos's offers to buy it back; it was the first permanent Ottoman base in Europe." }, { "id": 1655, "key": "1355-kerasous", "name": "Kerasous", "year": 1355, "month": 5, "day": null, "date": "May 1355", "type": "land", "war": "Trapezuntine civil war (Alexios III against Niketas Scholares)", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "Kerasous (Giresun), with the later siege of Kenchrina", "lat": 40.92, "lon": 38.39, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Trebizond", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Alexios III", "faction_b": "Niketas Scholares (megas doux)", "commanders_a": "Alexios III Megas Komnenos", "commanders_b": "partisans of Niketas Scholares", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The fighting at Kerasous and Kenchrina is barely recorded; possibly no real battle.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Alexios III sailed with his own fleet and took the town while Niketas was absent; his cavalry then obtained the surrender of Kenchrina, the last rebel fortress.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both sides were Trapezuntine Greeks.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Panaretos; en.wikipedia Alexios III of Trebizond", "note": "In March 1355 Niketas's seaborne attack on Trebizond had been abandoned without a fight; Niketas was captured and died in Trebizond in 1360." }, { "id": 1656, "key": "1355-cheriana", "name": "Cheriana", "year": 1355, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1355", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of Trebizond with the Turkmen", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "Cheriana (Şiran), south of the Pontic mountains", "lat": 40.19, "lon": 39.12, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Turkish beyliks" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Trebizond", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "unknown Turkmen chiefs", "commanders_b": "Alexios III Megas Komnenos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Turkish beyliks", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The army of Trebizond under Alexios III, with the chronicler Michael Panaretos, who barely escaped with his life; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Trebizond's army was raised from the Greek-speaking archons and their retinues of Pontus.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Panaretos; en.wikipedia Michael Panaretos; en.wikipedia Alexios III of Trebizond", "note": "The Turkmen are not identified; Cheriana lay on the frontier with the Turkmen of the Kelkit valley." }, { "id": 1657, "key": "1357-serres", "name": "Serres", "year": 1357, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 1356 or early 1357", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of 1352-57", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Near Serres (Nicol: near Philippi)", "lat": 41.05, "lon": 23.8, "loc": "region", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Serbia" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Vojihna, lord of Drama", "commanders_b": "Matthew Kantakouzenos (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Serbia", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "Matthew Kantakouzenos, still claiming the imperial title, led about 5,000 Turkish troops; no Roman contingent is described.", "languages": [ "Turkic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Matthew's army was almost entirely hired Turks.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kantakouzenos 4; Gregoras; Nicol, The Reluctant Emperor (1996); en.wikipedia Matthew Kantakouzenos", "note": "Matthew's attack on Serbian Serres failed; he was captured and John V paid Vojihna to hand him over, after which Matthew renounced the throne." }, { "id": 1658, "key": "1359-achelous", "name": "Achelous", "year": 1359, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1359 (or late spring / early summer 1358)", "type": "land", "war": "Albanian wars of Epirus", "theatre": "Aetolia", "place": "Near the river Achelous, Aetolia", "lat": 38.67, "lon": 21.32, "loc": "region", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Albanians" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Turkish beyliks" ], "roman_state": "Epirus", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Karl Thopia (per Wikipedia) and the Albanian clan chiefs", "commanders_b": "Nikephoros II Orsini (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Albanians", "opponent_group": "Balkan states", "roman_force": "The despot Nikephoros II's Epirote army, which had recovered Thessaly and Epirus in 1356, with a band of Turkish corsairs hired after they had raided Thessaly; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Nikephoros's support came from the Greek nobility and towns of Epirus and Thessaly, with Turkish mercenaries.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kantakouzenos 4; Nicol, The Despotate of Epiros (1984); en.wikipedia Battle of Achelous (1359); en.wikipedia Nikephoros II Orsini", "note": "Nikephoros's army was destroyed; the Albanian clans divided Aetolia-Acarnania (despotates of Arta and Angelokastron), and only Ioannina stayed under Greek rule." }, { "id": 1659, "key": "1362-blue-waters", "name": "Blue Waters", "year": 1362, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 1362 (or 1363)", "type": "land", "war": "Lithuanian wars with the Golden Horde", "theatre": "Pontic steppe", "place": "The Syniukha river (Blue Waters), a tributary of the Southern Bug", "lat": 48.47, "lon": 30.91, "loc": "approx", "country": "Ukraine", "side_a": [ "Lithuania" ], "side_b": [ "Mongols", "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Theodoro", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Algirdas, grand duke of Lithuania", "commanders_b": "the Tatar princes Khaçi Bey, Kutlu Buga and Dmitri (Demetrios)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The identification of the Tatar prince Dmitri with a Greek prince of Theodoro is a modern hypothesis; no Theodorite force is securely attested.", "main_enemy": "Lithuania", "opponent_group": "Other", "roman_force": "If the prince Demetrios of the sources is the first known lord of Theodoro, he would have led a contingent of his Crimean subjects (Greeks, Goths and Alans) beside the Golden Horde's Tatar princes; nothing is known of its size.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Germanic", "Iranian" ], "greek_share": "unknown", "greek_basis": "unknown", "greek_note": "The presence and makeup of any Theodorite force are conjectural.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Russian and Lithuanian chronicles; Vasiliev, The Goths in the Crimea (1936); en.wikipedia Principality of Theodoro; en.wikipedia Battle of Blue Waters", "note": "Lithuania won and took Podolia and Kiev from the Horde." }, { "id": 1660, "key": "1366-gallipoli", "name": "Gallipoli", "year": 1366, "month": 8, "day": 22, "date": "22-26 August 1366", "type": "land", "war": "Savoyard crusade", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Gallipoli (Kallipolis), on the Dardanelles", "lat": 40.41, "lon": 26.67, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Crusaders", "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ottomans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Amadeus VI of Savoy; Francesco I Gattilusio, lord of Lesbos", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A crusade fought on John V's behalf; any imperial participation in the assault is uncertain. Included because the list of battles of the Roman Empire (East) counts it.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The Savoyard crusade's fifteen ships, joined at the Dardanelles by the flotilla of Francesco Gattilusio, John V's brother-in-law and vassal; the Savoyard chronicles also mention a Roman detachment under the patriarch of Constantinople.", "languages": [ "French", "Italian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The assault force was Savoyard and Italian; the Roman element, if present, was small.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Chronicles of Savoy; Cox, The Green Count of Savoy (1967); en.wikipedia Savoyard crusade; en.wikipedia, the list of battles of the Roman Empire (East)", "note": "The walls were assaulted on 22 August; the Turks left overnight and the townsmen opened the gates. Gallipoli was handed to the empire on 13 June 1367 and returned to the Ottomans in 1376/77." }, { "id": 1661, "key": "1369-adrianople", "name": "Adrianople", "year": 1369, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1369 (proposed dates 1361-62, 1367, 1369, 1371)", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of Thrace", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Sazlıdere, southeast of Adrianople (Edirne), and the city", "lat": 41.62, "lon": 26.63, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Lala Şahin Pasha (Turkish tradition)", "commanders_b": "the tekfur (Roman governor) of Adrianople", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The battle at Sazlıdere is known only from later Ottoman sources; the city may have fallen to independent akıncı bands.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The Roman governor's garrison and townsmen of Adrianople; the sources give no numbers.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Adrianople was a Greek city of Thrace defended by its own garrison.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Greek short chronicles; Ottoman chronicles (Aşıkpaşazade, Neşri); en.wikipedia Battle of Adrianople (1365)", "note": "Most modern scholars date the fall to 1369 (the metropolitan's poem shows the city still Roman at Christmas 1366); Wikipedia's article is titled 1365. After his defeat the tekfur fled by boat; the city surrendered." }, { "id": 1662, "key": "1375-gardiki", "name": "Gardiki", "year": 1375, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 1375", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of the Despotate of the Morea with Achaea", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "Before Gardiki castle, southwestern Arcadia", "lat": 37.3, "lon": 22.07, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Principality of Achaea" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Francis of San Severino, bailli of Achaea; Andronikos Asen and Martino Zaccaria", "commanders_b": "Manuel Kantakouzenos, despot of the Morea", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Principality of Achaea", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "About 1,000 cavalry and 2,000 infantry of the despotate, raised from the Moreot archons and their followers; Achaea had about 300 cavalry and 600 infantry.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Manuel's army was raised in the Greek despotate, which had begun to settle Albanians but still drew mostly on Greek archons and Tsakonians.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Chronicle of the Morea (Aragonese version); Bon, La Morée franque (1969); en.wikipedia Battle of Gardiki", "note": "The charge of the newly dubbed Latin knights drove the despot from the field, but the castle held out and the bailli raised the siege." }, { "id": 1663, "key": "1376-constantinople-siege", "name": "Constantinople (siege)", "year": 1376, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "July - 12 August 1376", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of 1373-79", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Constantinople", "lat": 41.01, "lon": 28.93, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Ottomans", "Genoa" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Andronikos IV", "faction_b": "John V", "commanders_a": "Andronikos IV Palaiologos", "commanders_b": "John V Palaiologos, Manuel Palaiologos", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The details and scale of the fighting are poorly recorded.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Andronikos IV, freed with Genoese help, came with a mixed force of Ottoman cavalry and infantry from Murad I and the support of the Genoese of Galata; John V's loyalists held the city for about a month.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Andronikos's own following was Roman, but his striking force was Ottoman and his base Genoese Galata.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Chalkokondyles 1; Doukas; short chronicles; Barker, Manuel II Palaeologus (1969); en.wikipedia Andronikos IV Palaiologos", "note": "Andronikos was crowned in 1377 and imprisoned John V and Manuel; he gave Tenedos to Genoa, whose governor handed it to Venice instead, starting the War of Chioggia." }, { "id": 1664, "key": "1379-galata-siege", "name": "Galata (siege)", "year": 1379, "month": 7, "day": 1, "date": "1 July 1379 - May 1381", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war of 1373-79", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Constantinople and Genoese Galata (Pera)", "lat": 41.03, "lon": 28.97, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome", "Genoa" ], "allies_a": [ "Venice", "Ottomans" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "John V", "faction_b": "Andronikos IV", "commanders_a": "John V Palaiologos, Manuel II Palaiologos", "commanders_b": "Andronikos IV Palaiologos", "outcome": "draw", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The fighting around Galata, part of the Venetian-Genoese War of Chioggia, is poorly recorded; the recapture of the capital in July 1379 may have met little resistance.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "John V and Manuel, escaped to Murad, regained the capital with Venetian ships and Ottoman soldiers; Andronikos IV held out in Galata with the Genoese, keeping his mother Helena and John VI Kantakouzenos as hostages.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Italian", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The loyalists of John V in the capital were Roman; the Venetian and Ottoman contingents were auxiliary.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Chalkokondyles 1; Doukas; short chronicles; Barker, Manuel II Palaeologus (1969); en.wikipedia Andronikos IV Palaiologos; en.wikipedia, the article on the civil war of 1373-79", "note": "Ended by agreement in May 1381: Andronikos was restored as heir and given Selymbria." }, { "id": 1665, "key": "1383-serres-siege", "name": "Serres (siege)", "year": 1383, "month": 9, "day": 19, "date": "summer - 19 September 1383", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of Macedonia", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Serres", "lat": 41.09, "lon": 23.55, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Çandarlı Hayreddin Pasha (Kara Halil), with Evrenos", "commanders_b": "officers of Manuel II", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The length of the siege and the extent of fighting are uncertain.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Serres, which Manuel II had recovered from the Serbs after 1371; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Greek city of eastern Macedonia.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Short chronicles; Dennis, The Reign of Manuel II Palaeologus in Thessalonica (1960); en.wikipedia Siege of Thessalonica (1383-1387)", "note": "The population was enslaved; the Ottomans reached Thessalonica in October 1383." }, { "id": 1666, "key": "1383-thessalonica-siege", "name": "Thessalonica (siege)", "year": 1383, "month": 10, "day": null, "date": "October 1383 - 9 April 1387", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of Macedonia", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Thessalonica", "lat": 40.64, "lon": 22.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Çandarlı Hayreddin Pasha", "commanders_b": "Manuel II Palaiologos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "Manuel II's garrison and the citizens of Thessalonica, supplied by sea; no outside help came, and the townsmen, fearing massacre, forced Manuel out.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The defenders were the Greek citizens and garrison of Thessalonica.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Manuel II, Discourse of Counsel to the Thessalonians; Kydones, letters; short chronicles; Dennis (1960); en.wikipedia Siege of Thessalonica (1383-1387)", "note": "Mostly a blockade. Manuel left on 6 April 1387 and the city opened its gates on 9 April on terms (a tax and a small garrison)." }, { "id": 1667, "key": "1383-chortiatis", "name": "Chortiatis", "year": 1383, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 1383", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of Macedonia", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Chortiatis (Chortaites), the mountain east of Thessalonica", "lat": 40.6, "lon": 23.1, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Çandarlı Hayreddin Pasha", "commanders_b": "Manuel II Palaiologos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Known from brief notices; not described in the English Wikipedia articles consulted.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "Manuel II's small army from Thessalonica, raised from the city's archons and townsmen; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Manuel's forces in Thessalonica were drawn from the city and its hinterland.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Short chronicles; Dennis, The Reign of Manuel II Palaeologus in Thessalonica (1960); Nicol (1993)", "note": "A Roman defeat outside Thessalonica just before the Ottoman siege began; the exact date and course are uncertain." }, { "id": 1668, "key": "1390-constantinople", "name": "Constantinople", "year": 1390, "month": 4, "day": 14, "date": "14 April - 17 September 1390", "type": "land", "war": "Usurpation of John VII (1390)", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Constantinople (the Charisian Gate and the Golden Gate fortress)", "lat": 41.01, "lon": 28.93, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Crusaders" ], "allies_b": [ "Ottomans", "Genoa" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "John V and Manuel II", "faction_b": "John VII", "commanders_a": "Manuel II Palaiologos, John V Palaiologos", "commanders_b": "John VII Palaiologos", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "John VII's entry was unopposed; the fighting of Manuel's recapture is poorly recorded.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "John VII, backed by Bayezid I and the Genoese, entered on 14 April when citizens opened the Charisian Gate; John V held out in the fortress of the Golden Gate. Manuel II returned from Lemnos with his own ships and galleys of the Knights Hospitaller and forced his way in on 17 September.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both factions drew on the citizens of Constantinople; the Hospitaller and Ottoman contingents were small.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Short chronicles; Ignatius of Smolensk; Barker, Manuel II Palaeologus (1969); en.wikipedia John VII Palaiologos; en.wikipedia Manuel II Palaiologos", "note": "'Crusaders' here stands for the Knights Hospitaller of Rhodes." }, { "id": 1669, "key": "1390-philadelphia-siege", "name": "Philadelphia (siege)", "year": 1390, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1390", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of western Anatolia", "theatre": "Lydia", "place": "Philadelphia (Alaşehir)", "lat": 38.35, "lon": 28.52, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Bayezid I (with Manuel II and John VII as vassals)", "commanders_b": "the citizens of Philadelphia", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The fighting is not described; Romans also served on the attacking side as Ottoman vassals.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The citizens of Philadelphia, the last Roman city in Anatolia, autonomous but loyal to the emperor; it refused to submit and was reduced by Bayezid's army, in which Manuel II and John VII had to serve as vassals.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "A Greek city of Lydia that had defended itself for decades.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Chalkokondyles 2; Doukas; short chronicles; en.wikipedia, the list of battles of the Roman Empire (East); en.wikipedia Manuel II Palaiologos", "note": "Some date the fall to 1378/79; 1390 is the usual date." }, { "id": 1670, "key": "1394-constantinople-siege", "name": "Constantinople (siege)", "year": 1394, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1394 - July 1402", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman sieges of Constantinople", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Constantinople", "lat": 41.02, "lon": 28.95, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ottomans" ], "allies_a": [ "Crusaders", "Venice", "Genoa" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Manuel II Palaiologos; John VII Palaiologos (regent from December 1399); Jean II Le Maingre, Marshal Boucicaut; Jean de Châteaumorand", "commanders_b": "Bayezid I, Ali Pasha", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Constantinople, reinforced in 1399 by Boucicaut's French expedition (about 1,200 men) and then by Châteaumorand's garrison of about 100 men-at-arms with their valets and crossbowmen; Venetian and Genoese galleys helped keep the sea open.", "languages": [ "Greek", "French", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The defence rested on the city's own population, with small French and Italian reinforcements.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Doukas; Chalkokondyles 2; Livre des faits de Boucicaut; Barker, Manuel II Palaeologus (1969); en.wikipedia Siege of Constantinople (1394-1402)", "note": "Mostly a land blockade, with Anadoluhisarı built to control the Bosporus. Bayezid's defeat by Timur at Ankara (20 July 1402) ended it; the Nicopolis crusade (1396), to which Manuel sent ten ships, is not counted as a Roman battle." }, { "id": 1671, "key": "1395-akova-siege", "name": "Akova (siege)", "year": 1395, "month": 2, "day": 28, "date": "winter 1394/95 - 28 February 1395", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of the Despotate of the Morea with Achaea", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "Akova (Matagrifon) castle, Arcadia", "lat": 37.7, "lon": 21.98, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Ottomans", "Principality of Achaea" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Evrenos Bey; Pedro de San Superano", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The despotate's garrison of Akova, held by the Romans since 1320; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A castle garrisoned by the despotate's Greek troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Venetian documents; Topping in Setton (ed.), A History of the Crusades III (1975); en.wikipedia Pedro de San Superano; en.wikipedia Theodore I Palaiologos", "note": "Evrenos and the Navarrese prince met at Leontari and together besieged and took Akova." }, { "id": 1672, "key": "1395-morea-4-june-1395", "name": "Morea (4 June 1395)", "year": 1395, "month": 6, "day": 4, "date": "4 June 1395", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of the Despotate of the Morea with Achaea", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "Unknown site in the Morea", "lat": 37.5, "lon": 22.2, "loc": "region", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Principality of Achaea" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the despotate's commanders (Theodore I Palaiologos)", "commanders_b": "Pedro de San Superano, Andronikos Asen Zaccaria (both captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An unnamed engagement whose site is unknown.", "main_enemy": "Principality of Achaea", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The forces of the despotate under Theodore I; no details are recorded.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Theodore I's army was Greek, with Albanian settlers he had begun to bring into the Morea.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Venetian documents; en.wikipedia Andronikos Asen Zaccaria; en.wikipedia Pedro de San Superano", "note": "After Evrenos returned to Thessaly the Navarrese prince and his constable were defeated and captured by the Greeks; Venice paid 50,000 hyperpyra for their release in December 1395." }, { "id": 1673, "key": "1411-constantinople-siege", "name": "Constantinople (siege)", "year": 1411, "month": 8, "day": null, "date": "August 1411 - 1412", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman Interregnum", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Constantinople", "lat": 41.02, "lon": 28.95, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ottomans" ], "allies_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Manuel II Palaiologos (with Mehmed Çelebi's troops)", "commanders_b": "Musa Çelebi", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Constantinople, with troops of Mehmed Çelebi admitted to the city at Manuel's request; their sorties failed.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The defence rested on the city's own population, with an allied Ottoman contingent.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Doukas; Chalkokondyles 4; Kastritsis, The Sons of Bayezid (2007); en.wikipedia Siege of Constantinople (1411); en.wikipedia Ottoman Interregnum", "note": "Musa besieged the city to punish Manuel's support of Süleyman; he also attacked Thessalonica and Selymbria. The siege was lifted and Mehmed, Manuel's ally, defeated Musa at Çamurlu (5 July 1413)." }, { "id": 1674, "key": "1411-incegiz", "name": "İnceğiz", "year": 1411, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "autumn 1411 or spring 1412", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman Interregnum", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "İnceğiz, near Çatalca, west of Constantinople", "lat": 41.12, "lon": 28.4, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Ottomans", "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Musa Çelebi", "commanders_b": "Mehmed Çelebi", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "An Ottoman civil-war battle with only a small Roman contingent.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "A few Roman troops fought under Mehmed Çelebi, Manuel II's ally, whose army was otherwise Anatolian Turks, Tatars and Turcomans (Doukas).", "languages": [ "Turkic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Doukas mentions only a few Roman soldiers in Mehmed's army.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Doukas; Kastritsis (2007); en.wikipedia Battle of İnceğiz", "note": "Musa's 7,000 kapıkulu decided it; Mehmed fell back on Constantinople and crossed to Anatolia. side_a is Musa's faction, side_b Mehmed's." }, { "id": 1675, "key": "1417-glarentza-siege", "name": "Glarentza (siege)", "year": 1417, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1417 - spring 1418", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of the Despotate of the Morea with Achaea", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "Glarentza (Clarence), Elis", "lat": 37.94, "lon": 21.15, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Principality of Achaea" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Theodore II Palaiologos, John VIII Palaiologos", "commanders_b": "Centurione II Zaccaria", "outcome": "draw", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Principality of Achaea", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The imperial army that Manuel II had led to the Morea in 1415, under the despot Theodore II and the young co-emperor John VIII; it overran Messenia and Elis before besieging Centurione in Glarentza.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The army combined troops from Constantinople with the Moreot levies, Greek and Albanian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sphrantzes; Chalkokondyles; Zakythinos, Le Despotat grec de Morée (1932); en.wikipedia Centurione II Zaccaria", "note": "Centurione fled by sea in spring 1418 and Venice, from Navarino, mediated a truce; Glarentza itself was not taken (it soon passed to Oliverio Franco and then Carlo Tocco). The campaign won most of Messenia and Elis." }, { "id": 1676, "key": "1421-gallipoli-siege", "name": "Gallipoli (siege)", "year": 1421, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1421", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Mustafa Çelebi (1421-22)", "theatre": "Thrace", "place": "Gallipoli and its citadel", "lat": 40.41, "lon": 26.67, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Ottomans", "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ottomans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mustafa Çelebi, Junayd of Aydin; Demetrios Laskaris Leontares", "commanders_b": "Murad II's garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The Roman role was as an allied force of an Ottoman pretender. side_a 'Ottomans' is Mustafa's faction, side_b Murad II's.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The pretender Mustafa and his Turkish followers, released from Lemnos and carried by imperial galleys, with a Roman force under Demetrios Laskaris Leontares, in return for a promise to cede Gallipoli.", "languages": [ "Turkic", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "minor", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Mustafa's army was Turkish; the Roman contingent and fleet under Leontares were a minority.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Doukas; Sphrantzes; Chalkokondyles 5; en.wikipedia Demetrios Laskaris Leontares", "note": "Mustafa took Gallipoli but then refused to hand it over; Leontares was rebuffed when he demanded it, and Murad II defeated Mustafa in early 1422." }, { "id": 1677, "key": "1422-constantinople-siege", "name": "Constantinople (siege)", "year": 1422, "month": 6, "day": 10, "date": "10 June - 6 September 1422 (general assault 24 August)", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman sieges of Constantinople", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "The land walls of Constantinople", "lat": 41.02, "lon": 28.93, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ottomans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Manuel II Palaiologos, John VIII Palaiologos", "commanders_b": "Murad II, Mihaloğlu Mehmed Bey", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Constantinople, short of soldiers, defending their own walls (John Kananos); both sides had small cannon.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Kananos's eyewitness account describes the Constantinopolitans defending their own walls; no foreign contingent is named.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "John Kananos; Doukas; Sphrantzes; short chronicles; en.wikipedia Siege of Constantinople (1422)", "note": "The general assault of 24 August was beaten off (credited by the Romans to an apparition of the Theotokos); Murad lifted the siege to deal with the revolt of his brother Küçük Mustafa, funded by the emperor." }, { "id": 1678, "key": "1422-thessalonica-siege", "name": "Thessalonica (siege)", "year": 1422, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 1422 - 29 March 1430", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of Macedonia", "theatre": "Macedonia", "place": "Thessalonica", "lat": 40.64, "lon": 22.94, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome", "Venice" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Burak Bey (1422); Murad II and Sinan Pasha (1430); Hamza Bey", "commanders_b": "Despot Andronikos Palaiologos (to 1423); Metropolitan Symeon; Venetian governors (Bernardo Loredan, Jacopo Dandolo, Paolo Contarini, Andrea Donato); Antonio Diedo (1430)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The city was Roman only until September 1423; Venice was the principal defender for the rest of the siege.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The despot Andronikos's citizens until September 1423, when he handed the city to Venice; then Venetian officials, galley crews and garrison troops (150-200 soldiers sent in 1424, 200 from Padua in 1425, about 700 crossbowmen on the walls in 1426), the Greek citizens with their council of twelve nobles, the locally recruited Tzetarioi guard and mercenaries paid in wheat.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Anagnostes and the Venetian records show the Greek citizens forming most of the defenders, with a Venetian garrison and galley crews from 1423.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "John Anagnostes; Symeon of Thessalonica; Doukas; Sphrantzes; Venetian senate records; en.wikipedia Siege of Thessalonica (1422-1430)", "note": "An assault by about 30,000 Ottomans failed in about 1426. The final assault on 29 March 1430 broke through the eastern walls; the sack lasted three days and Anagnostes reports 7,000 captives." }, { "id": 1679, "key": "1423-hexamilion", "name": "Hexamilion", "year": 1423, "month": 5, "day": 21, "date": "21/22 May 1423", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman invasions of the Morea", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "The Hexamilion wall across the Isthmus of Corinth", "lat": 37.93, "lon": 22.97, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Turahan Bey", "commanders_b": "Theodore II Palaiologos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The wall was breached with little recorded resistance.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison of the Hexamilion, rebuilt by Manuel II in 1415, drawn from the despotate's Greek and Albanian subjects; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The wall was manned by Moreot levies, Greek and Albanian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sphrantzes; Chalkokondyles 5; en.wikipedia Turahan Bey; en.wikipedia Hexamilion wall", "note": "Turahan's cavalry ravaged the interior unopposed and attacked Mystras, Leontari, Gardiki and Davia; the raid was probably a reconnaissance." }, { "id": 1680, "key": "1427-echinades", "name": "Echinades", "year": 1427, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1427", "type": "sea", "war": "War with Carlo I Tocco (1427-28)", "theatre": "Ionian Sea", "place": "Off the Echinades islands, at the mouth of the Gulf of Patras", "lat": 38.4, "lon": 21.05, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Tocco" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Leontares (probably Demetrios Laskaris Leontares); John VIII and Constantine Palaiologos in the Morea", "commanders_b": "Torno Tocco, illegitimate son of Carlo I Tocco", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Tocco", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The imperial fleet from Constantinople and the Morea under Leontares; Tocco's fleet drew ships from his Ionian islands and Epirus and from Marseille.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The imperial fleet was manned in Constantinople and the Morea.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Sphrantzes; Chalkokondyles 5; en.wikipedia Battle of the Echinades (1427)", "note": "Most of Tocco's ships were taken and over 150 men captured; Torno barely escaped. It was the last naval victory of the empire. 'Tocco' is the Italian house that ruled Epirus and Cephalonia." }, { "id": 1681, "key": "1427-glarentza-siege", "name": "Glarentza (siege)", "year": 1427, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1427 - 1 May 1428", "type": "land", "war": "War with Carlo I Tocco (1427-28)", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "Glarentza (Clarence), Elis", "lat": 37.94, "lon": 21.15, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Tocco" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John VIII Palaiologos, Constantine Palaiologos, Theodore II Palaiologos", "commanders_b": "Carlo I Tocco's garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Ended by treaty rather than by storm.", "main_enemy": "Tocco", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The forces of the despotate under the emperor John VIII and his brothers, besieging the town by land while the imperial fleet blockaded it by sea.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Moreot levies, Greek and Albanian, with troops and ships from Constantinople.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sphrantzes; Chalkokondyles 5; en.wikipedia Battle of the Echinades (1427); en.wikipedia Constantine XI Palaiologos", "note": "After the defeat at the Echinades Tocco ceded his Moreot lands as the dowry of his niece Maddalena (Theodora), who married Constantine; Glarentza was handed over on 1 May 1428." }, { "id": 1682, "key": "1429-patras-siege", "name": "Patras (siege)", "year": 1429, "month": 3, "day": 20, "date": "20 March 1429 - July 1430", "type": "land", "war": "Conquest of Achaea (1429-32)", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "Patras and its castle", "lat": 38.25, "lon": 21.74, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Principality of Achaea" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Constantine Palaiologos; George Sphrantzes", "commanders_b": "the officers of Archbishop Pandolfo Malatesta", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Principality of Achaea", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Constantine's Moreot army, with Sphrantzes; in the fighting Constantine's horse was killed under him and Sphrantzes was captured (freed on 23 April).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Sphrantzes, an eyewitness, describes Constantine's Moreot troops.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sphrantzes; Chalkokondyles 5; en.wikipedia Constantine XI Palaiologos", "note": "Patras belonged to its Latin archbishop rather than to the prince of Achaea; 'Principality of Achaea' stands for the Latin Morea. The town accepted Constantine on 4 June 1429; the archbishop's castle held out until July 1430 (Venice tried to intervene)." }, { "id": 1683, "key": "1429-chalandritsa-siege", "name": "Chalandritsa (siege)", "year": 1429, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1429", "type": "land", "war": "Conquest of Achaea (1429-32)", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "Chalandritsa castle, Achaea", "lat": 38.1, "lon": 21.79, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Principality of Achaea" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Thomas Palaiologos", "commanders_b": "Centurione II Zaccaria, prince of Achaea", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Principality of Achaea", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The despot Thomas's Moreot army; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Moreot levies, Greek and Albanian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sphrantzes; Chalkokondyles 5; en.wikipedia Centurione II Zaccaria", "note": "Centurione resisted for a time, then surrendered; his daughter Catherine married Thomas, who became heir to Achaea (annexed on Centurione's death in 1432)." }, { "id": 1684, "key": "1431-hexamilion", "name": "Hexamilion", "year": 1431, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1431", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman invasions of the Morea", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "The Hexamilion wall across the Isthmus of Corinth", "lat": 37.93, "lon": 22.97, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Turahan Bey", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A breach and raid; the fighting is not described.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison of the Hexamilion; no details are recorded.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The wall was manned by Moreot levies, Greek and Albanian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Chalkokondyles 5; en.wikipedia Turahan Bey; en.wikipedia Hexamilion wall", "note": "Turahan breached and destroyed the wall again." }, { "id": 1685, "key": "1433-cembalo", "name": "Cembalo", "year": 1433, "month": 2, "day": null, "date": "February 1433", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of Theodoro with Genoa", "theatre": "Crimea", "place": "Cembalo (Balaklava)", "lat": 44.5, "lon": 33.6, "loc": "known", "country": "Ukraine", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Genoa" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Theodoro", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Alexios of Theodoro", "commanders_b": "the Genoese consul of Cembalo", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A rebellion by which Theodoro took the port; no battle is described.", "main_enemy": "Genoa", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "The Greek inhabitants of Cembalo, who rose against the Genoese and handed the castle to Prince Alexios of Theodoro, with Alexios's forces.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "The rising was by the Greek townsmen of Cembalo; Theodoro's own subjects were Greeks, Goths and Alans.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Genoese records of Caffa; Vasiliev, The Goths in the Crimea (1936); en.wikipedia Principality of Theodoro", "note": "Alexios had already fought the Genoese in 1422-23. Cembalo revolted again in 1439." }, { "id": 1686, "key": "1434-cembalo-siege", "name": "Cembalo (siege)", "year": 1434, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 1434", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of Theodoro with Genoa", "theatre": "Crimea", "place": "Cembalo (Balaklava); also Kalamita (Inkerman)", "lat": 44.5, "lon": 33.6, "loc": "known", "country": "Ukraine", "side_a": [ "Genoa" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Theodoro", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Carlo Lomellino", "commanders_b": "the Theodorite garrison", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Genoa", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Theodoro's garrison and the Greek townsmen of Cembalo; the Genoese came with a large expedition from Genoa.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Germanic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The defenders were the Greek townsmen and the troops of Theodoro.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Genoese records; Vasiliev, The Goths in the Crimea (1936); en.wikipedia Principality of Theodoro", "note": "The Genoese retook Cembalo and plundered abandoned Kalamita, but were then destroyed by the Crimean Tatars of Hacı Giray near Solkhat; Theodoro recovered Kalamita. Theodorite participation at Solkhat is not attested, so that battle is not counted." }, { "id": 1687, "key": "1442-constantinople-siege", "name": "Constantinople (siege)", "year": 1442, "month": 4, "day": null, "date": "April 1442", "type": "land", "war": "Revolt of Demetrios Palaiologos (1442)", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Constantinople", "lat": 41.02, "lon": 28.93, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Ottomans" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "John VIII", "faction_b": "Demetrios Palaiologos", "commanders_a": "John VIII Palaiologos", "commanders_b": "Demetrios Palaiologos, Matthew Palaiologos Asen", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The scale of the fighting is not recorded.", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "John VIII's garrison held the city; Demetrios, champion of the anti-unionists, attacked with an army raised with Murad II's support, including Ottoman troops. Constantine, summoned from the Morea, was held up on Lemnos by an Ottoman fleet.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The defenders were the citizens of Constantinople; Demetrios's army included Ottoman troops.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sphrantzes; Chalkokondyles 6; en.wikipedia Demetrios Palaiologos; en.wikipedia Matthew Palaiologos Asen", "note": "Demetrios was repulsed and briefly imprisoned; he and Matthew Asen escaped to Galata." }, { "id": 1688, "key": "1442-trebizond", "name": "Trebizond", "year": 1442, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1442", "type": "sea", "war": "Ottoman attacks on Trebizond", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "Trebizond, attacked from the sea", "lat": 41.0, "lon": 39.73, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ottomans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Trebizond", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "John IV Megas Komnenos", "commanders_b": "unknown (sent by Murad II)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "High surf hampered the landing; the fighting is barely described.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Trebizond; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Greek city defended by its own people.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Chalkokondyles; en.wikipedia Empire of Trebizond; en.wikipedia John IV of Trebizond", "note": "The Ottoman fleet plundered the coasts and Trebizond's Crimean dependencies, failed before the city, and was partly wrecked by a storm on the way back." }, { "id": 1689, "key": "1444-thebes", "name": "Thebes", "year": 1444, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 1444", "type": "land", "war": "Constantine Palaiologos's campaign in central Greece (1444-46)", "theatre": "Boeotia", "place": "Thebes (and Athens)", "lat": 38.32, "lon": 23.32, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Duchy of Athens" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Constantine Palaiologos, despot of the Morea", "commanders_b": "Nerio II Acciaioli", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "The capture of Thebes and Athens is reported without a description of fighting.", "main_enemy": "Duchy of Athens", "opponent_group": "Western Europeans", "roman_force": "Constantine's Moreot army, later joined by 300 Burgundian soldiers sent by Philip the Good; his governor Constantine Kantakouzenos also took Lidoriki from the Ottomans.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian", "French" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Moreot levies, Greek and Albanian, with a small Burgundian company.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Chalkokondyles 6; Sphrantzes; en.wikipedia Constantine XI Palaiologos; en.wikipedia, the article on the Ottoman conquest of the Morea", "note": "Nerio II, an Ottoman vassal, had to pay tribute to Constantine; Constantine's men raided north to the Pindus Vlachs in 1445. Murad II's revenge came in 1446." }, { "id": 1690, "key": "1446-hexamilion", "name": "Hexamilion", "year": 1446, "month": 11, "day": 27, "date": "27 November - 10 December 1446", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman invasions of the Morea", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "The Hexamilion wall across the Isthmus of Corinth", "lat": 37.93, "lon": 22.97, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Duchy of Athens" ], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Murad II, Turahan Bey", "commanders_b": "Constantine and Thomas Palaiologos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "Up to about 20,000 Moreots, Greeks and Albanians, under the despots Constantine and Thomas, holding the wall rebuilt in 1444; Murad brought perhaps 50,000-60,000 men with heavy cannon.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The despotate's army combined Greek archons and townsmen with numerous Albanian settlers.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Chalkokondyles 7; Sphrantzes; en.wikipedia Hexamilion wall; en.wikipedia Constantine XI Palaiologos", "note": "The cannon reduced the wall to rubble and it was stormed on 10 December; most defenders were killed or captured (some 60,000 Moreots are said to have been enslaved) and the despots became Ottoman tributaries." }, { "id": 1691, "key": "1452-hexamilion", "name": "Hexamilion", "year": 1452, "month": 10, "day": null, "date": "October 1452", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman invasions of the Morea", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "The Hexamilion wall across the Isthmus of Corinth", "lat": 37.93, "lon": 22.97, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Turahan Bey", "commanders_b": "the despots Thomas and Demetrios Palaiologos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "Little resistance is recorded.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The despots' forces at the ruined wall; no details are recorded.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Moreot levies, Greek and Albanian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Chalkokondyles 8; Sphrantzes; en.wikipedia Turahan Bey", "note": "Mehmed II sent Turahan to keep the despots from helping Constantinople; his army wintered in the peninsula." }, { "id": 1692, "key": "1452-dervenakia", "name": "Dervenakia", "year": 1452, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "late 1452", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman invasions of the Morea", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "The pass of Dervenakia, between Corinth and Argos", "lat": 37.79, "lon": 22.78, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Ottomans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Matthew Palaiologos Asen", "commanders_b": "Ahmed Bey, son of Turahan (captured)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "Moreot troops under Matthew Asen, the despot Demetrios's brother-in-law, who lured the Ottomans into a narrow defile; most of the Turks fell.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Moreot levies, Greek and Albanian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Chalkokondyles 8; Sphrantzes; en.wikipedia Turahan Bey; en.wikipedia Matthew Palaiologos Asen", "note": "The article on Turahan places the ambush at Dervenakia, that on Matthew Asen near Leontari. Ahmed was held at Mystras and released in 1453/54." }, { "id": 1693, "key": "1453-constantinople", "name": "Constantinople", "year": 1453, "month": 4, "day": 6, "date": "6 April - 29 May 1453", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of Constantinople (1453)", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Constantinople: the land walls (Mesoteichion and Lykos valley), the Golden Horn and the sea walls", "lat": 41.02, "lon": 28.93, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [ "Serbia" ], "allies_b": [ "Genoa", "Venice", "Aragon" ], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mehmed II; Zagan Pasha, Karaca Pasha, Ishak Pasha, Halil Pasha; Süleyman Baltoğlu (fleet)", "commanders_b": "Constantine XI Palaiologos (killed); Giovanni Giustiniani Longo (mortally wounded); Loukas Notaras; Theophilos Palaiologos; Demetrios Kantakouzenos; Nikephoros Palaiologos; Girolamo Minotto; Gabriele Trevisan; Alvise Diedo; Maurizio Cattaneo; the Bocchiardi brothers; Pere Julià; Cardinal Isidore; Orhan Çelebi", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "Sphrantzes counted 4,773 Greeks fit to fight and some 200 foreigners, joined by about 2,000-3,000 Latins, under 8,000 in all: Giustiniani's 700 Genoese (400 from Genoa, 300 from Chios), the Venetians of the bailo Minotto, Trevisan and the Contarini, Venetian and Genoese sailors, the Bocchiardi brothers at the Myriandrion, about 200 Catalans of the consul Pere Julià, 200 archers (Naples and Chios) with Cardinal Isidore, Cretan crews who held three towers, the Castilian Francisco de Toledo, the engineer Johannes Grant, and about 600 Turks of the Ottoman pretender Orhan; 26 ships (about 10 imperial, 5 Venetian, 3 from Venetian Crete, 5 Genoese, 1 each from Ancona, Aragon and France).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Italian", "Catalan", "Turkic" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Sphrantzes's census gives about 4,800 Greek defenders against some 2,000-3,000 foreigners, mostly Genoese and Venetians.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 3, "sources": "Sphrantzes; Doukas; Chalkokondyles 8; Kritoboulos 1; Nicolò Barbaro; Leonardo of Chios; Tetaldi; en.wikipedia Fall of Constantinople", "note": "The Ottomans had about 50,000-80,000 men (5,000-10,000 Janissaries, 1,500 Serbian horse sent by Đurađ Branković) and 110-126 ships, with Urban's great cannon. Therapia and the Stoudion fort were stormed early; ships were dragged overland into the Golden Horn on 22 April; a fire-ship attack failed on 28 April; Grant's counter-mines destroyed the Ottoman tunnels (16-25 May). The final assault after midnight on 29 May broke through when Giustiniani was wounded; the Catalans, the Cretans and Orhan's Turks fought on after the walls fell." }, { "id": 1694, "key": "1453-golden-horn-20-april-1453", "name": "Golden Horn (20 April 1453)", "year": 1453, "month": 4, "day": 20, "date": "20 April 1453", "type": "sea", "war": "Ottoman conquest of Constantinople (1453)", "theatre": "Constantinople", "place": "Off the Acropolis point, at the entrance of the Golden Horn", "lat": 41.01, "lon": 28.99, "loc": "approx", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Rome", "Genoa" ], "side_b": [ "Ottomans" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Roman Empire", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Phlatanelas (imperial transport); the Genoese captains", "commanders_b": "Süleyman Baltoğlu (wounded)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A naval action within the siege, described at length by the sources but rarely given a separate name.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "Three Genoese ships hired by the pope with arms and men, and an imperial transport carrying grain from Sicily under its captain Phlatanelas; they fought off the Ottoman fleet for hours and entered the Golden Horn at nightfall.", "languages": [ "Italian", "Greek" ], "greek_share": "large", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "One of the four ships was imperial and Greek-crewed; the other three were Genoese.", "composition_confidence": "high", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Nicolò Barbaro; Doukas; Sphrantzes; Kritoboulos 1; en.wikipedia Fall of Constantinople", "note": "Mehmed rode into the sea to urge on his ships; Baltoğlu was wounded in the eye, dismissed and punished." }, { "id": 1695, "key": "1456-kapanion", "name": "Kapanion", "year": 1456, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "c. 1456 (proposed dates range from the 1430s to 1456-58)", "type": "land", "war": "Wars of Trebizond with the Turkmen", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "Kapanion, in the hinterland of Trebizond", "lat": 40.9, "lon": 39.7, "loc": "region", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Safavids" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Trebizond", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Shaykh Junayd of Ardabil", "commanders_b": "John IV Megas Komnenos; his pansebastos (killed)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Safavids", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "John IV's land army under his pansebastos, with the fleet meant to land in Junayd's rear; contrary winds prevented the landing.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Trebizond's army was raised from the Greek-speaking archons and townsmen of Pontus.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Chalkokondyles 9; Bryer, 'Ludovico da Bologna and the Georgian and Anatolian embassy' (1965); en.wikipedia John IV of Trebizond", "note": "'Safavids' stands for the Turkmen ghazis of the Safaviyya order led by Junayd. After the rout Junayd besieged Trebizond for three days and ravaged Mesochaldia; John escaped by sea." }, { "id": 1696, "key": "1456-trebizond", "name": "Trebizond", "year": 1456, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1456", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman attacks on Trebizond", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "Trebizond and its suburbs", "lat": 41.0, "lon": 39.72, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Trebizond", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hızır Bey, governor of Amasya", "commanders_b": "John IV Megas Komnenos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Trebizond, weakened by plague; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Greek city defended by its own people.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Chalkokondyles 9; Doukas; en.wikipedia John IV of Trebizond; en.wikipedia Empire of Trebizond", "note": "Hızır attacked by land and sea, raided the countryside and the marketplace and took about 2,000 captives; John IV agreed to pay 2,000 (later 3,000) gold pieces a year. One account says Hızır was beaten off before the city." }, { "id": 1697, "key": "1458-corinth-siege", "name": "Corinth (siege)", "year": 1458, "month": 5, "day": 15, "date": "campaign from 15 May; surrender 6 August 1458", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of the Morea (1458-60)", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "Acrocorinth and Corinth", "lat": 37.89, "lon": 22.87, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Venice" ], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mehmed II; Turahanoğlu Ömer Bey; Hamza Bey", "commanders_b": "Matthew Palaiologos Asen; Nikephoros Loukanes; the despot Demetrios Palaiologos (relief army)", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison of Acrocorinth under Nikephoros Loukanes, reinforced by Matthew Asen, who slipped in at night with 70 men and supplies, with some Venetian help; Demetrios's relief army of 6,000 cavalry was lured out and beaten. The Ottomans had about 40,000 men (20,000 cavalry) and four great cannon.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Kritoboulos and Chalkokondyles describe a Greek garrison under Greek commanders.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kritoboulos 3; Chalkokondyles 9; Sphrantzes; en.wikipedia Battle of Corinth (1458); en.wikipedia, the article on the Ottoman conquest of the Morea", "note": "Asen surrendered on terms on 6 August; Ömer Bey became governor. On the same campaign Tarsos and the citadel of Patras yielded after short sieges, Phlius was stormed and its garrison massacred, and Vostitsa was taken." }, { "id": 1698, "key": "1458-phlius-siege", "name": "Phlius (siege)", "year": 1458, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 1458", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of the Morea (1458-60)", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "Phlius (Phlious), south of Corinth", "lat": 37.84, "lon": 22.64, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mehmed II", "commanders_b": "Doxas", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A minor siege of the campaign, not usually named as a battle (as Akova and Mouchli, which are listed).", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison of Phlius under Doxas, which held out until the Ottomans cut its water supply.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "The castles of the despotate were held by Moreot Greeks, with Albanian settlers in the countryside.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kritoboulos 3; Chalkokondyles 9; en.wikipedia, the article on the Ottoman conquest of the Morea", "note": "While terms were being discussed the Ottomans entered through an unguarded section and massacred the garrison. Already mentioned in the note of Corinth (siege, 1458)." }, { "id": 1699, "key": "1458-akova-siege", "name": "Akova (siege)", "year": 1458, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 1458", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of the Morea (1458-60)", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "Akova (Matagrifon) and Roupeli, Arcadia", "lat": 37.7, "lon": 21.98, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mehmed II; Turahanoğlu Ömer Bey", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A minor siege of the campaign, not usually named as a battle.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The local garrisons and inhabitants, Greek and Albanian; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Moreot garrisons of Greeks and Albanians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kritoboulos 3; Chalkokondyles 9; en.wikipedia, the article on the Ottoman conquest of the Morea", "note": "Akova and Roupeli resisted until the sultan almost gave up the siege." }, { "id": 1700, "key": "1458-mouchli-siege", "name": "Mouchli (siege)", "year": 1458, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 1458", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of the Morea (1458-60)", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "Mouchli, near Tegea, Arcadia", "lat": 37.5, "lon": 22.46, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mehmed II", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A minor siege of the campaign, not usually named as a battle.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison of Mouchli; no numbers are given.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Moreot hill town garrisoned by its Greek and Albanian inhabitants.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kritoboulos 3; Chalkokondyles 9; en.wikipedia, the article on the Ottoman conquest of the Morea", "note": "Taken after a three-day siege once its water supply was cut." }, { "id": 1701, "key": "1459-patras", "name": "Patras", "year": 1459, "month": 1, "day": null, "date": "January 1459", "type": "land", "war": "Thomas Palaiologos's revolt against the Ottomans (1459-60)", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "Patras and its citadel", "lat": 38.25, "lon": 21.74, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the Ottoman garrison; Hamza Zenevisi (relief)", "commanders_b": "Thomas Palaiologos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "Thomas's Moreot troops and Albanian lords, with about 300 Italian infantry paid by the pope and the duchess of Milan (under Gianone da Cremona).", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "sources", "greek_note": "Thomas's army combined Greek and Albanian Moreots with a small Italian company.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sphrantzes; Chalkokondyles 9; Kritoboulos 3; en.wikipedia, the article on the Ottoman conquest of the Morea; en.wikipedia Thomas Palaiologos", "note": "The lower town fell but the citadel held; Thomas withdrew when an Ottoman relief force approached. He did take Kalavryta." }, { "id": 1702, "key": "1459-leontari", "name": "Leontari", "year": 1459, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1459", "type": "land", "war": "Thomas Palaiologos's revolt against the Ottomans (1459-60)", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "Before Leontari, Arcadia", "lat": 37.32, "lon": 22.12, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Hamza Zenevisi", "commanders_b": "Thomas Palaiologos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "Thomas's army of Greek and Albanian Moreots with his Italian mercenaries.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian", "Italian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Thomas's army combined Greek and Albanian Moreots with a small Italian company.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Chalkokondyles 9; Sphrantzes; en.wikipedia, the article on the Ottoman conquest of the Morea", "note": "The Ottoman cavalry broke Thomas's lines and his men fled into Leontari castle; plague in the Ottoman camp then forced the Ottomans to withdraw." }, { "id": 1703, "key": "1459-leontari-siege", "name": "Leontari (siege)", "year": 1459, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "1459", "type": "land", "war": "Civil war in the Morea (1459-60)", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "Leontari, Thomas's capital", "lat": 37.32, "lon": 22.12, "loc": "known", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Rome" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Ottomans" ], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "Thomas Palaiologos", "faction_b": "Demetrios Palaiologos", "commanders_a": "Thomas Palaiologos", "commanders_b": "Demetrios Palaiologos; Manuel Bochalis and his father-in-law", "outcome": "A", "civil": true, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Rome", "opponent_group": "Romans", "roman_force": "Demetrios's partisans under Manuel Bochalis took Leontari, calling on the Ottoman governors for help; Thomas came up with his army and forced them out with many casualties.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Both despots' forces were Moreot Greeks and Albanians.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": true, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sphrantzes; Chalkokondyles 9; en.wikipedia Manuel Bochalis; en.wikipedia Demetrios Palaiologos; en.wikipedia, the article on the Ottoman conquest of the Morea", "note": "After Hamza Zenevisi's Ottomans withdrew from Leontari, Demetrios besieged the castle, but Thomas relieved it and Demetrios's army retreated to Mystras (en.wikipedia, the article on the Ottoman conquest of the Morea); in the Manuel Bochalis article Bochalis and his father-in-law take the town and abandon it with heavy losses when Thomas arrives. In the same civil war Thomas besieged Demetrios's Kalamata and Mantineia and took Kalamata, Zarnata, Leuktron and the Mani; Demetrios withdrew to Monemvasia." }, { "id": 1704, "key": "1460-kastritsi-siege", "name": "Kastritsi (siege)", "year": 1460, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 1460", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of the Morea (1458-60)", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "Kastritsi (Kastritza), near Leontari", "lat": 37.25, "lon": 22.25, "loc": "region", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mehmed II", "commanders_b": "unknown", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison and inhabitants of the fortress, who beat off the Janissaries' attacks until their water and food ran out.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Moreot fortress held by its Greek and Albanian inhabitants.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kritoboulos 3; Chalkokondyles 9; en.wikipedia, the article on the Ottoman conquest of the Morea", "note": "The garrison was executed and the women and children enslaved; the town was destroyed. The site is uncertain (Chalkokondyles's Kastritzion, between Vordonia and Leontari)." }, { "id": 1705, "key": "1460-gardiki-siege", "name": "Gardiki (siege)", "year": 1460, "month": 6, "day": null, "date": "June 1460", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of the Morea (1458-60)", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "Gardiki castle, near Leontari", "lat": 37.3, "lon": 22.07, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mehmed II; Mahmud Pasha Angelović", "commanders_b": "Manuel Bochalis", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The people of Leontari and the district, who had fled to the castle, under Manuel Bochalis.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Refugees from Leontari and the countryside, Greek and Albanian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Kritoboulos 3; Chalkokondyles 9; Sphrantzes; en.wikipedia Manuel Bochalis", "note": "The castle surrendered after one day of assault; about 6,000 were then massacred, though Bochalis was spared through Mahmud Pasha." }, { "id": 1706, "key": "1460-palaia-achaia", "name": "Palaia Achaia", "year": 1460, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "early 1460", "type": "land", "war": "Thomas Palaiologos's revolt against the Ottomans (1459-60)", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "The castle of Palaia Achaia, west of Patras", "lat": 38.14, "lon": 21.55, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "the Ottoman garrison; Zagan Pasha (relief)", "commanders_b": "Thomas Palaiologos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "A failed siege, abandoned on the approach of Zagan Pasha.", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "Thomas's Moreot army, with a cannon that did little damage.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Moreot levies, Greek and Albanian.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Chalkokondyles 9; en.wikipedia, the article on the Ottoman conquest of the Morea", "note": "" }, { "id": 1707, "key": "1460-salmeniko-siege", "name": "Salmeniko (siege)", "year": 1460, "month": null, "day": null, "date": "summer 1460 - July 1461", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of the Morea (1458-60)", "theatre": "Morea", "place": "Salmeniko castle, Achaea", "lat": 38.29, "lon": 22.01, "loc": "approx", "country": "Greece", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Morea", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mehmed II; Zagan Pasha; Hamza Bey", "commanders_b": "Graitzas Palaiologos", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison of Salmeniko under Graitzas Palaiologos, after the town below had surrendered.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Albanian" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "A Moreot garrison under a Palaiologan officer.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 1, "sources": "Sphrantzes; Kritoboulos 3; Chalkokondyles 9; en.wikipedia Despotate of the Morea; en.wikipedia, the article on the Ottoman conquest of the Morea", "note": "The last resistance of the despotate: Graitzas and his men held the castle until July 1461 and then escaped to Venetian territory. Mystras had been surrendered without a fight on 29/30 May 1460; Monemvasia was never besieged." }, { "id": 1708, "key": "1461-trebizond-siege", "name": "Trebizond (siege)", "year": 1461, "month": 7, "day": null, "date": "July - 15 August 1461", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of Trebizond (1461)", "theatre": "Pontus", "place": "Trebizond", "lat": 41.0, "lon": 39.72, "loc": "known", "country": "Turkey", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [], "roman_state": "Trebizond", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Mehmed II; Mahmud Pasha Angelović; Kasım Pasha (fleet)", "commanders_b": "David Megas Komnenos; George Amiroutzes", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The garrison and citizens of Trebizond behind their walls and ravines; the sources give no numbers. Uzun Hasan of the Aq Qoyunlu, David's ally, made a separate peace and sent no help.", "languages": [ "Greek" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Trebizond was a Greek city defended by its own people; the Genoese and Venetian quarters lay outside the walls.", "composition_confidence": "low", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Kritoboulos 4; Chalkokondyles 9; Doukas; Konstantin Mihailović; en.wikipedia Siege of Trebizond (1461)", "note": "Kasım Pasha's fleet and men besieged the walls for 32 days, and Doukas says the daily assaults made no headway; one estimate gives the Ottomans 80,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry and 200 galleys. David surrendered on terms on 15 August 1461 when he learned that Uzun Hasan would not come; he and his sons were executed in 1463." }, { "id": 1709, "key": "1475-mangup-siege", "name": "Mangup (siege)", "year": 1475, "month": 9, "day": null, "date": "September - December 1475", "type": "land", "war": "Ottoman conquest of Theodoro (1475)", "theatre": "Crimea", "place": "Mangup (Theodoro), the cave-town fortress of the principality", "lat": 44.59, "lon": 33.81, "loc": "known", "country": "Ukraine", "side_a": [ "Ottomans" ], "side_b": [ "Rome" ], "allies_a": [], "allies_b": [ "Moldavia" ], "roman_state": "Theodoro", "rome_role": "principal", "faction_a": "", "faction_b": "", "commanders_a": "Gedik Ahmed Pasha", "commanders_b": "Prince Alexander of Theodoro", "outcome": "A", "civil": false, "traditional": false, "doubt": "", "borderline": "", "main_enemy": "Ottomans", "opponent_group": "Turks", "roman_force": "The people of Theodoro (Greeks, with Goths and Alans) under Prince Alexander, who had seized power with the support of Stephen the Great of Moldavia, and 300 Moldavian ('Wallachian') soldiers sent by Stephen.", "languages": [ "Greek", "Germanic", "Iranian", "Vlach (Romance)" ], "greek_share": "majority", "greek_basis": "recruitment", "greek_note": "Theodoro's population was largely Greek-speaking Orthodox, with Crimean Goths and Alans; the Moldavians were a small contingent.", "composition_confidence": "medium", "greek_opponent": false, "fame": 2, "sources": "Ottoman chronicles; Genoese and Moldavian letters; Vasiliev, The Goths in the Crimea (1936); en.wikipedia Principality of Theodoro; en.wikipedia Siege of Mangup", "note": "The Ottoman fleet had taken Genoese Caffa in June 1475. Mangup withstood five major assaults (Vasiliev) and surrendered to famine at the end of December 1475; Alexander was beheaded in Constantinople. The last battle of a Roman successor state." } ]