{
 "title": "Greek cities in present-day Africa",
 "n": 111,
 "egypt_wide_estimate": {
  "estimate": "c. 750, range 650-850",
  "text": "For an Egyptian town with no evidence of its own after the Arab conquest, the end of Greek speech is put at c. 750 (range 650-850). Across Egypt, Greek private letters and contracts of Christians become rare after the conquest and end in the 8th century; Greek lasted longest in accounts and in the formulae of Coptic documents, and the townspeople wrote Coptic, which Arabic later replaced. Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 705/706 by order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi), though Greek fiscal documents went on for some decades.",
  "markers": "Greek private letters and contracts of Christians thin out after the 640s and end in the 8th century; Greek registers until the order of 705/706 (al-Kindi); Greek letters of the governor Qurra ibn Sharik (709-714) to the pagarch at Aphrodito; Greek accounts in the Fayum into the second half of the 8th century; Greek-Arabic protocols on papyrus rolls from the reign of the caliph 'Abd al-Malik (685-705); Greek invocations, dating formulae and witness subscriptions in Coptic legal documents of the 8th century (Bagnall 1993; Fournet 2009; Papaconstantinou 2010; Sijpesteijn 2013).",
  "exceptions": "Alexandria c. 850 (750-950), for its Melkite community; Aphrodito c. 720 (710-780); towns abandoned at a known date; Cyrenaica, where no Greek text by a resident is known after 643."
 },
 "series": {
  "years": [
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   -690,
   -680,
   -670,
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   -390,
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   -330,
   -320,
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   -300,
   -290,
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   -270,
   -260,
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   -230,
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   -200,
   -190,
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   -170,
   -160,
   -150,
   -140,
   -130,
   -120,
   -110,
   -100,
   -90,
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   -70,
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   -40,
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   200,
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   220,
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   240,
   250,
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   280,
   290,
   300,
   310,
   320,
   330,
   340,
   350,
   360,
   370,
   380,
   390,
   400,
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   420,
   430,
   440,
   450,
   460,
   470,
   480,
   490,
   500,
   510,
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   550,
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   580,
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   600,
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   690,
   700,
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   920,
   930,
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   950,
   960,
   970,
   980,
   990,
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   1100
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 },
 "cities": [
  {
   "no": 1,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "331 BC – c. AD 850",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af001",
   "latin": "Alexandria",
   "greek": "Ἀλεξάνδρεια",
   "other_names": "Alexandria ad Aegyptum (Latin); Rakote (Coptic); al-Iskandariyya (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Alexandria",
   "modern_native": "الإسكندرية",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Alexandria (centre: Kom el-Dikka, the Eastern Harbour, Kom el-Shuqafa), Alexandria Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Alexandria",
   "nome": "none (polis outside the nomes; its chora included the Mareotes)",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 31.198,
   "lon": 29.904,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 727070,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -331,
   "greek_until": 850,
   "phases": [
    [
     -331,
     850
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "founded by Alexander the Great, early 331 BC (Arr. Anab. 3.1.5-3.2.2; Plut. Alex. 26; the Alexander Romance 1.32 gives the day as 25 Tybi); laid out by Deinokrates; capital of the Ptolemies from c. 313 BC",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Administration: 'Amr ibn al-'As took the city by the treaty signed by the patriarch Cyrus (November 641); the Roman garrison and many Greek-speaking residents sailed away in September 642; after Manuel's reoccupation (645/646) 'Amr retook it by storm and razed its walls (646). Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 705/706 (order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik, al-Kindi). Speech: a Chalcedonian (Melkite) community stayed, the part of the population most likely to keep Greek; its see was vacant for most of c. 650-727 and was restored under Cosmas I (c. 727-768), whose church was again in communion with the Greek-speaking patriarchates (Theophanes, under 742/743). No dated Greek letter, contract or epitaph of an Alexandrian resident is known after the 7th c. By the 10th c. the Melkites of Egypt wrote Arabic: Patriarch Eutychius (Sa'id ibn Bitriq, born in Fustat 877, patriarch 933-940) wrote his Annals in Arabic and seems not to have known Greek. Greek remained the Melkite liturgical language, which does not extend the phase. The end of Greek speech is therefore placed c. 850 (750-950), later than the Egypt-wide estimate because of the Melkite community of the capital. Greek merchants and clergy from the empire in later centuries are newcomers.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    750,
    950
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Emigration under the treaty of 641/642; Greek administration in Egypt to 705/706, with Greek-Arabic protocols and Greek fiscal documents into the 8th c.; Melkite see vacant c. 650-727, restored under Cosmas I (c. 727-768); Theophanes records the Alexandrian church's union with the other Chalcedonian patriarchates in 742/743; Melkite historiography in Arabic by the 10th c. (Eutychius, born 877, patriarch 933-940, who used Greek works only in translation); Greek kept as a liturgical language; Coptic and Arabic replaced Greek among the rest of the population.",
   "ended_by": "Taken by 'Amr ibn al-'As, 641 (treaty with the patriarch Cyrus), evacuated by the Roman army 642; stormed again by 'Amr after Manuel's revolt, 646, walls razed. Afterwards the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi), which ended Greek in government but was not a ban on speech; no act against Greek speech is recorded: the evidence shows emigration and a shift of the remaining Melkites to Arabic by the 10th c. Earlier blows: Ptolemy VIII's expulsion of scholars and massacres (145 BC and after); Caracalla's massacre of the youth (215, Cass. Dio 78.22-23); Aurelian's destruction of the Brucheion (272, after Zenobia's occupation and the revolt of Firmus); Diocletian's siege and sack after the revolt of Domitius Domitianus and Achilleus (297/298); the Persian conquest under Shahrbaraz (619).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Alexander the Great (architect Deinokrates of Rhodes)",
   "founder_group": "Alexander and the Ptolemies",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Ra-Kedet (Egyptian)?",
   "pre_greek_note": "Strabo 17.1.6 says Rhakotis was an earlier Egyptian village on the site; the Egyptian Rꜥ-qd(.t) is first attested on the Satrap Stele (311 BC) and in Demotic, and Chauveau argued it meant 'building site', i.e. the new city itself, so a pre-Greek village of this name is disputed; harbour cores show human activity on the coast before 331 BC",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Arabic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "royal foundation and Ptolemaic capital; polis with citizen tribes and demes, gymnasium and ephebes; boule restored by Septimius Severus (200/201); patriarchal see; Hierocles and Georgius Cyprius (capital of Aegyptus)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "A large Greek-speaking Jewish community lived here from the 3rd c. BC (the Septuagint, Philo): attacked in the riots of 38 under the prefect Flaccus and in 66 (troops of Tiberius Julius Alexander), destroyed in the revolt of 115-117 (suppressed by Marcius Turbo under Trajan), revived, and expelled by the patriarch Cyril in 414/415 (Socrates, HE 7.13); Egyptian-speaking residents lived beside the Greek citizens throughout.",
   "sources": [
    "Arr. Anab. 3.1-2",
    "Strabo 17.1.6-10",
    "Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria (1972)",
    "Haas, Alexandria in Late Antiquity (1997)",
    "Butler, The Arab Conquest of Egypt (1902; 2nd ed. 1978)"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Nikopolis, Octavian's foundation of 30 BC east of the city: separate entry"
  },
  {
   "no": 2,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af011",
   "latin": "Andropolis",
   "greek": "Ἀνδρῶν πόλις",
   "other_names": "Kharbita (Arabic, the identified site)",
   "modern": "Kharbita",
   "modern_native": "خربتا",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Kharbita (Harbata), Kom Hamada district, Beheira Governorate (identification from the episcopal lists)",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Beheira",
   "nome": "Andropolite",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 30.73,
   "lon": 30.55,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "nome metropolis under Rome: the Greek-speaking metropolite and gymnasial class was registered in every metropolis from AD 4/5 (boule from 200/201); no earlier town-specific Greek evidence found; metropolis of the Andropolite nome (Ptolemy 4.5); see (Zoilos 362; Iakob 689); Hierocles",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the conquest of the Delta by 'Amr ibn al-'As (640-642); Greek remained the language of the tax registers until 705/706, when the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik ordered them kept in Arabic (al-Kindi). Speech: the Greek-speaking civic elite shrank by emigration (the treaty of 641 let Romans leave) and assimilation. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No town-specific evidence after 641 (papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta); later bishops of the see belong to the Coptic church and wrote Coptic, then Arabic. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The Persians under Shahrbaraz held Egypt 619-629; 'Amr ibn al-'As conquered the Delta (640-642), and under his treaty with the patriarch Cyrus (November 641) Roman troops and Greek-speaking residents who wished to could leave (they sailed in September 642); the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi). No ban on Greek speech is recorded: the evidence shows emigration and a slow shift to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Andropolite nome (Ptolemy 4.5); Greek city name; Roman nome coins; bishops 362 (Zoilos) and 689 (Iakob)",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Andropolite nome (Ptolemy 4.5); see (Zoilos 362; Iakob 689); Hierocles",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The identification with Kharbita rests on the Coptic-Arabic episcopal lists; the Greek name may translate an Egyptian one.",
   "sources": [
    "Ptolemy 4.5",
    "Hierocles",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)",
    "Calderini-Daris, Dizionario"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 3,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "c. 200 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af008",
   "latin": "Buto",
   "greek": "Βουτώ",
   "other_names": "Bouto, Butos (Greek variants); Pe and Dep (Egyptian twin towns)",
   "modern": "Tell el-Fara'in (Ibtu)",
   "modern_native": "تل الفراعين",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Tell el-Fara'in near Ibtu, Desouk district, Kafr el-Sheikh Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Kafr el-Sheikh",
   "nome": "Phthenote",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 31.196,
   "lon": 30.741,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 727094,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -200,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -200,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek-style bathhouses of the Ptolemaic period (six excavated at Tell el-Fara'in, 3rd-2nd c. BC) show Hellenized residents in the metropolis of the Phthenote nome (Ghonim, Egyptian Archaeology 56, 2020)",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the conquest of the Delta by 'Amr ibn al-'As (640-642); Greek remained the language of the tax registers until 705/706, when the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik ordered them kept in Arabic (al-Kindi). Speech: the Greek-speaking civic elite shrank by emigration (the treaty of 641 let Romans leave) and assimilation. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No town-specific evidence after 641 (papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta); later bishops of the see belong to the Coptic church and wrote Coptic, then Arabic. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The Persians under Shahrbaraz held Egypt 619-629; 'Amr ibn al-'As conquered the Delta (640-642), and under his treaty with the patriarch Cyrus (November 641) Roman troops and Greek-speaking residents who wished to could leave (they sailed in September 642); the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi). No ban on Greek speech is recorded: the evidence shows emigration and a slow shift to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Per-Wadjet (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "Greek Bouto renders Per-Wadjet, 'house of Wadjet'; the site was settled from the 4th millennium BC. The village name Ibtu continues it.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Phthenote nome (Ptolemy 4.5) with Roman gymnasial class; Ptolemaic and Roman town with baths; bishops 431-459",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Phthenote nome (Ptolemy 4.5); Hdt. 2.155-156; see (Ammonios 431; Thomas and Theonas 459); Hierocles",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "",
   "sources": [
    "Hdt. 2.155-156",
    "Ptolemy 4.5",
    "Hartung et al., Buto excavation reports (DAI)",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 4,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af009",
   "latin": "Cabasa",
   "greek": "Κάβασα",
   "other_names": "Gabaseos (Coptic-Arabic episcopal list); Shabas (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Shabas el-Shuhada",
   "modern_native": "شباس الشهداء",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Shabas el-Shuhada (Shabas Sunkur), Desouk district, Kafr el-Sheikh Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Kafr el-Sheikh",
   "nome": "Kabasite",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 31.08,
   "lon": 30.71,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "nome metropolis under Rome: the Greek-speaking metropolite and gymnasial class was registered in every metropolis from AD 4/5 (boule from 200/201); no earlier town-specific Greek evidence found; metropolis of the Kabasite nome (Ptolemy 4.5.48; Pliny 5.49); see (Theopemptus at Ephesus 431 and 449; Macarius at Chalcedon 451); Hierocles 724; Georgius Cyprius",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the conquest of the Delta by 'Amr ibn al-'As (640-642); Greek remained the language of the tax registers until 705/706, when the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik ordered them kept in Arabic (al-Kindi). Speech: the Greek-speaking civic elite shrank by emigration (the treaty of 641 let Romans leave) and assimilation. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No town-specific evidence after 641 (papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta); later bishops of the see belong to the Coptic church and wrote Coptic, then Arabic. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The Persians under Shahrbaraz held Egypt 619-629; 'Amr ibn al-'As conquered the Delta (640-642), and under his treaty with the patriarch Cyrus (November 641) Roman troops and Greek-speaking residents who wished to could leave (they sailed in September 642); the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi). No ban on Greek speech is recorded: the evidence shows emigration and a slow shift to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Kabasa is probably an Egyptian name in Greek form, but no Egyptian original is attested; Arabic Shabas continues it.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Kabasite nome (Ptolemy 4.5.48); Roman nome coins with Greek legends; bishops at Ephesus 431/449 and Chalcedon 451",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Kabasite nome (Ptolemy 4.5.48; Pliny 5.49); see (Theopemptus at Ephesus 431 and 449; Macarius at Chalcedon 451); Hierocles 724; Georgius Cyprius",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Site identification rests on the Coptic-Arabic episcopal lists (Shabas); the town lay about 12 km north of Sais.",
   "sources": [
    "Ptolemy 4.5.48",
    "Hierocles 724",
    "Catholic Encyclopedia: Cabasa",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 5,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "c. 300 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af003",
   "latin": "Canopus",
   "greek": "Κάνωπος",
   "other_names": "Kanobos (Greek variant); Abu Qir (Arabic, from Abba Kyros, St Cyrus)",
   "modern": "Abu Qir",
   "modern_native": "أبو قير",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Abu Qir, Alexandria Governorate (partly submerged in Abu Qir Bay)",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Alexandria",
   "nome": "Menelaite (later Canopite)",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 31.317,
   "lon": 30.066,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 727097,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -300,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -300,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek shipping used the Canopic mouth from the 6th c. BC (Hdt. 2.113, 2.179); the town flourished under the early Ptolemies (temples of Osiris and Sarapis; Canopus Decree, 238 BC)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration ended with 'Amr ibn al-'As's conquest (641/642). Speech: Greek-speaking pilgrims and residents are attested at the shrine of Cyrus and John at Menouthis to the 620s; after the conquest the town shrank to the village of Abu Qir and no Greek evidence is known. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Sophronius, Miracles of Cyrus and John (c. 610-620); the Serapeum replaced by the Pachomian monastery of Metanoia after 391; no Greek inscriptions after the 7th c. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech; the town was taken with the Alexandrian region by 'Amr ibn al-'As (641/642). Earlier: the Serapeum of Kanopos destroyed under the patriarch Theophilus (391/392); the Isis shrine of Menouthis destroyed under Peter Mongos (c. 489). Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Pr-gwṭ (Egyptian)?",
   "pre_greek_note": "Demotic pr-gwṭ (Peguat), with hieroglyphic variants, is attested only in Ptolemaic texts (305-30 BC), so whether it is an older Egyptian name or a rendering of the Greek one is uncertain; an Egyptian temple town and harbour existed before the Ptolemies.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Egyptian temple town (Osiris, Sarapis) whose priests issued the Canopus Decree of 238 BC in hieroglyphic, Demotic and Greek; Greek resort town described by Strabo; Greek dedications of Ptolemy III; Greek-speaking pilgrims and residents in Sophronius' Miracles of Cyrus and John (7th c.)",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 17.1.17 (polis); Canopus Decree (OGIS 56, 238 BC); main town of the Menelaite district; no bishop of Kanopos itself is attested",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Strabo 17.1.18 names a separate city of Menelaos near Kanopos, which gave the Menelaite nome its name; the late Roman see of the Menelaites is linked with Schedia in the episcopal lists (separate entry). The emporion of Thonis-Herakleion nearby is listed among the rejected places.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 17.1.17-18",
    "Hdt. 2.113, 2.179",
    "OGIS 56",
    "Goddio & Fabre (eds.), Egypt's Sunken Treasures (2008)",
    "Sophronius, Miracles of Cyrus and John"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 6,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "c. 325 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af018",
   "latin": "Cleopatris (Delta)",
   "greek": "Κλεοπατρίς",
   "other_names": "Sirsina (Arabic, the identified site)",
   "modern": "Sirsina",
   "modern_native": "سرسنا",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Sirsina (Sarsina), Menoufia Governorate (identification from the episcopal lists)",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Menoufia",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 30.55,
   "lon": 30.95,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 325,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     325,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "first attested as a see in the Melitian list of 325 (Athan. Apol. c. Ar. 71); the dynastic name suggests a Ptolemaic foundation or renaming, which is not documented",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the conquest of the Delta by 'Amr ibn al-'As (640-642); Greek remained the language of the tax registers until 705/706, when the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik ordered them kept in Arabic (al-Kindi). Speech: the Greek-speaking civic elite shrank by emigration (the treaty of 641 let Romans leave) and assimilation. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No town-specific evidence after 641 (papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta); later bishops of the see belong to the Coptic church and wrote Coptic, then Arabic. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The Persians under Shahrbaraz held Egypt 619-629; 'Amr ibn al-'As conquered the Delta (640-642), and under his treaty with the patriarch Cyrus (November 641) Roman troops and Greek-speaking residents who wished to could leave (they sailed in September 642); the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi). No ban on Greek speech is recorded: the evidence shows emigration and a slow shift to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "see with bishops 325 (Isaak, Melitian list), 404 (Ofellios), 431 (Alexandros) and 449-451 (Theophilos); Hierocles",
   "status_evidence": "see 325-451 (Worp); Hierocles",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Not to be confused with Kleopatris (Arsinoe) on the Red Sea; the location at Sirsina is from the late Coptic-Arabic lists and the coordinates mark only the region.",
   "sources": [
    "Athan. Apol. c. Ar. 71",
    "Hierocles",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)",
    "Timm, Das christlich-koptische Ägypten"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 7,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "431 – c. 750",
   "period": "4 To the Arab conquest (330-642)",
   "id": "af111",
   "latin": "Coprithis",
   "greek": "Κοπρῖθις",
   "other_names": "Koprithis; Qubrit (Arabic name of the village, in Worp's list)",
   "modern": "Qubrit",
   "modern_native": "قبريط",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "the mound of Kom Qabrit by the village of Qubrit (markaz Fuwwah), Kafr el-Sheikh Governorate; the identification rests on the Arabic name",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Kafr el-Sheikh",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 31.22,
   "lon": 30.6,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 431,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     431,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "first attested as a see: bishop Silvanus at the Council of Ephesus, 431",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Known only from one bishop, in 431; no later evidence. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Bishop Silvanus (431); nothing later. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act; the western Delta passed to the Arabs in 641-642 (the treaty of Alexandria, signed by the patriarch Cyrus with 'Amr ibn al-'As). Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "see with bishop Silvanus (Silbanos) at the Council of Ephesus, 431 (Worp 1994)",
   "status_evidence": "see (Silvanus at Ephesus 431; Worp 1994)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Known as a see from a single bishop; as for the other see-only towns of the Delta, the Greek evidence is only that of its clergy. The village name Qubrit is taken to continue Koprithis.",
   "sources": [
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994), checklist of bishops of Egypt AD 325 - c. 750",
    "Acts of the Council of Ephesus (431), lists of bishops"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 8,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af025",
   "latin": "Cynopolis (Delta)",
   "greek": "Κυνῶν πόλις ἡ κάτω",
   "other_names": "Kynopolis Kato; the Busirite (episcopal lists); Bana (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Bana",
   "modern_native": "بنا",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Bana near Abusir Bana, Samannud district, Gharbia Governorate (identification from the episcopal lists)",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Gharbia",
   "nome": "Busirite",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 30.92,
   "lon": 31.22,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "nome metropolis under Rome: the Greek-speaking metropolite and gymnasial class was registered in every metropolis from AD 4/5 (boule from 200/201); no earlier town-specific Greek evidence found; Strabo 17.1.19; see 325-553 (Worp)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the conquest of the Delta by 'Amr ibn al-'As (640-642); Greek remained the language of the tax registers until 705/706, when the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik ordered them kept in Arabic (al-Kindi). Speech: the Greek-speaking civic elite shrank by emigration (the treaty of 641 let Romans leave) and assimilation. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No town-specific evidence after 641 (papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta); later bishops of the see belong to the Coptic church and wrote Coptic, then Arabic. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The Persians under Shahrbaraz held Egypt 619-629; 'Amr ibn al-'As conquered the Delta (640-642), and under his treaty with the patriarch Cyrus (November 641) Roman troops and Greek-speaking residents who wished to could leave (they sailed in September 642); the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi). No ban on Greek speech is recorded: the evidence shows emigration and a slow shift to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "city of the Busirite nome (Strabo 17.1.19); bishops from 325 (Hermaion and Harpokration, Melitian list) to 553 (Sergios)",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 17.1.19; Hierocles (Aegyptus: 'Kyno'); see 325-553 (Worp)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Hierocles lists Kyno and Busiris as two separate cities of Egypt, and Worp keeps their bishops apart, so they are two towns about 2 km apart (Bana and Abusir Bana); some bishops 'of Kynopolis' cannot be told apart from those of Kynopolis in Middle Egypt.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 17.1.19",
    "Athan. Apol. c. Ar. 71",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 9,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "c. 431 – c. 750",
   "period": "4 To the Arab conquest (330-642)",
   "id": "af021",
   "latin": "Elearchia",
   "greek": "Ἑλεαρχία",
   "other_names": "al-Basrud (Arabic, episcopal lists); al-Basrud (Arabic name in Worp's list; village not found)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "the marshes of the northern Delta (Boukolia), probably Kafr el-Sheikh Governorate; Worp's al-Basrud not found",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Kafr el-Sheikh",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 31.3,
   "lon": 30.85,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 431,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     431,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "first attested as a see in 431 (Isaak at Ephesus)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the conquest of the Delta by 'Amr ibn al-'As (640-642); Greek remained the language of the tax registers until 705/706, when the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik ordered them kept in Arabic (al-Kindi). Speech: the Greek-speaking civic elite shrank by emigration (the treaty of 641 let Romans leave) and assimilation. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No town-specific evidence after 641 (papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta); later bishops of the see belong to the Coptic church and wrote Coptic, then Arabic. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The Persians under Shahrbaraz held Egypt 619-629; 'Amr ibn al-'As conquered the Delta (640-642), and under his treaty with the patriarch Cyrus (November 641) Roman troops and Greek-speaking residents who wished to could leave (they sailed in September 642); the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi). No ban on Greek speech is recorded: the evidence shows emigration and a slow shift to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "see with bishops Isaak (431-449) and perhaps Papas (459); Georgius Cyprius",
   "status_evidence": "see 431-459 (Worp); Georgius Cyprius (Aegyptus II)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "The name means 'marsh district', and the see may have been the rural district of the Boukolia marshes rather than a town; bishops of Elearchia are attested 431-459.",
   "sources": [
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)",
    "Georgius Cyprius",
    "Catholic-Hierarchy: Elearchia"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 10,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af012",
   "latin": "Gynaecopolis",
   "greek": "Γυναικόπολις",
   "other_names": "Per-nebet-Imau (Egyptian)?",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "probably at or near Kom el-Hisn, Kom Hamada district, Beheira Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Beheira",
   "nome": "Gynaikopolite",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 30.794,
   "lon": 30.6,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "nome metropolis under Rome: the Greek-speaking metropolite and gymnasial class was registered in every metropolis from AD 4/5 (boule from 200/201); no earlier town-specific Greek evidence found; metropolis of the Gynaikopolite nome (Strabo 17.1.22; Ptolemy 4.5); Hadrianic nome coins",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the conquest of the Delta by 'Amr ibn al-'As (640-642); Greek remained the language of the tax registers until 705/706, when the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik ordered them kept in Arabic (al-Kindi). Speech: the Greek-speaking civic elite shrank by emigration (the treaty of 641 let Romans leave) and assimilation. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No town-specific evidence after 641 (papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta); later bishops of the see belong to the Coptic church and wrote Coptic, then Arabic. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The Persians under Shahrbaraz held Egypt 619-629; 'Amr ibn al-'As conquered the Delta (640-642), and under his treaty with the patriarch Cyrus (November 641) Roman troops and Greek-speaking residents who wished to could leave (they sailed in September 642); the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi). No ban on Greek speech is recorded: the evidence shows emigration and a slow shift to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Per-nebet-Imau ('house of the lady of Imau') is proposed as its Egyptian name; Kom el-Hisn is ancient Imau.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Gynaikopolite nome (Strabo 17.1.22; Ptolemy 4.5); Greek city name; Roman nome coins of Hadrian",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Gynaikopolite nome (Strabo 17.1.22; Ptolemy 4.5); Hadrianic nome coins",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "No bishop is attested; the site may be Kom el-Hisn, which others identify as Momemphis.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 17.1.22",
    "Ptolemy 4.5",
    "Wikipedia: Gynaecopolis",
    "Calderini-Daris, Dizionario"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 11,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af006",
   "latin": "Hermopolis Parva (Lower Egypt)",
   "greek": "Ἑρμούπολις ἡ μικρά",
   "other_names": "Hermopolis Mikra (Greek); Ptimenhor (Coptic); Damanhur (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Damanhur",
   "modern_native": "دمنهور",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Damanhur, Beheira Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Beheira",
   "nome": "Hermopolite (Lower Egypt)",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 31.034,
   "lon": 30.468,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 727123,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "nome metropolis under Rome: the Greek-speaking metropolite and gymnasial class was registered in every metropolis from AD 4/5 (boule from 200/201); no earlier town-specific Greek evidence found; Strabo 17.1.22; Ptolemy 4.5; see from 325 (Agathammon) to 689 (Zacharias), also styled 'the chora of the Alexandrians'; Dracontius, bishop 354-362 (Athanasius' Letter to Dracontius); Hierocles",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the conquest of the Delta by 'Amr ibn al-'As (640-642); Greek remained the language of the tax registers until 705/706, when the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik ordered them kept in Arabic (al-Kindi). Speech: the Greek-speaking civic elite shrank by emigration (the treaty of 641 let Romans leave) and assimilation. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No town-specific evidence after 641 (papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta); later bishops of the see belong to the Coptic church and wrote Coptic, then Arabic. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The Persians under Shahrbaraz held Egypt 619-629; 'Amr ibn al-'As conquered the Delta (640-642), and under his treaty with the patriarch Cyrus (November 641) Roman troops and Greek-speaking residents who wished to could leave (they sailed in September 642); the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi). No ban on Greek speech is recorded: the evidence shows emigration and a slow shift to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "Pa-dmi-n-Hor (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "Egyptian pꜣ-dmj-n-Ḥr.w, 'the town of Horus', continued by Coptic Ptimenhor and Arabic Damanhur; capital of the 7th Lower Egyptian nome.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Greek city name and civic status in Strabo; Roman metropolis with gymnasial class; Greek-writing bishops from 325 (Agathammon) to 689, among them Dracontius, c. 354, correspondent of Athanasius",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 17.1.22; Ptolemy 4.5; see from 325 (Agathammon) to 689 (Zacharias), also styled 'the chora of the Alexandrians'; Dracontius, bishop 354-362 (Athanasius' Letter to Dracontius); Hierocles",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The see was also called 'the chora of the Alexandrians', since the district belonged to Alexandria's territory.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 17.1.22",
    "Athanasius, Ep. ad Dracontium",
    "Timm, Das christlich-koptische Ägypten",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 12,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af010",
   "latin": "Metelis",
   "greek": "Μέτηλις",
   "other_names": "Fuwwa? (Arabic)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "unlocated in the north-west Delta on the Bolbitine (Rosetta) branch; identified by some with Fuwwa, Kafr el-Sheikh Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Kafr el-Sheikh",
   "nome": "Metelite",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 31.2,
   "lon": 30.55,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": 727163,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "nome metropolis under Rome: the Greek-speaking metropolite and gymnasial class was registered in every metropolis from AD 4/5 (boule from 200/201); no earlier town-specific Greek evidence found; metropolis of the Metelite nome (Ptolemy 4.5); see from 325 (Kronios) to 743 (Victor); Hierocles",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the conquest of the Delta by 'Amr ibn al-'As (640-642); Greek remained the language of the tax registers until 705/706, when the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik ordered them kept in Arabic (al-Kindi). Speech: the Greek-speaking civic elite shrank by emigration (the treaty of 641 let Romans leave) and assimilation. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No town-specific evidence after 641 (papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta); later bishops of the see belong to the Coptic church and wrote Coptic, then Arabic. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The Persians under Shahrbaraz held Egypt 619-629; 'Amr ibn al-'As conquered the Delta (640-642), and under his treaty with the patriarch Cyrus (November 641) Roman troops and Greek-speaking residents who wished to could leave (they sailed in September 642); the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi). No ban on Greek speech is recorded: the evidence shows emigration and a slow shift to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Metelite nome (Ptolemy 4.5); Roman nome coins; bishops from 325 (Kronios, Melitian list) to 743",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Metelite nome (Ptolemy 4.5); see from 325 (Kronios) to 743 (Victor); Hierocles",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The site is uncertain (Fuwwa and the area of Rosetta have been proposed); the coordinates mark the region only.",
   "sources": [
    "Ptolemy 4.5",
    "Athan. Apol. c. Ar. 71 (Melitian list)",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)",
    "Timm, Das christlich-koptische Ägypten"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 13,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af013",
   "latin": "Momemphis",
   "greek": "Μώμεμφις",
   "other_names": "",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "unlocated, west of the Canopic branch near Lake Mareotis, Beheira Governorate (Kom el-Hisn has been proposed)",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Beheira",
   "nome": "Momemphite",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 30.8,
   "lon": 30.55,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": 727165,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "nome metropolis under Rome: the Greek-speaking metropolite and gymnasial class was registered in every metropolis from AD 4/5 (boule from 200/201); no earlier town-specific Greek evidence found; metropolis of the Momemphite nome (Strabo 17.1.22-23; Ptolemy 4.5)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the conquest of the Delta by 'Amr ibn al-'As (640-642); Greek remained the language of the tax registers until 705/706, when the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik ordered them kept in Arabic (al-Kindi). Speech: the Greek-speaking civic elite shrank by emigration (the treaty of 641 let Romans leave) and assimilation. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No town-specific evidence after 641 (papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta); later bishops of the see belong to the Coptic church and wrote Coptic, then Arabic. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The Persians under Shahrbaraz held Egypt 619-629; 'Amr ibn al-'As conquered the Delta (640-642), and under his treaty with the patriarch Cyrus (November 641) Roman troops and Greek-speaking residents who wished to could leave (they sailed in September 642); the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi). No ban on Greek speech is recorded: the evidence shows emigration and a slow shift to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "An Egyptian town before the Greeks: scene of Amasis' victory over Apries' Greek and Carian mercenaries (Hdt. 2.163, 2.169).",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Momemphite nome (Strabo 17.1.22-23; Ptolemy 4.5)",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Momemphite nome (Strabo 17.1.22-23; Ptolemy 4.5)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Evidence for a Greek-speaking civic body is only the general one for nome metropoleis; no bishop or local Greek document is known.",
   "sources": [
    "Hdt. 2.163, 2.169",
    "Strabo 17.1.22-23",
    "Ptolemy 4.5",
    "Calderini-Daris, Dizionario"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 14,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "c. 620 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "1 Before Alexander (c. 640-332 BC)",
   "id": "af005",
   "latin": "Naucratis",
   "greek": "Ναύκρατις",
   "other_names": "Pr-mryt? and Nwkrṯ (Egyptian, Naukratis stela of Nectanebo I)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Kom Ge'if, between el-Nibeira and el-Niqrash, Kom Hamada district, Beheira Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Beheira",
   "nome": "Saite (polis territory)",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 30.902,
   "lon": 30.593,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 727169,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -620,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -620,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek traders settled under Psamtik I: earliest Greek pottery c. 620-610 BC; Amasis (570-526) made it the only Greek emporion and polis of Egypt, where Chios, Teos, Phokaia, Klazomenai, Rhodes, Knidos, Halikarnassos, Phaselis and Mytilene founded the Hellenion and Aigina, Samos and Miletus their own sanctuaries (Hdt. 2.178-179); Strabo 17.1.18 makes it Milesian",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "The city declined with the silting of the Canopic branch and the rise of Alexandria, but was still a see (bishop Isaias, 458/459) and is listed by Hierocles; the site was later deserted and dug away for sebakh, at an unknown date. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek writers of the Roman period (Athenaeus, Julius Pollux); a bishop in 458/459 (Isaias); late Roman pottery on the site; no evidence after the 7th c. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: long decline; the region was taken by 'Amr ibn al-'As (641/642). Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Ionian, Dorian and Aeolian traders, Milesians first, under Psamtik I; status granted by Amasis",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus and others (the Hellenion cities: Chios, Teos, Phokaia, Klazomenai, Rhodes, Knidos, Halikarnassos, Phaselis, Mytilene; also Aigina and Samos)",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "Pr-mryt (Egyptian)?",
   "pre_greek_note": "The Naukratis stela of Nectanebo I (380 BC) names Pr-mryt beside Nwkrṯ (a rendering of the Greek name); whether Pr-mryt was an older Egyptian town, a district or simply the Egyptian name of Naukratis is debated.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "yes",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Egyptian temple of Amun-Ra and Egyptian residents in the southern town from the 4th c. BC (stela of Nectanebo I, 380 BC; British Museum excavations); the Greek citizen body kept its own laws into the Roman period",
   "status_evidence": "polis in IACP (Egypt chapter); Hdt. 2.178-179; one of the three Greek poleis of Ptolemaic Egypt; its laws used for Antinoopolis (130); see (Isaias, 458/459); Hierocles",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Its polis status before Amasis is debated; the archaeological start (c. 620 BC) is earlier than Herodotus' account.",
   "sources": [
    "Hdt. 2.178-179",
    "Strabo 17.1.18",
    "IACP (2004), Egypt",
    "Möller, Naukratis (2000)",
    "Villing et al., Naukratis: Greeks in Egypt (British Museum, 2013-)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 15,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "30 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af002",
   "latin": "Nicopolis (near Alexandria)",
   "greek": "Νικόπολις",
   "other_names": "Parembole (the legionary camp)",
   "modern": "Alexandria (Ramleh district)",
   "modern_native": "الرمل، الإسكندرية",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Ramleh / Mustafa Kamel area, eastern Alexandria, Alexandria Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Alexandria",
   "nome": "none (Alexandrian territory)",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 31.245,
   "lon": 29.96,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -30,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -30,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "founded by Octavian on the site of his victory over Antony, 30 BC, with games (Cass. Dio 51.18.1; Strabo 17.1.10 calls it a settlement 'not smaller than a city', 30 stades from Alexandria)",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "No separate civic life is attested after the early empire: Nikopolis was chiefly the legionary camp of Egypt (Legio XXII Deiotariana and III Cyrenaica, later II Traiana), with a Greek-speaking civil settlement that merged with Alexandria's eastern suburbs; after the conquest by 'Amr ibn al-'As (641/642) it is not attested separately. As a suburb it may have shared Alexandria's later Greek-speaking Melkite community, but nothing is recorded. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Strabo 17.1.10; Cass. Dio 51.18; Roman military inscriptions from the camp (Latin); no later separate record. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act for Nikopolis itself; the Alexandrian region was taken by 'Amr ibn al-'As (641/642). Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Roman foundation",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Octavian (Augustus)",
   "founder_group": "Roman emperors to 330",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Cass. Dio 51.18.1 (city founded by Octavian); Strabo 17.1.10; games; later the legionary camp",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Probably never a self-governing polis: it functioned as a suburb of Alexandria and the main legionary base of Egypt; included only because Dio calls it a city founded by Octavian. The soldiers spoke Latin and do not count; the civilian population was Alexandrian and Greek-speaking.",
   "sources": [
    "Cass. Dio 51.18.1",
    "Strabo 17.1.10",
    "Fraser, Ptolemaic Alexandria (1972)",
    "Wikipedia: Nicopolis (Alexandria)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 16,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af014",
   "latin": "Nikiou (Nicius)",
   "greek": "Νικίου",
   "other_names": "Prosopis? (late sources); Pshati (Coptic); Niqyus (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Zawyet Razin (Ibshadi)",
   "modern_native": "زاوية رزين",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Zawyet Razin and Ibshadi, Menouf district, Menoufia Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Menoufia",
   "nome": "Prosopite",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 30.45,
   "lon": 30.87,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 727174,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "nome metropolis under Rome: the Greek-speaking metropolite and gymnasial class was registered in every metropolis from AD 4/5 (boule from 200/201); no earlier town-specific Greek evidence found; metropolis of the Prosopite nome; see from 325 (Herakleides, Melitian list) to c. 700 (Menas); Hierocles; Georgius Cyprius; John of Nikiou, bishop c. 690",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the conquest of the Delta by 'Amr ibn al-'As (640-642); Greek remained the language of the tax registers until 705/706, when the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik ordered them kept in Arabic (al-Kindi). Speech: the Greek-speaking civic elite shrank by emigration (the treaty of 641 let Romans leave) and assimilation. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No town-specific evidence after 641 (papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta); later bishops of the see belong to the Coptic church and wrote Coptic, then Arabic. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "Taken by the army of 'Amr ibn al-'As in May 641 after the commander Domentianus fled: John of Nikiou (ch. 118) says the conquerors killed all they found in the streets and churches; battle of Nikiou in 646 against Manuel's force. No named act ended Greek speech afterwards. Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Meeks derived the name from an Egyptian Pr-Niȝk; a Greek origin (from Nikias) is also proposed. Neither is secure.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Prosopite nome; Roman fort; bishops from 325 (Melitian list) to John of Nikiou, whose chronicle (c. 690s) was probably written at least partly in Greek",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Prosopite nome; see from 325 (Herakleides, Melitian list) to c. 700 (Menas); Hierocles; Georgius Cyprius; John of Nikiou, bishop c. 690",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "A separate city of Prosopis is attested only in late sources and may never have existed; Nikiou was the nome capital.",
   "sources": [
    "John of Nikiou, Chronicle 118-120",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)",
    "Timm, Das christlich-koptische Ägypten",
    "Wikipedia: Zawyat Razin"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 17,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af016",
   "latin": "Onuphis",
   "greek": "Ὄνουφις",
   "other_names": "Panouf Res (Coptic)?; Menouf (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Menouf",
   "modern_native": "منوف",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Menouf (Manuf al-Ulya), Menoufia Governorate (identification from the episcopal lists)",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Menoufia",
   "nome": "Onouphite",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 30.465,
   "lon": 30.933,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "nome metropolis under Rome: the Greek-speaking metropolite and gymnasial class was registered in every metropolis from AD 4/5 (boule from 200/201); no earlier town-specific Greek evidence found; metropolis of the Onouphite nome (Ptolemy 4.5); see 362-c. 700; Hierocles",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the conquest of the Delta by 'Amr ibn al-'As (640-642); Greek remained the language of the tax registers until 705/706, when the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik ordered them kept in Arabic (al-Kindi). Speech: the Greek-speaking civic elite shrank by emigration (the treaty of 641 let Romans leave) and assimilation. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No town-specific evidence after 641 (papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta); later bishops of the see belong to the Coptic church and wrote Coptic, then Arabic. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The Persians under Shahrbaraz held Egypt 619-629; 'Amr ibn al-'As conquered the Delta (640-642), and under his treaty with the patriarch Cyrus (November 641) Roman troops and Greek-speaking residents who wished to could leave (they sailed in September 642); the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi). No ban on Greek speech is recorded: the evidence shows emigration and a slow shift to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Herodotus 2.166 already names the Onouphite district.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Onouphite nome (Hdt. 2.166; Ptolemy 4.5); bishops 362 (Adelphios I), 431 (Adelphios II) and c. 700 (Ptolemaios); Hierocles",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Onouphite nome (Ptolemy 4.5); see 362-c. 700; Hierocles",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The identification with Menouf (Manuf al-Ulya) comes from the Coptic-Arabic episcopal lists and is not certain; Onouphis is a Greek form of an unattested Egyptian name.",
   "sources": [
    "Hdt. 2.166",
    "Ptolemy 4.5",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 18,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af024",
   "latin": "Pachnemunis",
   "greek": "Παχνεμοῦνις",
   "other_names": "Pachnamounis, Pachnemoes (Greek variants)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "unlocated, on the east side of the former Lake of Buto near Lake Burullus, Kafr el-Sheikh Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Kafr el-Sheikh",
   "nome": "Sebennyte (Lower)",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 31.1,
   "lon": 30.9,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": 727183,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "nome metropolis under Rome: the Greek-speaking metropolite and gymnasial class was registered in every metropolis from AD 4/5 (boule from 200/201); no earlier town-specific Greek evidence found; nome metropolis (Ptolemy 4.5); see (Ammonios 353-362); Hierocles",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the conquest of the Delta by 'Amr ibn al-'As (640-642); Greek remained the language of the tax registers until 705/706, when the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik ordered them kept in Arabic (al-Kindi). Speech: the Greek-speaking civic elite shrank by emigration (the treaty of 641 let Romans leave) and assimilation. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No town-specific evidence after 641 (papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta); later bishops of the see belong to the Coptic church and wrote Coptic, then Arabic. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The Persians under Shahrbaraz held Egypt 619-629; 'Amr ibn al-'As conquered the Delta (640-642), and under his treaty with the patriarch Cyrus (November 641) Roman troops and Greek-speaking residents who wished to could leave (they sailed in September 642); the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi). No ban on Greek speech is recorded: the evidence shows emigration and a slow shift to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the lower Sebennyte nome (Ptolemy 4.5); bishop Ammonios (353-362)",
   "status_evidence": "nome metropolis (Ptolemy 4.5); see (Ammonios 353-362); Hierocles",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Location unknown; the coordinates mark the region only.",
   "sources": [
    "Ptolemy 4.5",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)",
    "Wikipedia: Pachnamunis"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 19,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "c. 330 – c. 750",
   "period": "4 To the Arab conquest (330-642)",
   "id": "af020",
   "latin": "Paralus",
   "greek": "Πάραλος",
   "other_names": "al-Burullus (Arabic)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "submerged in Lake Burullus near Burg el-Burullus, Kafr el-Sheikh Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Kafr el-Sheikh",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 31.55,
   "lon": 30.95,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 330,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     330,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "first attested as a see before 339 (Nonnos, Athanasius' writings)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the conquest of the Delta by 'Amr ibn al-'As (640-642); Greek remained the language of the tax registers until 705/706, when the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik ordered them kept in Arabic (al-Kindi). Speech: the Greek-speaking civic elite shrank by emigration (the treaty of 641 let Romans leave) and assimilation. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No town-specific evidence after 641 (papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta); later bishops of the see belong to the Coptic church and wrote Coptic, then Arabic. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The Persians under Shahrbaraz held Egypt 619-629; 'Amr ibn al-'As conquered the Delta (640-642), and under his treaty with the patriarch Cyrus (November 641) Roman troops and Greek-speaking residents who wished to could leave (they sailed in September 642); the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi). No ban on Greek speech is recorded: the evidence shows emigration and a slow shift to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "see with bishops from before 339 (Nonnos) to c. 590 (Ioannes), among them Athanasios at Ephesus 431 and Pasmeios at Chalcedon 451",
   "status_evidence": "see before 339 to c. 590 (Worp); Georgius Cyprius",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Only bishops attest the town; the Arabic name of the lake (Burullus) continues Paralos.",
   "sources": [
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)",
    "Wikipedia: Paralus (Egypt)",
    "Timm, Das christlich-koptische Ägypten"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 20,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "c. 325 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af022",
   "latin": "Phragonis",
   "greek": "Φραγωνίς",
   "other_names": "Alphokranon (episcopal lists); al-Farragin (Arabic, episcopal lists); al-Farragun, older Faragunin (markaz Sidi Salim)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "near al-Farragun (older Faragunin), markaz Sidi Salim, Kafr el-Sheikh Governorate; the point is Sidi Salim",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 31.27,
   "lon": 30.79,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": 727201,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 325,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     325,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "first attested as a see in the Melitian list of 325",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the conquest of the Delta by 'Amr ibn al-'As (640-642); Greek remained the language of the tax registers until 705/706, when the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik ordered them kept in Arabic (al-Kindi). Speech: the Greek-speaking civic elite shrank by emigration (the treaty of 641 let Romans leave) and assimilation. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No town-specific evidence after 641 (papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta); later bishops of the see belong to the Coptic church and wrote Coptic, then Arabic. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The Persians under Shahrbaraz held Egypt 619-629; 'Amr ibn al-'As conquered the Delta (640-642), and under his treaty with the patriarch Cyrus (November 641) Roman troops and Greek-speaking residents who wished to could leave (they sailed in September 642); the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi). No ban on Greek speech is recorded: the evidence shows emigration and a slow shift to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "see with bishops 325 (Harpokration, Melitian list), 362 (Agathos), 431 (Paulos), 451-458 (Nestorios)",
   "status_evidence": "see 325-458 (Worp); Georgius Cyprius (Aegyptus II)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "The site is unknown; GCatholic's identification with Tell el-Fara'in would make it Buto, which had its own bishops, so it is doubtful.",
   "sources": [
    "Athan. Apol. c. Ar. 71",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)",
    "GCatholic: Phragonis"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 21,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "c. 325 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af026",
   "latin": "Phthenegys",
   "greek": "Φθενέγυς",
   "other_names": "Phthenetou (episcopal lists); Danatu (Arabic, episcopal lists); Phthenetou (Worp); Danatu (Arabic name in Worp's list; village not found)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "the Phthenotes nome near Buto, Kafr el-Sheikh Governorate; Worp's Danatu not found",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Kafr el-Sheikh",
   "nome": "Phthenote",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 31.2,
   "lon": 30.75,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 325,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     325,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "first attested as a see in the Melitian list of 325",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the conquest of the Delta by 'Amr ibn al-'As (640-642); Greek remained the language of the tax registers until 705/706, when the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik ordered them kept in Arabic (al-Kindi). Speech: the Greek-speaking civic elite shrank by emigration (the treaty of 641 let Romans leave) and assimilation. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No town-specific evidence after 641 (papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta); later bishops of the see belong to the Coptic church and wrote Coptic, then Arabic. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The Persians under Shahrbaraz held Egypt 619-629; 'Amr ibn al-'As conquered the Delta (640-642), and under his treaty with the patriarch Cyrus (November 641) Roman troops and Greek-speaking residents who wished to could leave (they sailed in September 642); the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi). No ban on Greek speech is recorded: the evidence shows emigration and a slow shift to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "see with bishops 325 (Pininouthes, Melitian list), 343 (Agapios) and 451 (Herakleios)",
   "status_evidence": "see 325-451 (Worp)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Ptolemy (4.5) calls Bouto the metropolis of the Phthenote nome; Phthenegys (Phthenetou) is known only as a see, whose bishops Worp lists apart from those of Bouto, with overlapping dates. It is kept as a second town of the same district; if it was only a late name for Bouto, it belongs under Buto.",
   "sources": [
    "Athan. Apol. c. Ar. 71",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 22,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "c. 300 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af007",
   "latin": "Sais",
   "greek": "Σάϊς",
   "other_names": "Sai (Coptic); Sa el-Hagar (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Sa el-Hagar",
   "modern_native": "صا الحجر",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Sa el-Hagar, Basyoun district, Gharbia Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Gharbia",
   "nome": "Saite",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 30.965,
   "lon": 30.768,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 727217,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -300,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -300,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek mercenaries served the Saite kings here in the 6th c. BC (Hdt. 2.163), but a Greek-speaking civic body is first likely in the Ptolemaic metropolis of the Saite nome",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the conquest of the Delta by 'Amr ibn al-'As (640-642); Greek remained the language of the tax registers until 705/706, when the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik ordered them kept in Arabic (al-Kindi). Speech: the Greek-speaking civic elite shrank by emigration (the treaty of 641 let Romans leave) and assimilation. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No town-specific evidence after 641 (papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta); later bishops of the see belong to the Coptic church and wrote Coptic, then Arabic. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The Persians under Shahrbaraz held Egypt 619-629; 'Amr ibn al-'As conquered the Delta (640-642), and under his treaty with the patriarch Cyrus (November 641) Roman troops and Greek-speaking residents who wished to could leave (they sailed in September 642); the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi). No ban on Greek speech is recorded: the evidence shows emigration and a slow shift to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Sau (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "Capital of the 26th Dynasty; Egyptian Zau/Sau, Coptic Sai.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Saite nome with Roman gymnasial class and nome coinage with Greek legends; bishops from before 347 to c. 720 (Adelphios at Ephesus 431)",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Saite nome (Strabo 17.1.18; Ptolemy 4.5); Roman nome coins; see from before 347 to c. 720; Hierocles",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The Greek date is set at the Ptolemaic metropolis; the 6th-c. Greek mercenaries were a garrison and do not count.",
   "sources": [
    "Hdt. 2.163, 2.169-170",
    "Strabo 17.1.18",
    "Wilson, The Survey of Sais (2006)",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 23,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "c. 250 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af017",
   "latin": "Schedia",
   "greek": "Σχεδία",
   "other_names": "Menelais? (episcopal lists); Kom el-Giza (Arabic, the site)",
   "modern": "Kom el-Giza",
   "modern_native": "كوم الجيزة",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Kom el-Giza near Kafr el-Dawwar, Beheira Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Beheira",
   "nome": "Menelaite",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 31.154,
   "lon": 30.167,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 727221,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -250,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -250,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Ptolemaic river port and toll station where the Alexandria canal met the Canopic branch (Strabo 17.1.16); Greek dedication of a Jewish prayer-house for Ptolemy III and Berenike (246-221 BC)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Its civic status is attested only through bishops of 325 and 362; the river port declined with the Canopic branch, but no abandonment at a known date is recorded. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "bishops 325 (Athas, Melitian list) and 362 (Agathodaimon); late Roman pottery on the site; no later Greek evidence. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: decline of the river port; the region was taken by 'Amr ibn al-'As (641/642). Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 17.1.16 (toll station and naval station); Greek synagogue dedication (CIJ 1440 / JIGRE 22); see of 'Schedia or Menelais' with bishops 325 and 362 (Worp)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Its city status is doubtful: Strabo calls it a settlement and toll station, and the see of the Menelaites is only tentatively placed here; the residents were Greek-speaking (Greeks and Jews) and probably Egyptian as well.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 17.1.16",
    "Horbury & Noy, Jewish Inscriptions of Graeco-Roman Egypt 22",
    "Bergmann & Heinzelmann, Schedia project reports",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 24,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "c. 300 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af004",
   "latin": "Taposiris Magna",
   "greek": "Ταπόσιρις ἡ μεγάλη",
   "other_names": "Taphosiris (Procopius); Abusir (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Abusir",
   "modern_native": "أبو صير",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Abusir, Borg el-Arab district, Alexandria Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Alexandria",
   "nome": "Mareotes",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 30.946,
   "lon": 29.517,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 727241,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -300,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -300,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Ptolemaic temple town of Osiris on the ridge between Lake Mareotis and the sea, built up from the early 3rd c. BC (temple, 'lighthouse' tower-tomb); Strabo 17.1.14",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Procopius calls it a city and says Justinian built residences for the magistrates and baths there (Aed. 6.1.12-13), so it was a local seat in the 6th c.; after the Arab conquest it declined to a village, and no Greek evidence is known. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Procopius, Aed. 6.1.12-13; late Roman church in the temple enclosure; no Greek evidence after the 7th c. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: taken with the Mareotis by 'Amr ibn al-'As (641/642); the town declined afterwards. Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The older Egyptian town of the area was Plinthine, 1 km away; 'Abusir' and 'Taposiris' both render a name containing Osiris, but the town's own Egyptian name is not attested.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Ptolemaic temple of Osiris with Egyptian cult beside a town, harbour and baths with Greek inscriptions; Greek-speaking population of the Mareotis vineyard district",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 17.1.14; Ptolemy 4.5; Procopius, Aed. 6.1.12-13 ('a city one day's journey from Alexandria'; magistrates' residences and baths built by Justinian)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Procopius calls it a city, but no boule, gymnasium or bishop is attested; it was probably the 6th-c. seat of the Mareotis, which was otherwise administered from Alexandria.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 17.1.14",
    "Procopius, Aed. 6.1.12-13",
    "Vörös, Taposiris Magna (2001)",
    "Wikipedia: Taposiris Magna"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 25,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af023",
   "latin": "Taua",
   "greek": "Ταυά",
   "other_names": "Tauthites (district); Tuwwa (Arabic, episcopal lists); Tuwwa (Arabic name in Worp's list; village not found)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "the Phthemphuthite nome in the central Delta, between Tanta and Kafr el-Zayat (Gharbia Governorate); Worp's Tuwwa not found",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Gharbia",
   "nome": "Phthemphouthite",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 30.85,
   "lon": 30.9,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "nome metropolis under Rome: the Greek-speaking metropolite and gymnasial class was registered in every metropolis from AD 4/5 (boule from 200/201); no earlier town-specific Greek evidence found; metropolis of the Phthemphouthite nome (Ptolemy 4.5); see 325-459 (Worp); Hierocles",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the conquest of the Delta by 'Amr ibn al-'As (640-642); Greek remained the language of the tax registers until 705/706, when the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik ordered them kept in Arabic (al-Kindi). Speech: the Greek-speaking civic elite shrank by emigration (the treaty of 641 let Romans leave) and assimilation. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No town-specific evidence after 641 (papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta); later bishops of the see belong to the Coptic church and wrote Coptic, then Arabic. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The Persians under Shahrbaraz held Egypt 619-629; 'Amr ibn al-'As conquered the Delta (640-642), and under his treaty with the patriarch Cyrus (November 641) Roman troops and Greek-speaking residents who wished to could leave (they sailed in September 642); the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi). No ban on Greek speech is recorded: the evidence shows emigration and a slow shift to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Phthemphouthite nome (Ptolemy 4.5); bishops 325 (Tiberios), 431-451 (Isaak), 458-459",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Phthemphouthite nome (Ptolemy 4.5); see 325-459 (Worp); Hierocles",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "The site (Arabic Tuwwa) is not securely located.",
   "sources": [
    "Ptolemy 4.5",
    "Hierocles",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 26,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "c. 100 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af019",
   "latin": "Terenuthis",
   "greek": "Τερενοῦθις",
   "other_names": "Terenouti (Coptic); Tarnut, al-Tarrana (Arabic)",
   "modern": "El-Tarrana",
   "modern_native": "الطرانة",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "El-Tarrana and the necropolis of Kom Abu Billo, Menoufia Governorate (west bank of the Rosetta branch)",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Menoufia",
   "nome": "Prosopite (border of the Letopolite)",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 30.432,
   "lon": 30.825,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 100,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     100,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek-speaking residents shown by the Greek funerary stelae of Kom Abu Billo (1st-4th c. AD, most 2nd-3rd c.); the town is first attested as a see in 404",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the conquest of the Delta by 'Amr ibn al-'As (640-642); Greek remained the language of the tax registers until 705/706, when the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik ordered them kept in Arabic (al-Kindi). Speech: the Greek-speaking civic elite shrank by emigration (the treaty of 641 let Romans leave) and assimilation. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No town-specific evidence after 641 (papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta); later bishops of the see belong to the Coptic church and wrote Coptic, then Arabic. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech; the army of 'Amr ibn al-'As passed and fought here on its march on Alexandria (641). Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Ta-Renenutet (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "'Domain of Renenutet'; cemeteries from the Old Kingdom on.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "hundreds of funerary stelae of residents with Greek epitaphs (some Demotic), 1st-4th c. AD; Ptolemaic temples of Hathor and Apollo; bishops from 404",
   "status_evidence": "see: Arsinthios 404, Eulogios at Ephesus 431, Ioannes 689, Petros c. 743 (Worp); Greek stelae (Hooper 1961; Abd el-Al et al. 1985)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Before late antiquity Terenouthis was a large village rather than a city; it is included because it became a see and its residents wrote Greek epitaphs.",
   "sources": [
    "Hooper, Funerary Stelae from Kom Abou Billou (1961)",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)",
    "Wikipedia: Terenuthis",
    "Timm, Das christlich-koptische Ägypten"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 27,
   "list_group": "Alexandria and the western Delta",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af015",
   "latin": "Xois",
   "greek": "Ξόϊς",
   "other_names": "Skhoou (Coptic); Sakha (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Sakha",
   "modern_native": "سخا",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Sakha, Kafr el-Sheikh district, Kafr el-Sheikh Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Kafr el-Sheikh",
   "nome": "Xoite",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 31.087,
   "lon": 30.948,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 727256,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "nome metropolis under Rome: the Greek-speaking metropolite and gymnasial class was registered in every metropolis from AD 4/5 (boule from 200/201); no earlier town-specific Greek evidence found; metropolis of the Xoite nome (Strabo 17.1.19; Ptolemy 4.5); see from before 347 to c. 700; Hierocles",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the conquest of the Delta by 'Amr ibn al-'As (640-642); Greek remained the language of the tax registers until 705/706, when the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik ordered them kept in Arabic (al-Kindi). Speech: the Greek-speaking civic elite shrank by emigration (the treaty of 641 let Romans leave) and assimilation. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No town-specific evidence after 641 (papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta); later bishops of the see belong to the Coptic church and wrote Coptic, then Arabic. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The Persians under Shahrbaraz held Egypt 619-629; 'Amr ibn al-'As conquered the Delta (640-642), and under his treaty with the patriarch Cyrus (November 641) Roman troops and Greek-speaking residents who wished to could leave (they sailed in September 642); the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi). No ban on Greek speech is recorded: the evidence shows emigration and a slow shift to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Khasu (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "Egyptian Ḫ3sww, capital of the 6th Lower Egyptian nome; Manetho's 14th Dynasty is 'Xoite'.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Xoite nome (Strabo 17.1.19; Ptolemy 4.5); Roman nome coins; bishops from before 347 to c. 700 (Makedonios at Ephesus 431)",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Xoite nome (Strabo 17.1.19; Ptolemy 4.5); see from before 347 to c. 700; Hierocles",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 17.1.19",
    "Ptolemy 4.5",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)",
    "Timm, Das christlich-koptische Ägypten"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 28,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "c. 250 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af039",
   "latin": "Athribis",
   "greek": "Ἄθριβις",
   "other_names": "Athrebi (Coptic); Atrib (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Benha",
   "modern_native": "بنها (تل أتريب)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Tell Atrib, Benha, Qalyubia Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Qalyubia",
   "nome": "Athribite",
   "ancient_region": "Augustamnica",
   "lat": 30.4704,
   "lon": 31.188,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 727078,
   "tm_geo": 369,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -250,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -250,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Ptolemaic Greek town quarter, baths and workshops of the 3rd c. BC (Mysliwiec's Polish-Egyptian excavations at Tell Atrib); Greek dedication of a prayer-house by 'the Jews in Athribis' with Ptolemaios son of Epikydes, chief of police, for a Ptolemy and Cleopatra, 2nd c. BC (OGIS 96 = CIJ II 1443 = Horbury & Noy, JIGRE 27)",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration Roman to 641 (John of Nikiu describes the Arab advance through the Athribite district), then Arab. Speech: Greek civic class not attested after the 7th c.; the Coptic see continued. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Bishops of Athribis in late antiquity and Coptic bishops later. Papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta, so private Greek documents of residents are few. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek; the town fell to 'Amr ibn al-'As in the Delta campaign of 641 (John of Nikiu). Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Hut-hery-ib (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Ptolemaic town with baths, villas and workshops making Greek-style pottery and terracottas (Polish excavations); Greek dedications of the Jewish prayer-house by the Jews of Athribis (Ptolemaic, JIGRE 27-28); Roman baths; Ammianus (22.16.6) names it among the great towns of Egypt; see",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Athribite nome; nome coins; Amm. Marc. 22.16.6; see; Hierocles 728 (Augustamnica II)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "",
   "sources": [
    "Amm. Marc. 22.16.6",
    "Mysliwiec, Tell Atrib 1985-1995",
    "John of Nikiu, Chronicle",
    "Wikipedia: Athribis"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 29,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "c. 250 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af041",
   "latin": "Bubastis",
   "greek": "Βούβαστις",
   "other_names": "Poubasti (Coptic); Basta (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Zagazig (Tell Basta)",
   "modern_native": "تل بسطة، الزقازيق",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Tell Basta, on the edge of Zagazig, Sharqia Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Sharqia",
   "nome": "Boubastite",
   "ancient_region": "Augustamnica",
   "lat": 30.572,
   "lon": 31.512,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 727088,
   "tm_geo": 462,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -250,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -250,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Ptolemaic Greek inscriptions and Greek administration of the Boubastite nome, 3rd c. BC",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration Roman to 641, then Arab. Speech: Greek civic class not attested after the 7th c.; the town declined. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Bishops Harpocration (Melitian, 325), Hermon (c. 340), Julianus (449); Coptic bishops of Basta in 1078 and 1102. Papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta, so private Greek documents of residents are few. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the treaty of Alexandria between the patriarch Cyrus and 'Amr ibn al-'As (November 641) handed Egypt to the Arabs; the Roman troops and many Greek-speaking officials and landowners left by September 642. Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Per-Bastet (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Ptolemaic Greek inscriptions (a copy of the Canopus decree, 238 BC, was found here in 2004); metropolis of the Boubastite nome; see (Harpocration 325, Hermon c. 340, Julianus at Ephesus 449)",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Boubastite nome (Hdt. 2.59, 2.137; Strabo 17.1.27); nome coins; see; Hierocles 728",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The Greek inscriptions of the Ptolemaic period are official (priestly decree); the civic class is presumed from metropolis status.",
   "sources": [
    "Hdt. 2.137-138",
    "Strabo 17.1.27",
    "Hierocles 728",
    "Wikipedia: Bubastis"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 30,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af038",
   "latin": "Busiris",
   "greek": "Βούσιρις",
   "other_names": "Pousiri (Coptic)",
   "modern": "Abusir Bana",
   "modern_native": "أبو صير بنا",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Abusir Bana, near Samannud, Gharbia Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Gharbia",
   "nome": "Busirite",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 30.9134,
   "lon": 31.2388,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 727090,
   "tm_geo": 469,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "metropolis of the Busirite nome under Rome (Strabo 17.1.19); gymnasial order of the metropoleis from AD 4/5; boule from 200/201",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration Roman to 641, then Arab. Speech: no evidence of Greek speakers after late antiquity; the village continued as Coptic and then Arabic. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Bishops Hermaeon and Athanasius (449); non-Chalcedonian (Coptic) bishops from the 8th c. Papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta, so private Greek documents of residents are few. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the treaty of Alexandria between the patriarch Cyrus and 'Amr ibn al-'As (November 641) handed Egypt to the Arabs; the Roman troops and many Greek-speaking officials and landowners left by September 642. Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "Djedu; Per-Usir (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Busirite nome; Roman nome coins; see with bishops Hermaeon and Athanasius at Ephesus 449",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Busirite nome (Hdt. 2.59; Strabo 17.1.19); nome coins under Hadrian; Hierocles (Aegyptus I); see (bishops at Ephesus 449)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Little excavated; the Greek-speaking civic class is inferred from the metropolis status.",
   "sources": [
    "Hdt. 2.59, 2.61",
    "Strabo 17.1.19",
    "Wikipedia: Busiris (Lower Egypt)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 31,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "c. 48 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af047",
   "latin": "Casium",
   "greek": "Κάσιον",
   "other_names": "Kasion (Greek); Mons Casius",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Ras el-Qasrun (El-Qals), on the spit of the Bardawil lagoon, North Sinai Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "North Sinai",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Augustamnica",
   "lat": 31.1595,
   "lon": 33.0882,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -48,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -48,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "town at the sanctuary of Zeus Kasios where Pompey was buried, 48 BC (Strabo 16.2.33; Plutarch, Pompey 80); Hadrian restored the tomb, 130",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Bishop Lampetius (431), correspondent of Isidore of Pelusium; listed by Hierocles and Georgius Cyprius; the town lay on the coast road taken by the Arabs in 639/640 and later disappeared at an unknown date. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850). Here the townspeople went over to Arabic.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Isidore of Pelusium's Greek letters to bishop Lampetius (early 5th c.); Lampetius at Ephesus 431; listed by Hierocles and Georgius Cyprius. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The coast road fell to the Arabs when 'Amr ibn al-'As marched from Palestine on Pelusium, winter 639/640 (Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam); the towns of the coast declined thereafter. Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Hierocles 727; Georgius Cyprius; see (Lampetius at Ephesus 431)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The cult of Zeus Kasios came from the Syrian coast; the population was probably mixed (Greek, Egyptian, Arab).",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 16.2.32-33",
    "Plutarch, Pompey 80",
    "Hierocles 727",
    "Catholic Encyclopedia: Casium"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 32,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 600",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af036",
   "latin": "Diospolis Inferior",
   "greek": "Διόσπολις ἡ κάτω",
   "other_names": "Diospolis Kato",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "تل البلامون",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Tell el-Balamun, north of Shirbin, Dakahlia Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Dakahlia",
   "nome": "Diospolite (Lower)",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 31.26,
   "lon": 31.57,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 727111,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 600,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     600
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "nome metropolis in the Roman period (Strabo 17.1.19; Ptolemy); gymnasial order of the metropoleis from AD 4/5",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "The town was occupied, with a paved Roman road, until about the 6th c. AD, then abandoned; the end of Greek speech there is not documented.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    500,
    700
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Spencer's excavations (British Museum) show occupation into the 6th c. AD.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town was abandoned after the 6th c.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Sma-Behdet; Paiuenamun (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "Paiuenamun ('island of Amun'), attested from the New Kingdom, survives in the modern name Tell el-Balamun.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Lower Diospolite nome (Strabo, Ptolemy); Ptolemaic and Roman town on the tell",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Diospolite nome of the Delta (Strabo 17.1.19); Hierocles (Aegyptus I: Diospolis)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Identification of Diospolis Kato with Tell el-Balamun is the usual one (Spencer).",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 17.1.19",
    "Spencer, Excavations at Tell el-Balamun (1996-2003)",
    "Wikipedia: Tell el-Balamun"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 33,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "c. 400 – c. 750",
   "period": "4 To the Arab conquest (330-642)",
   "id": "af046",
   "latin": "Gerrha",
   "greek": "Γέρρα",
   "other_names": "Skenai within and outside Gerrha (Hierocles)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "near Mahammediya, east of Pelusium, on the coast road, North Sinai Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "North Sinai",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Augustamnica",
   "lat": 31.09,
   "lon": 32.7,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 400,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     400,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "fort and road town between Pelusium and Kasion (Strabo 16.2.33); first attested as a see c. 400, when Theophilus of Alexandria sought to make the hermit Nilammon its bishop (Sozomen 8.19)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Bishops to 451 (Stephen at Chalcedon); the town lay on the coast road taken by the Arabs in 639/640 and was later abandoned to sand and marsh at an unknown date. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850). Here the townspeople went over to Arabic.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Bishops Eudaemon, Pirosus (late 4th-early 5th c.), Stephen (451); no later evidence. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The coast road fell to the Arabs when 'Amr ibn al-'As marched from Palestine on Pelusium, winter 639/640 (Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam); the towns of the coast declined thereafter. Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Hierocles 727 (Gerrha and the two Skenai); see (Stephen at Chalcedon 451; Sozomen 8.19)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Called a Greek city because the coastal road towns had no Egyptian civic base; the language of its residents is not directly attested, and Arab and Egyptian residents are likely.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 16.2.33",
    "Sozomen, HE 8.19",
    "Hierocles 727",
    "Catholic Encyclopedia: Gerrha"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 34,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af044",
   "latin": "Heliopolis",
   "greek": "Ἡλιούπολις",
   "other_names": "On (Hebrew, Coptic); Ain Shams (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Matariya and Ain Shams (Cairo)",
   "modern_native": "المطرية، عين شمس",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Tell Hisn, El-Matariya, Cairo Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Cairo",
   "nome": "Heliopolite",
   "ancient_region": "Augustamnica",
   "lat": 30.1293,
   "lon": 31.3075,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 727117,
   "tm_geo": 761,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "metropolis of the Heliopolite nome under Rome; gymnasial order of the metropoleis from AD 4/5; boule from 200/201",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: the Romans under Theodore lost the battle of Heliopolis to 'Amr ibn al-'As (July 640), and the district passed to the Arabs. Speech: the old town was small already in Strabo's day; no Greek evidence after the 7th c., and its stones were later carried off to build Cairo. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Strabo 17.1.29 found the town largely deserted; bishops of Heliopolis in the 4th-7th c. Papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta, so private Greek documents of residents are few. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "Battle of Heliopolis: 'Amr ibn al-'As defeated the Roman army under Theodore, July 640 (John of Nikiu; Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam); no named act ended Greek speech. Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Iunu (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Heliopolite nome; Greek visitors and scholars (Strabo was shown the houses of Plato and Eudoxus); see; Hierocles",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Heliopolite nome; nome coins; see; Hierocles 728",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The Roman-period Greek community is poorly documented; entered as a nome capital and see.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 17.1.27-29",
    "Hierocles 728",
    "Raue, Heliopolis und das Haus des Re (1999)",
    "Wikipedia: Heliopolis (ancient Egypt)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 35,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "431 – c. 750",
   "period": "4 To the Arab conquest (330-642)",
   "id": "af032",
   "latin": "Hephaestus",
   "greek": "Ἡφαιστος",
   "other_names": "Hephaistou polis; Hephaistou; identified with a place called Sanhur (Worp's list); several villages bear the name",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "unlocated in Augustamnica I (eastern Delta, with Pelusium, Tanis and Thmuis); the point marks the region",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Augustamnica",
   "lat": 31.0,
   "lon": 32.0,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 431,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     431,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "first attested as a see: bishop John at Ephesus, 431",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Known only from church lists and the geographers; no later evidence. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Bishops John (431, 449) and perhaps Peter (459); nothing later. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act; Augustamnica I passed to the Arabs in 639-642. Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "city in Hierocles and Georgius Cyprius; bishop John at the councils of Ephesus 431 and 449",
   "status_evidence": "Hierocles 727; Georgius Cyprius; see suffragan of Pelusium (Le Quien)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Egyptian name and site unknown; the Greek evidence is only that of its clergy.",
   "sources": [
    "Hierocles 727",
    "Le Quien, Oriens Christianus II",
    "Wikipedia: Hephaestus, Egypt"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 36,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af031",
   "latin": "Herakleopolis Parva (Sethroe)",
   "greek": "Ἡρακλέους πόλις ἡ μικρά (Σεθρώ)",
   "other_names": "Sethroe, Sethroites (Greek); Herakleopolis Mikra",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Tell Belim, between San el-Hagar and Tell el-Farama, Sharqia Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Sharqia",
   "nome": "Sethroite",
   "ancient_region": "Augustamnica",
   "lat": 30.9821,
   "lon": 32.1676,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 727121,
   "tm_geo": 2127,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "metropolis of the Sethroite nome in the Roman period (Strabo 17.1.24; Ptolemy 4.5.53); gymnasial order of the metropoleis from AD 4/5",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration Roman to 639/640, then Arab. Speech: no evidence after the 6th c.; the town vanished in the Middle Ages. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No dated bishop of Sethroe is known; Hierocles still lists it in the 6th c. Papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta, so private Greek documents of residents are few. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act; the district fell to 'Amr ibn al-'As with Pelusium, 639/640. Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Sethroite nome under Rome, with the Greek-speaking gymnasial class of the metropoleis; city in Hierocles",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Sethroite nome (Strabo 17.1.24; Ptolemy); nome coins under Hadrian; Hierocles 726; later a titular see",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Usually identified with Tell Belim; other tells have been proposed. Its Greek-speaking community is inferred from the metropolis status only.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 17.1.24",
    "Ptol. Geog. 4.5.53",
    "Hierocles 726",
    "Wikipedia: Sethroe"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 37,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "c. 250 BC – c. AD 400",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af045",
   "latin": "Heroonpolis",
   "greek": "Ἡρώων πόλις",
   "other_names": "Pithom, Per-Atum (Egyptian); Ero (Latin, Ero castra)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "تل المسخوطة",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Tell el-Maskhuta, Wadi Tumilat, Ismailia Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Ismailia",
   "nome": "Heroopolite",
   "ancient_region": "Augustamnica",
   "lat": 30.5534,
   "lon": 32.0996,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 727124,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -250,
   "greek_until": 400,
   "phases": [
    [
     -250,
     400
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Ptolemaic canal town after Ptolemy II's works (Pithom stele, c. 264 BC); Heroonpolis in the Septuagint (Gen. 46:28-29)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Egeria (c. 384) found 'the city of Heroes' reduced to a village; a Roman fort stood there (Ero castra). No later evidence of Greek speakers.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    300,
    600
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Egeria, Itinerarium (c. 384): now a village; Latin milestone 'Ero castra'.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: decline to a village by the late 4th c.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Per-Atum (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Heroopolite nome under the Ptolemies; Ptolemaic and Roman town at the canal to the Red Sea (Holladay's excavations)",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Heroopolite nome (Strabo 17.1.26; Ptolemy); LXX Gen. 46:28",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Identification of Heroonpolis with Tell el-Maskhuta is usual (Holladay); the Greek civic evidence is thin.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 17.1.26",
    "Egeria, Itinerarium",
    "Holladay, Tell el-Maskhuta (1982)",
    "Wikipedia: Tell el-Maskhuta"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 38,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af040",
   "latin": "Leontopolis",
   "greek": "Λεόντων πόλις",
   "other_names": "Leonto (Hierocles)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "تل المقدام",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Tell el-Muqdam, near Mit Ghamr, Dakahlia Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Dakahlia",
   "nome": "Leontopolite",
   "ancient_region": "Augustamnica",
   "lat": 30.683,
   "lon": 31.3555,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 727146,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "metropolis of the Leontopolite nome under Rome (Strabo 17.1.19; Ptolemy); gymnasial order of the metropoleis from AD 4/5; boule from 200/201",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration Roman to 641, then Arab. Speech: no Greek evidence after the 7th c.; the site was deserted in the Middle Ages. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta, so private Greek documents of residents are few. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the treaty of Alexandria between the patriarch Cyrus and 'Amr ibn al-'As (November 641) handed Egypt to the Arabs; the Roman troops and many Greek-speaking officials and landowners left by September 642. Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Taremu (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Leontopolite nome and, in the 5th-6th c., of Augustamnica II; Roman nome coins; Greek-writing bishops (431, 553); the Egyptian name lived on among Coptic speakers",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Leontopolite nome; nome coins under Hadrian; provincial capital of Augustamnica II (Hierocles 728); metropolitan see (Metrodorus at Ephesus 431; Theodotus at Constantinople 553)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Not the Jewish Leontopolis of Onias (Tell el-Yahudiya).",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 17.1.19",
    "Hierocles 728",
    "Wikipedia: Leontopolis"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 39,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "c. 250 BC – c. AD 100",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af030",
   "latin": "Mendes",
   "greek": "Μένδης",
   "other_names": "Djedet, Per-Banebdjedet (Egyptian)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "تل الربع",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Tell el-Rub'a, near El-Simbillawein, Dakahlia Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Dakahlia",
   "nome": "Mendesian",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 30.958,
   "lon": 31.516,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 727156,
   "tm_geo": 1351,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -250,
   "greek_until": 100,
   "phases": [
    [
     -250,
     100
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek administration of the Mendesian nome under Ptolemy II (the hieroglyphic Mendes stele, c. 264 BC, records his works there)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "The Mendesian branch silted and the town shrank in the late Ptolemaic and early Roman period; neighbouring Thmuis, 4 km south, became the metropolis, and the Greek-speaking class moved there.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    0,
    150
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "The town declined under the later Ptolemies and disappears from view in the 1st c. AD; Ptolemy and Aelius Aristides name Thmuis as the only town of note in the Mendesian nome.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: decline with the silting of the Mendesian branch; the nome capital moved to Thmuis.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Djedet; Per-Banebdjedet (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Mendesian nome under the Ptolemies; Ptolemaic Greek administration of the nome; Greek finds of the Ptolemaic town",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Mendesian nome (Hdt. 2.42, 2.46; Strabo 17.1.19); capital of the 29th dynasty",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "The Greek-speaking community of Mendes itself is poorly documented; entered as a nome capital of the Ptolemaic period.",
   "sources": [
    "Hdt. 2.46",
    "Strabo 17.1.19",
    "Redford, City of the Ram-Man (2010)",
    "Wikipedia: Mendes"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 40,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "c. AD 70 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af048",
   "latin": "Ostracine",
   "greek": "Ὀστρακίνη",
   "other_names": "",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "الفلوسيات",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "El-Felusiyat, on the Bardawil lagoon, North Sinai Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "North Sinai",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Augustamnica",
   "lat": 31.1159,
   "lon": 33.4306,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 687993,
   "tm_geo": 1518,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 70,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     70,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "road town on the march of Titus from Egypt to Judaea, AD 70 (Josephus, BJ 4.661); Pliny (5.68) lists it",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Late Roman town with churches (Oren's excavations); bishops Theoctistus, Serapion and Abraham in the 4th-5th c.; the town declined after the Arab conquest of 639/640 and was later deserted at an unknown date. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850). Here the townspeople went over to Arabic.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Three bishops of the 4th-5th c. (Le Quien); late Roman basilicas at El-Felusiyat. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The coast road fell to the Arabs when 'Amr ibn al-'As marched from Palestine on Pelusium, winter 639/640 (Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam); the towns of the coast declined thereafter. Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Hierocles 727; Georgius Cyprius; see suffragan of Pelusium",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "As with the other coast towns, the Greek-speaking population is inferred from the Greek name, its clergy and its finds.",
   "sources": [
    "Josephus, BJ 4.661",
    "Pliny, NH 5.68",
    "Hierocles 727",
    "Wikipedia: Ostracine"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 41,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "325 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af033",
   "latin": "Panephysis",
   "greek": "Πανέφυσις",
   "other_names": "",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "near El-Manzala, at the southern edge of Lake Manzala, Dakahlia Governorate (exact site uncertain)",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Dakahlia",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Augustamnica",
   "lat": 31.16,
   "lon": 31.94,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": 727184,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 325,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     325,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "first attested as a see: bishop Philip at Nicaea, 325",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "John Cassian (c. 395) describes the district ruined by an incursion of the sea; bishops are attested into the 5th c. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Philip (325); Archebius (c. 395); no later Greek evidence. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act; the lagoon district passed to the Arabs in 641/642. Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "see with bishop Philip at Nicaea 325; bishop Archebius (Cassian, Conl. 11.2); Hierocles",
   "status_evidence": "see (Philip at Nicaea 325; Archebius c. 395); Hierocles 727; Georgius Cyprius",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Location near Lake Manzala is approximate; the Greek evidence is that of its clergy (Cassian met bishop Archebius, a former anchorite of the town).",
   "sources": [
    "Cassian, Conlationes 7.26, 11.1-3",
    "Hierocles 727",
    "Timm, Das christlich-koptische Agypten"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 42,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "c. 300 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af027",
   "latin": "Pelusium",
   "greek": "Πηλούσιον",
   "other_names": "Peremoun (Coptic); al-Farama (Arabic); Sin (Hebrew, Ezek. 30:15-16, if the same place)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "تل الفرما",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Tell el-Farama, near Baluza, North Sinai Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "North Sinai",
   "nome": "Pelusiac district (Sethroite nome area)",
   "ancient_region": "Augustamnica",
   "lat": 31.0424,
   "lon": 32.5462,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 727192,
   "tm_geo": 1662,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -300,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -300,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek and Macedonian settlers, garrison and officials under the first Ptolemies (3rd c. BC); Greek mercenaries had held the place for Nectanebo II in 343 BC (Diod. 16.46-49) and Alexander entered it in 332 BC",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: Persian under Shahrbaraz 618/619-629, Arab from the winter of 639/640. Speech: the Greek-speaking elite of a metropolis survived into the 7th c.; after 640 the town (al-Farama) was a smaller Christian and Muslim garrison and market town; Greek probably faded in the 8th c. as Coptic and then Arabic took over. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Isidore of Pelusium's Greek letters (to c. 435); bishops at the councils to 451 and later; Greek remained in use under the Persians and early Arabs; no Greek documents of residents known after the 7th c. Papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta, so private Greek documents of residents are few. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "Taken by the Persians under Shahrbaraz, 618/619; taken by 'Amr ibn al-'As after a siege of one to two months, winter 639/640 (Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam, Futuh Misr); no named act ended Greek speech. The later town was burnt by Baldwin I of Jerusalem in 1118. Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Sin (Hebrew)?",
   "pre_greek_note": "The Hebrew Sin of Ezekiel is usually taken as Pelusium; the Egyptian name is not securely known (Coptic Peremoun may reflect an Egyptian Per-Amun).",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Ptolemaic and Roman port, customs station and garrison town with Greek settlers; metropolis of Augustamnica I; the some 2,000 Greek letters of Isidore of Pelusium (c. 400-435) address residents, clergy, teachers and officials of the town",
   "status_evidence": "royal port and fortress; Hellenistic and Roman town with theatre and baths (excavated); metropolis of Augustamnica I; bishop Dorotheus at Nicaea 325; Hierocles 726",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Called bilingual: Greek was probably dominant in the late antique city (Isidore's letters), but an Egyptian-speaking population is presumed in a Delta port; Pelusium issued no civic coins and was not a polis in the Ptolemaic period. Tell el-Farama now lies in the North Sinai Governorate.",
   "sources": [
    "Diod. 16.46-49",
    "Strabo 17.1.21",
    "Isidore of Pelusium, Letters",
    "Carrez-Maratray, Peluse et l'angle oriental du delta (1999)",
    "Wikipedia: Pelusium"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 43,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "c. 150 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af043",
   "latin": "Phacusa",
   "greek": "Φάκουσσα",
   "other_names": "Arabia (the see, Hierocles)",
   "modern": "Faqus",
   "modern_native": "فاقوس",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Faqus, Sharqia Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Sharqia",
   "nome": "Arabia",
   "ancient_region": "Augustamnica",
   "lat": 30.7205,
   "lon": 31.6722,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 727194,
   "tm_geo": 1729,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 150,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     150,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "metropolis of the Arabian nome in Ptolemy (c. 150); Strabo (17.1.26) still calls it a village",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration Roman to 640/641, then Arab. Speech: no Greek evidence after the 7th c. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta, so private Greek documents of residents are few. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the district fell to 'Amr ibn al-'As in 640/641, after Pelusium and Bilbeis. Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Faqus continues the ancient name; an Egyptian form is not securely attested.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Arabian nome (Ptolemy); the see 'Arabia' of Augustamnica II",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Arabian nome (Ptol. Geog. 4.5.53); see 'Arabia' (Hierocles 728)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Phakoussa has also been placed at Tell Faqus or near Qantir; the late antique see is called 'Arabia'.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 17.1.26",
    "Ptol. Geog. 4.5.53",
    "Hierocles 728",
    "Wikipedia: Faqous"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 44,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "c. 400 – c. 750",
   "period": "4 To the Arab conquest (330-642)",
   "id": "af050",
   "latin": "Pharan",
   "greek": "Φαράν",
   "other_names": "Feiran (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Feiran",
   "modern_native": "فيران",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Tell Mahrad, Wadi Feiran oasis, South Sinai Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "South Sinai",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Palaestina Tertia (Sinai)",
   "lat": 28.7175,
   "lon": 33.6096,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 746792,
   "tm_geo": 7832,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 400,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     400,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "first attested as a see: bishop Netras, a disciple of abba Silvanus, c. 400 (Apophthegmata Patrum)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Bishops to the 7th c. (Theodore of Pharan, Greek theologian, condemned in 680/681 as a Monothelete); after the Arab conquest of Sinai in the 630s-640s the town declined. The Greek-speaking monks of the fortified monastery of Sinai were a monastic community largely recruited from outside and do not extend the town's phase. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850). Here the townspeople went over to Arabic.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Theodore of Pharan wrote Greek theology (c. 620-640); no Greek evidence for the town later. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: Sinai passed to the Arabs in the 630s-640s; the town shrank in the following centuries. Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Arab (Saracen) town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Nabataean inscriptions of Sinai may name the oasis; not used here.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Arabic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Arabic (earlier Nabataean Aramaic in writing)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "see with Greek-writing bishops (Netras c. 400; Theodore, 7th c.); episcopal church with Greek inscriptions (Grossmann's excavations); local Saracen (Arab) population",
   "status_evidence": "see of Palaestina Tertia (bishops from c. 400 to the 7th c.); Pharan in Ptolemy, Geog. 5.17",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "A desert see with a mostly Arab population; the Greek-speaking community may have been only clergy and monks, which would rule it out.",
   "sources": [
    "Apophthegmata Patrum (Netras)",
    "Ps.-Nilus, Narrationes",
    "Grossmann, excavations at Pharan",
    "Wikipedia: Pharan"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 45,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af042",
   "latin": "Pharbaethus",
   "greek": "Φάρβαιθος",
   "other_names": "Pharbait (Coptic)",
   "modern": "Horbeit",
   "modern_native": "هربيط",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Horbeit, near Abu Kebir, Sharqia Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Sharqia",
   "nome": "Pharbaithite",
   "ancient_region": "Augustamnica",
   "lat": 30.7343,
   "lon": 31.6206,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 727196,
   "tm_geo": 1751,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "metropolis of the Pharbaithite nome under Rome (Ptolemy 4.5); gymnasial order of the metropoleis from AD 4/5; boule from 200/201",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration Roman to 641, then Arab. Speech: no Greek evidence after the 7th c. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Bishop Arbethion (325) and later bishops. Papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta, so private Greek documents of residents are few. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the treaty of Alexandria between the patriarch Cyrus and 'Amr ibn al-'As (November 641) handed Egypt to the Arabs; the Roman troops and many Greek-speaking officials and landowners left by September 642. Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Shedenu (Egyptian)?",
   "pre_greek_note": "Horbeit is usually identified with Shedenu, capital of the 11th Lower Egyptian nome; the Greek name itself may come from an Egyptian Per-Horbeit.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Pharbaithite nome; nome coins; bishop Arbethion at Nicaea 325",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Pharbaithite nome; see (Nicaea 325); Hierocles 728",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "",
   "sources": [
    "Ptol. Geog. 4.5",
    "Hierocles 728",
    "Wikipedia: Horbeit"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 46,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "c. 200 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af049",
   "latin": "Rhinocorura",
   "greek": "Ῥινοκόρουρα",
   "other_names": "Rhinocolura (Greek variant); al-Arish (Arabic)",
   "modern": "El-Arish",
   "modern_native": "العريش",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "El-Arish, North Sinai Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "North Sinai",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Augustamnica",
   "lat": 31.1117,
   "lon": 33.7969,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 688016,
   "tm_geo": 2052,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -200,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -200,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Hellenistic town on new ground (no earlier occupation found at El-Arish); a city on the border of Egypt and Syria in Strabo (16.2.31) and Diodorus (1.60)",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Bishops from the 4th c. (Melas under Valens, Sozomen 6.31; Hermogenes at Ephesus 431); the town fell to the Arabs on 'Amr's march into Egypt, 639/640, and survived as al-Arish. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850). Here the townspeople went over to Arabic.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Bishop Hermogenes (431), sent by Cyril of Alexandria to Rome; no Greek evidence after the 7th c. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The coast road fell to the Arabs when 'Amr ibn al-'As marched from Palestine on Pelusium, winter 639/640 (Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam); the towns of the coast declined thereafter. Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "no known",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The legend of nose-cut exiles (Diodorus 1.60; Strabo 16.2.31) is not evidence of an earlier town.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "city in Strabo and Diodorus; Hierocles 727; see (Melas, Solon; Hermogenes at Ephesus 431)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Population probably mixed (Greek, Egyptian, Idumaean and Arab); Greek counted as the main civic language for lack of evidence of another.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 16.2.31",
    "Diod. 1.60",
    "Sozomen, HE 6.31",
    "Hierocles 727",
    "Wikipedia: Rhinocorura"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 47,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "c. 280 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af037",
   "latin": "Sebennytos",
   "greek": "Σεβέννυτος",
   "other_names": "Djemnouti (Coptic); Samannud (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Samannud",
   "modern_native": "سمنود",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Samannud, Gharbia Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Gharbia",
   "nome": "Sebennyte (Upper)",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Delta)",
   "lat": 30.9641,
   "lon": 31.24,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 727227,
   "tm_geo": 2104,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -280,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -280,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Manetho, priest of Sebennytos, wrote his history of Egypt in Greek for Ptolemy II, c. 280 BC",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Administration Roman to 641, then Arab. Speech: the Greek-speaking metropolitan class is not attested after the 7th c.; the town became Coptic- and then Arabic-speaking. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Bishops of Sebennytos in late antiquity and later Coptic bishops. Papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta, so private Greek documents of residents are few. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the treaty of Alexandria between the patriarch Cyrus and 'Amr ibn al-'As (November 641) handed Egypt to the Arabs; the Roman troops and many Greek-speaking officials and landowners left by September 642. Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Tjebnetjer (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Manetho of Sebennytos wrote his Aegyptiaca in Greek (c. 280 BC); metropolis of the Sebennyte nome with the Roman metropolitan order; see",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Sebennyte nome (Strabo 17.1.19; nome coins); see; Hierocles",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Manetho shows a Greek-educated priest rather than a Greek community; the Greek civic class is presumed from the metropolis status.",
   "sources": [
    "Manetho, Aegyptiaca (FGrHist 609)",
    "Strabo 17.1.19",
    "Timm, Das christlich-koptische Agypten",
    "Wikipedia: Sebennytos"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 48,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "431 – c. 750",
   "period": "4 To the Arab conquest (330-642)",
   "id": "af112",
   "latin": "Sele",
   "greek": "Σέλη",
   "other_names": "Sile, Sela; Tjaru (Egyptian); Tell Hebua",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Tell Hebua (with Tell Abu Sefa), about 4 km north-east of El-Qantara East, Ismailia Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Ismailia",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Augustamnica",
   "lat": 30.88,
   "lon": 32.36,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 727231,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 431,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     431,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "first attested as a see: bishop Alypius at the Council of Ephesus, 431",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Known only from one bishop, in 431; no later evidence. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Bishop Alypius (431); nothing later. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act; the eastern frontier fell to 'Amr ibn al-'As at the start of the conquest (Pelusium, 639-640). Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Tjaru (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "the frontier fortress of Tjaru of the New Kingdom (Tell Hebua)",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "see with bishop Alypius at the Council of Ephesus, 431 (Worp 1994); a fort and road station on the road from Pelusium into Egypt (Itinerarium Antonini; Notitia Dignitatum, an ala at Sele)",
   "status_evidence": "see (Alypius at Ephesus 431; Worp 1994); suffragan of Pelusium in Augustamnica I; Roman fort (Notitia Dignitatum)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "A frontier fortress and road station whose see is known from one bishop. The garrison does not count; a Greek-speaking civilian community is only inferred from the see, as for the other see-only towns. Doubtful case.",
   "sources": [
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994), checklist of bishops of Egypt AD 325 - c. 750",
    "Acts of the Council of Ephesus (431), lists of bishops",
    "Itinerarium Antonini",
    "Notitia Dignitatum, Or. 28"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 49,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "431 – c. 750",
   "period": "4 To the Arab conquest (330-642)",
   "id": "af035",
   "latin": "Tamiathis",
   "greek": "Ταμίαθις",
   "other_names": "Tamiati (Coptic); Dumyat (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Damietta",
   "modern_native": "دمياط",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Damietta (the old town lay nearer the sea; it was razed and rebuilt inland in 1250), Damietta Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Damietta",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Augustamnica",
   "lat": 31.4171,
   "lon": 31.8126,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 727235,
   "tm_geo": 3054,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 431,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     431,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "first attested as a see: bishop at the council of Ephesus, 431",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Administration Roman to 641/642, then Arab; the population was Coptic-speaking Christian and then Arabic. Greek raids on Damietta (853 and later) did not restore Greek speech. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Four bishops known from 431 to 879 (Le Quien). Papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta, so private Greek documents of residents are few. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek; the town was taken by an Arab detachment sent by 'Amr ibn al-'As, 641/642 (later Arabic tradition). Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Coptic Tamiati; an earlier Egyptian form is not securely attested.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "see with bishops from 431; city in Stephanus of Byzantium",
   "status_evidence": "see (bishop at Ephesus 431); Stephanus of Byzantium s.v.",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "A small town in late antiquity; it became important only in the Arab period.",
   "sources": [
    "Steph. Byz. s.v. Ταμίαθις",
    "Le Quien, Oriens Christianus II",
    "Catholic Encyclopedia: Damietta"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 50,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "c. 250 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af028",
   "latin": "Tanis",
   "greek": "Τάνις",
   "other_names": "Djani (Coptic); Zoan (Hebrew); San (Arabic)",
   "modern": "San el-Hagar",
   "modern_native": "صان الحجر",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "San el-Hagar, Sharqia Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Sharqia",
   "nome": "Tanite",
   "ancient_region": "Augustamnica",
   "lat": 30.9755,
   "lon": 31.8836,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 727236,
   "tm_geo": 2252,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -250,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -250,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Ptolemaic Greek inscriptions and Greek administration of the Tanite nome, 3rd c. BC",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman to 641, then Arab. Speech: the Greek-speaking metropolitan class is the last attested in the 6th-7th c.; Tanis shrank in the Arab period, but Coptic bishops of Tanis are known into the Middle Ages, so the population turned Coptic and then Arabic. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Bishops of Tanis at the councils (325 onwards); later Coptic bishops. Papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta, so private Greek documents of residents are few. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the treaty of Alexandria between the patriarch Cyrus and 'Amr ibn al-'As (November 641) handed Egypt to the Arabs; the Roman troops and many Greek-speaking officials and landowners left by September 642. Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Djanet (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Tanite nome; Ptolemaic Greek inscriptions (the bilingual Canopus decree of 238 BC was found here, 1866); Ptolemaic and Roman town (Petrie's excavations); bishop Tiberius at Nicaea 325",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Tanite nome; nome coins under Trajan and Hadrian; see (bishop Tiberius at Nicaea 325); Hierocles 726",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Capital of the 21st and 22nd dynasties; the Greek-period town occupied part of the old tell.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 17.1.20",
    "Petrie, Tanis I-II (1885-1888)",
    "Timm, Das christlich-koptische Agypten",
    "Wikipedia: Tanis"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 51,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "c. 395 – c. 750",
   "period": "4 To the Arab conquest (330-642)",
   "id": "af034",
   "latin": "Thennesus",
   "greek": "Θέννησος",
   "other_names": "Tinnis (Arabic)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "تنيس",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Tell Tinnis, island in Lake Manzala, south-west of Port Said, Port Said Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Port Said",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Augustamnica",
   "lat": 31.2,
   "lon": 32.23,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 727247,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 395,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     395,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "island town and see visited by John Cassian (c. 395), who found its bishop just dead",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman to 641/642, then Arab. Speech: the town grew under the Arabs into a great linen centre with a mostly Christian (Coptic-speaking) population; no Greek-speaking community is attested after the 7th c. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Bishop Heron (451); the monk Bernard found the people nearly all Christians c. 870. Papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta, so private Greek documents of residents are few. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek; the treaty of Alexandria between the patriarch Cyrus and 'Amr ibn al-'As (November 641) handed Egypt to the Arabs; the Roman troops and many Greek-speaking officials and landowners left by September 642. Much later Saladin had the civilian town evacuated (1192/93), and the remaining fort was razed after the Fifth Crusade (1220s). Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "see with bishops (Heron, condemned at Chalcedon 451); city in Hierocles; Roman-period tombs on the island",
   "status_evidence": "Hierocles 727; see suffragan of Pelusium (bishop at Chalcedon 451)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "",
   "sources": [
    "Cassian, Conlationes 11.1-3",
    "Hierocles 727",
    "Encyclopaedia of Islam: Tinnis",
    "Wikipedia: Thennesus"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 52,
   "list_group": "Eastern Delta and Sinai",
   "dates_shown": "c. 200 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af029",
   "latin": "Thmuis",
   "greek": "Θμοῦις",
   "other_names": "Thmoui (Coptic); Tmai al-Amdid (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Tmai el-Amdid",
   "modern_native": "تمي الأمديد",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Tell Timai, near Tmai el-Amdid, Dakahlia Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Dakahlia",
   "nome": "Mendesian, later Thmuite",
   "ancient_region": "Augustamnica",
   "lat": 30.9356,
   "lon": 31.5169,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 727249,
   "tm_geo": 2405,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -200,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -200,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek mosaic signed by Sophilos with the portrait of Berenike II, c. 200 BC (Alexandria, Graeco-Roman Museum)",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman to 641, then Arab. Speech: a Greek-educated civic class to late antiquity (Phileas, a rich man who had held civic offices, wrote in Greek; Serapion wrote Greek theology); later the bishops of Thmuis appear in Coptic sources. Greek probably faded in the 8th c. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Phileas' Greek letter (Eus. HE 8.10); Serapion's Greek works and the Euchologion; late Roman finds on site. Papyri rarely survive in the wet Delta, so private Greek documents of residents are few. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the treaty of Alexandria between the patriarch Cyrus and 'Amr ibn al-'As (November 641) handed Egypt to the Arabs; the Roman troops and many Greek-speaking officials and landowners left by September 642. Phileas of Thmuis was executed in the persecution of Diocletian, c. 306 (Eus. HE 8.9-10). Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Coptic Thmoui; an Egyptian form is not securely attested.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Hellenistic mosaics signed in Greek by Sophilos (c. 200 BC); Greek tax rolls of the town (P. Thmouis 1, 2nd c. AD, found on site); the bishops and Greek writers Phileas (d. c. 306) and Serapion (c. 339-360)",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Mendesian (later Thmuite) nome in Roman times; boule; see (Phileas d. c. 306; a bishop at Nicaea 325; Serapion c. 339-360; Ptolemaeus at Seleucia 359; Aristobulus at Ephesus 431); Hierocles 726",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Grew beside Mendes and replaced it as the nome capital in the Roman period.",
   "sources": [
    "Eus. HE 8.9-10",
    "Kambitsis, Le papyrus Thmouis 1 (1985)",
    "Littman and Silverstein, Tell Timai project",
    "Wikipedia: Thmuis"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 53,
   "list_group": "Middle Egypt and the Fayum",
   "dates_shown": "130 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af063",
   "latin": "Antinoopolis (Antinoe)",
   "greek": "Ἀντινόου πόλις",
   "other_names": "Antinoeia (Greek); Antinoou (Coptic); Ansina (medieval Arabic)",
   "modern": "Sheikh Ibada",
   "modern_native": "الشيخ عبادة",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Sheikh Ibada, Mallawi district, Minya Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Minya",
   "nome": "Antinoite",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 27.808,
   "lon": 30.877,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 756518,
   "tm_geo": 2774,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 130,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     130,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Founded by Hadrian in the autumn of 130 where Antinous drowned in the Nile (Cassius Dio 69.11; Antinoite papyri).",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Administration: Greek stayed the language of the tax and land registers under the first Arab governors; Arabic replaced it in the registers in 705/706 by order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). Speech: Antinoe remained a see and a town until it was abandoned around the 10th c., but its late texts are Coptic and Arabic; the Greek-speaking element faded in the 7th-8th c. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Seat of the governors of the Thebaid in the 6th c. (Dioscorus of Aphrodito wrote Greek poems and documents here); buildings of the Colluthus shrine in use to about the Arab conquest; later Coptic and Arabic writing exercises and a Coptic funerary stele dated 871. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. Occupied by the Persians (619-629); the Thebaid passed to the Arabs under the treaty of Alexandria concluded with 'Amr ibn al-'As (641); the registers were put into Arabic in 705/706 under the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Roman foundation",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Hadrian",
   "founder_group": "Roman emperors to 330",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Hir-wer? (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "A temple of Ramesses II and an earlier settlement lay at the site; it is often identified with the Hermopolite town Hir-wer, which is not certain.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "yes",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Coptic) in its late period",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Founded with Greek settlers (many from Ptolemais Hermiou) under laws modelled on Naukratis, with tribes and demes, a boule and the Antinoeia games; from the 5th-6th c. a large Coptic-speaking Christian population (cult of St Colluthus, Coptic petitions and texts) beside the Greek civic and governing elite of the capital of the Thebaid",
   "status_evidence": "Greek polis founded by Hadrian (130) with boule, prytanis and Antinoite citizenship; home of the 4th-c. mathematician Serenus; see with bishops from 325 (Tyrannos, Loukios), later metropolitan see; capital of the Thebaid from the 4th c.; Hierocles (Thebaid)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "",
   "sources": [
    "Cassius Dio 69.11",
    "Zahrnt, ANRW II.10.1 (1988)",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)",
    "Wikipedia: Antinoopolis"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 54,
   "list_group": "Middle Egypt and the Fayum",
   "dates_shown": "c. 250 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af054",
   "latin": "Aphroditopolis (Atfih)",
   "greek": "Ἀφροδίτης πόλις",
   "other_names": "Tepihu, Per-Hathor-nebet-Tepihu (Egyptian); Petpeh (Coptic); Atfih (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Atfih",
   "modern_native": "أطفيح",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Atfih, Giza Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Giza",
   "nome": "Aphroditopolite",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Heptanomia/Arcadia)",
   "lat": 29.42,
   "lon": 31.25,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 736889,
   "tm_geo": 236,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -250,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -250,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek settlers and Greek documents of the Aphroditopolite nome from the mid-3rd c. BC (Ptolemaic papyri, including the Zenon archive).",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: Greek stayed the language of the tax and land registers under the first Arab governors; Arabic replaced it in the registers in 705/706 by order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). Speech: the town shifted to Coptic and then Arabic in the 7th-8th c.; no local evidence dates the end more closely. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Listed with Nilopolis in a 7th-c. Greek levy account of the cities of Arcadia (SB I 5337); few later Greek documents from the town; Coptic see of Petpeh continued after the conquest. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The town was occupied by the Persians (619-629) and taken by the army of 'Amr ibn al-'As in 640/641; the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers put into Arabic in 705/706 (al-Kindi). After that Greek faded as residents went over to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Tepihu (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "Temple of Hathor and a cow necropolis at the site.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Aphroditopolite nome; Greek papyri naming its residents from the Ptolemaic period on; city of Arcadia in Hierocles; see",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Aphroditopolite nome; Hierocles (Arcadia); see with bishops Theodoros (before 339), Serenos (339), Chrysaorios (431)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Greek civic life here is known mostly from its status as a nome metropolis; local Greek texts are few.",
   "sources": [
    "Hierocles, Synecdemus (Arcadia)",
    "Bowman & Rathbone, JRS 82 (1992)",
    "Gonis, Tyche 37 (2022)",
    "Trismegistos Geo 236",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 55,
   "list_group": "Middle Egypt and the Fayum",
   "dates_shown": "c. 260 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af055",
   "latin": "Arsinoe (Krokodilopolis)",
   "greek": "Ἀρσινόη",
   "other_names": "Krokodilon polis, 'Krokodilopolis' (Greek, earlier name); Ptolemais Euergetis (Greek, Ptolemaic and Roman official name); Shedet (Egyptian); Piom (Coptic, also the name of the Fayum)",
   "modern": "Medinet el-Fayum",
   "modern_native": "مدينة الفيوم",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Kiman Faris (Kom Faris), Medinet el-Fayum, Faiyum Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Faiyum",
   "nome": "Arsinoite",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Heptanomia/Arcadia)",
   "lat": 29.321,
   "lon": 30.836,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 736948,
   "tm_geo": 327,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -260,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -260,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek cleruchs settled in the newly drained Fayum under Ptolemy II from the 260s BC; the nome was named Arsinoite after Arsinoe II by c. 257 BC and Krokodilopolis was its metropolis.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Administration: Greek stayed the language of the tax and land registers under the first Arab governors; Arabic replaced it in the registers in 705/706 by order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). Speech: Greek survived in the Fayum mainly as a language of accounts into the second half of the 8th c.; Coptic took over private and legal documents in the 7th-8th c. and Arabic followed. Greek as a spoken language of residents probably ended before the last Greek accounts.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    700,
    800
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Pahlavi papyri from the Fayum under the Persian occupation (619-629); Greek and Greek-Arabic documents of the Arsinoite pagarchy under the Umayyads; Greek accounting documents from the Fayum (Vienna fragments, Naqlun) into the second half of the 8th c.; Coptic dominant thereafter.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The Fayum was occupied by the Persians (619-629) and fell to the army of 'Amr ibn al-'As in 640/641 after the Roman commander John was killed (John of Nikiu, ch. 111-112); the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers put into Arabic in 705/706 (al-Kindi).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Shedet (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "Modern 'Fayum' continues Coptic Piom, from Egyptian pa-yom 'the lake', a name of the region and later of the city.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "gymnasium and gymnasial class from the Ptolemaic period; the privileged '6,475 Greek men' (katoikoi) of the nome in the Roman period; boule from 200/201; thousands of Greek letters, contracts and literary papyri of residents; Demotic temple and private documents beside them",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Arsinoite nome; gymnasium (Ptolemaic papyri); boule from 200/201; Christian teachers here debated with Dionysius of Alexandria c. 255 (Eus. HE 7.24); see with bishops from 325 (Melas) to Abraamios (c. 740); Hierocles (Arcadia)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Kept as a bilingual city: the Greek settler element was unusually large, but Egyptian priests, Demotic contracts and later Coptic show that Greek was not the language of the whole town.",
   "sources": [
    "Bowman & Rathbone, JRS 82 (1992)",
    "Mueller, Settlement of the Ptolemies (2006)",
    "Bagnall, Egypt in Late Antiquity (1993)",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 56,
   "list_group": "Middle Egypt and the Fayum",
   "dates_shown": "449 – c. 750",
   "period": "4 To the Arab conquest (330-642)",
   "id": "af052",
   "latin": "Babylon (in Egypt)",
   "greek": "Βαβυλών",
   "other_names": "Babylon (Coptic); Babalyun, Qasr al-Sham' (Arabic); Kheriaha (Egyptian, earlier settlement nearby)",
   "modern": "Old Cairo (Misr al-Qadima)",
   "modern_native": "مصر القديمة",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Qasr al-Sham', Old Cairo, Cairo Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Cairo",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Heptanomia/Arcadia)",
   "lat": 30.006,
   "lon": 31.23,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 727082,
   "tm_geo": 389,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 449,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     449,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Fortress by the Nile canal from Trajan's time (Amnis Traianus), rebuilt under Diocletian c. 300; first attested as a see with bishop Kyros at the council of Ephesus in 449.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Administration: Greek stayed the language of the tax and land registers under the first Arab governors; Arabic replaced it in the registers in 705/706 by order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). Speech: the Greek-speaking part of the population (officials, Chalcedonian clergy, merchants) shrank after 641 and was absorbed into the Coptic- and then Arabic-speaking population of Fustat.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    700,
    800
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek remained the chancery language of the Arab governors at Fustat beside Babylon until 705/706; Greek-Arabic protocols and bilingual documents of the Umayyad period; Coptic and then Arabic took over in the churches of the fortress.",
   "ended_by": "The fortress surrendered to 'Amr ibn al-'As after a siege of about seven months (December 640 or April 641; John of Nikiu); the Arab camp-city Fustat was founded beside it (641/642); the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers put into Arabic in 705/706 (al-Kindi). No act against Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "Kheriaha? (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "The Egyptian settlement Kheriaha lay nearby; its exact relation to the Roman fortress town is not certain.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Coptic); Latin of the garrison",
   "bilingual_evidence": "a large late Roman fortress town with churches, clergy and officials; see from the 5th c.; Greek-speaking officials and soldiers are well attested, a Greek-speaking civic body of residents much less clearly",
   "status_evidence": "Roman fortress (Strabo 17.1.30; Notitia Dignitatum); see with bishops Kyros (449), Photios (459), Zosimos (c. 560), Theodoros (c. 743), Konstantinos (c. 755)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "City status rests on the see and the size of the town; Greek speakers attested here are mostly officials and soldiers. Later see lists put it under Leontopolis (Augustamnica II) rather than Arcadia; Delta listings may also claim it.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 17.1.30",
    "John of Nikiu, Chronicle 111-117",
    "Sheehan, Babylon of Egypt (2010)",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 57,
   "list_group": "Middle Egypt and the Fayum",
   "dates_shown": "c. 200 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af060",
   "latin": "Kynopolis (Cynopolis)",
   "greek": "Κυνῶν πόλις",
   "other_names": "Qs (Egyptian, per Trismegistos; older works give Saka or Hardai); Kais / Koeis (Coptic); el-Qays (Arabic)",
   "modern": "El-Qays",
   "modern_native": "القيس",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "El-Qays, Beni Mazar district, Minya Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Minya",
   "nome": "Kynopolite",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Heptanomia/Arcadia)",
   "lat": 28.479,
   "lon": 30.783,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 736949,
   "tm_geo": 1196,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -200,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -200,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek settlers and documents of the Kynopolite nome from the Ptolemaic period; firm civic evidence only in the Roman period.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: Greek stayed the language of the tax and land registers under the first Arab governors; Arabic replaced it in the registers in 705/706 by order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). Speech: with few documents from the town itself, the end is placed with the general shift of Middle Egypt to Coptic and Arabic. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Few late Greek documents from the town; Coptic Kais survives as Arabic el-Qays. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The town was occupied by the Persians (619-629) and taken by the army of 'Amr ibn al-'As in 640/641; the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers put into Arabic in 705/706 (al-Kindi). After that Greek faded as residents went over to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "Qs? (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "Trismegistos gives Egyptian Qs, the source of Coptic Kais and Arabic el-Qays; older works call the capital of the 17th Upper Egyptian nome Saka or Hardai, and which lay under the Roman metropolis is debated.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Kynopolite nome; Greek papyri of the nome; city of Arcadia in Hierocles; see",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Kynopolite nome; Hierocles (Arcadia); see with bishops from 325 (Aiglon, Adamantios) to Gregorios (c. 680)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The Roman metropolis is usually put at el-Qays on the west bank; the dog necropolis is on the east bank near Hamatha. Distinct from Kynopolis in the Delta.",
   "sources": [
    "Ptolemy, Geography 4.5",
    "Hierocles, Synecdemus (Arcadia)",
    "Trismegistos Geo 1196",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 58,
   "list_group": "Middle Egypt and the Fayum",
   "dates_shown": "c. 250 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af057",
   "latin": "Herakleopolis Magna",
   "greek": "Ἡρακλέους πόλις ἡ μεγάλη",
   "other_names": "Henen-nesut (Egyptian); Hnes (Coptic); Ahnas (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Ihnasya el-Medina",
   "modern_native": "إهناسيا المدينة",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Ihnasya el-Medina (Kom el-Aqarib), Beni Suef Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Beni Suef",
   "nome": "Herakleopolite",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Heptanomia/Arcadia)",
   "lat": 29.086,
   "lon": 30.935,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": 801,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -250,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -250,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek settlers and Greek documents of residents of the Herakleopolite from the mid-3rd c. BC (Hibeh papyri).",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: Greek stayed the language of the tax and land registers under the first Arab governors; Arabic replaced it in the registers in 705/706 by order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). Speech: Greek documents of the Herakleopolite pagarchy continue into the 8th c., mostly as administration and accounts; the residents of the town (Ahnas) went over to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    700,
    800
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "One of the earliest dated Arabic papyri is a Greek-Arabic receipt of 25 April 643 from Herakleopolis for sheep handed by the agents of the pagarchs Theodorakios and Christophoros to 'Abd Allah ibn Jabir and his troops (PERF 558); bilingual Greek-Arabic documents of the pagarchy in the Umayyad period; an 8th-c. Greek account found at Naqlun probably comes from the Herakleopolite; Coptic dominant afterwards.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The town was occupied by the Persians (619-629) and taken by the army of 'Amr ibn al-'As in 640/641; the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers put into Arabic in 705/706 (al-Kindi). After that Greek faded as residents went over to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Henen-nesut (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Greek cleruchs in the nome from the 3rd c. BC; a Greek-speaking Jewish politeuma at Herakleopolis (papyri of 144-132 BC); gymnasial class; boule from 200/201; Greek papyri of residents into the Arab period",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Herakleopolite nome; gymnasial class; boule from 200/201; see with bishops from 325 (Petros); Hierocles (Arcadia)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "",
   "sources": [
    "Bowman & Rathbone, JRS 82 (1992)",
    "Cowey & Maresch, Urkunden des Politeuma der Juden von Herakleopolis (2001)",
    "PERF 558",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 59,
   "list_group": "Middle Egypt and the Fayum",
   "dates_shown": "c. 240 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af061",
   "latin": "Hermopolis Magna",
   "greek": "Ἑρμοῦ πόλις ἡ μεγάλη",
   "other_names": "Khemenu (Egyptian); Shmoun (Coptic); el-Ashmunein (Arabic)",
   "modern": "El-Ashmunein",
   "modern_native": "الأشمونين",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "El-Ashmunein, Mallawi district, Minya Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Minya",
   "nome": "Hermopolite",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 27.776,
   "lon": 30.805,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 756574,
   "tm_geo": 816,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -240,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -240,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek cavalry settlers of the Hermopolite dedicated a sanctuary to Ptolemy III and Berenike II (246-221 BC) in the city.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Greek stayed the language of the tax and land registers under the first Arab governors; Arabic replaced it in the registers in 705/706 by order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). Speech: Greek and Greek-Arabic documents of the Hermopolite continue into the 8th c.; the medieval town el-Ashmunein was Coptic-speaking and later Arabic-speaking (its 10th-c. bishop Severus wrote in Arabic).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    700,
    800
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Pahlavi papyri from Hermopolis under the Persian occupation (619-629); Greek and bilingual documents of the Hermopolite pagarchy under the Umayyads; Coptic dominant in private documents from the 7th-8th c.; Severus ibn al-Muqaffa', bishop of el-Ashmunein, writing in Arabic in the 10th c.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The town was occupied by the Persians (619-629) and passed to the Arabs with the rest of Upper Egypt under the treaty of Alexandria concluded with 'Amr ibn al-'As (641); the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers put into Arabic in 705/706 (al-Kindi). After that Greek faded as residents went over to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Khemenu (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Ptolemaic sanctuary dedicated to Ptolemy III and Berenike II by the cavalry settlers of the nome; gymnasium and gymnasial class; boule from 200/201 with a large council archive; thousands of Greek papyri of residents into the Arab period",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Hermopolite nome; gymnasium; boule from 200/201; see with bishops from 325 (Phasileus); Hierocles (Thebaid)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "In the Heptanomia until Diocletian, then in the Thebaid (Lower Thebaid).",
   "sources": [
    "Bowman & Rathbone, JRS 82 (1992)",
    "Drew-Bear, Le nome Hermopolite (1979)",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)",
    "Wace, Megaw & Skeat, Hermopolis Magna: The Ptolemaic Sanctuary and the Basilica (1959)",
    "Wikipedia: Hermopolis"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 60,
   "list_group": "Middle Egypt and the Fayum",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af053",
   "latin": "Letopolis",
   "greek": "Λητοῦς πόλις",
   "other_names": "Khem (Egyptian); Boushem / Oushem (Coptic); Ausim (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Ausim",
   "modern_native": "أوسيم",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Ausim, Giza Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Giza",
   "nome": "Letopolite",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Heptanomia/Arcadia)",
   "lat": 30.122,
   "lon": 31.134,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 727149,
   "tm_geo": 1245,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "nome metropolis under Rome: the Greek-speaking metropolite and gymnasial class was registered in every metropolis from AD 4/5 (boule from 200/201); no earlier town-specific Greek evidence found; metropolis of the Letopolite nome; Hierocles (Arcadia); see with bishops Isaak (325), Gamul (c. 728), Moses (c. 735)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Greek stayed the language of the tax and land registers under the first Arab governors; Arabic replaced it in the registers in 705/706 by order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). Speech: with very few documents from the town, the end can only be placed with the general shift of Middle Egypt to Coptic and Arabic in the 7th-8th c. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Letopolite nome still a fiscal district in a 7th-c. Greek levy account of Arcadia (SB I 5337); no dated late Greek texts of residents; Coptic see of Boushem continued after the conquest. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The town was occupied by the Persians (619-629) and taken by the army of 'Amr ibn al-'As in 640/641; the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers put into Arabic in 705/706 (al-Kindi). After that Greek faded as residents went over to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Khem (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "Coptic Boushem / Oushem and Arabic Ausim continue it.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Letopolite nome in the Roman period (Ptolemy, Geography 4.5); still a fiscal district in a 7th-c. Greek account of Arcadia; city of Arcadia in Hierocles; see; few Greek documents of residents survive",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Letopolite nome; Hierocles (Arcadia); see with bishops Isaak (325), Gamul (c. 728), Moses (c. 735)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Lies at the apex of the Delta and may also be claimed for Lower Egypt; Greek-speaking residents are inferred from its status as a metropolis more than shown by local texts.",
   "sources": [
    "Hierocles, Synecdemus (Arcadia)",
    "Ptolemy, Geography 4.5",
    "Gonis, Tyche 37 (2022)",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 61,
   "list_group": "Middle Egypt and the Fayum",
   "dates_shown": "c. 560 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "1 Before Alexander (c. 640-332 BC)",
   "id": "af051",
   "latin": "Memphis",
   "greek": "Μέμφις",
   "other_names": "Men-nefer and Inbu-hedj, 'White Walls' (Egyptian); Menfe / Memfi (Coptic); Manf (medieval Arabic)",
   "modern": "Mit Rahina",
   "modern_native": "ميت رهينة",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Mit Rahina, Badrashin district, Giza Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Giza",
   "nome": "Memphite",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Heptanomia/Arcadia)",
   "lat": 29.849,
   "lon": 31.255,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 736963,
   "tm_geo": 1344,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -560,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -560,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Ionian and Carian soldiers moved by Amasis (570-526 BC) from the Stratopeda to Memphis as his guard (Hdt. 2.154); their descendants are the Hellenomemphites of later documents. Bilingual civic body under the Ptolemies and Romans.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Greek stayed the language of the tax and land registers under the first Arab governors; Arabic replaced it in the registers in 705/706 by order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). Speech: Memphis lost its people to the new Arab capital Fustat beside Babylon (founded 641/642) and was quarried for its stone; the Greek-speaking element faded in the 7th-8th c. while the Christian population kept Coptic. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek inscriptions and papyri of Memphis run into the 6th-7th c.; the town was a see (the Melitian leader John Arkaph was its bishop, c. 330s) and remained a Coptic see after the conquest; Fustat drew away its population from 641/642; Arabic replaced Greek in the registers in 705/706. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. Memphis was occupied by the Persians (619-629) and fell to the army of 'Amr ibn al-'As with the surrender of Babylon (640/641); the founding of Fustat (641/642) and the later removal of its stone for Fustat and Cairo emptied the town; the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers put into Arabic in 705/706 (al-Kindi).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Men-nefer (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "Also called Inbu-hedj, 'White Walls' (Egyptian).",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Greek quarter of the Hellenomemphites with its Hellenion from the 6th c. BC (Hdt. 2.154; Ptolemaic papyri); Greek letters of residents such as the Serapeum archive of Ptolemaios son of Glaukias (2nd c. BC, beside Demotic); nome metropolis with a gymnasial class and, from 200/201, a boule",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Memphite nome; Hellenomemphites and Hellenion; boule from 200/201; see by the early 4th c. (Antiochos, 325; the Melitian John Arkaph, 325-335); bishop Ptolemaios c. 700; Hierocles (Arcadia)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Greeks were a minority quarter here from the 6th c. BC; the bilingual civic body is Ptolemaic and Roman. Phase start is the settlement under Amasis, not a civic foundation.",
   "sources": [
    "Hdt. 2.154",
    "Thompson, Memphis under the Ptolemies (2nd ed. 2012)",
    "Bowman & Rathbone, JRS 82 (1992)",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 62,
   "list_group": "Middle Egypt and the Fayum",
   "dates_shown": "c. 250 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af058",
   "latin": "Nilopolis",
   "greek": "Νειλούπολις",
   "other_names": "Tilothis and Neilos (Greek); Tiloj / Telaj (Coptic); Dalas (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Dalas",
   "modern_native": "دلاص",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Dalas, Beni Suef Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Beni Suef",
   "nome": "Herakleopolite (Neilopolite toparchy)",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Heptanomia/Arcadia)",
   "lat": 29.186,
   "lon": 31.134,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": 2427,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 250,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     250,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "First evidence of a civic community: Chaeremon, aged bishop of Nilopolis, fled in the Decian persecution c. 250 (Dionysius of Alexandria in Eus. HE 6.42.3).",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Administration: Greek ended in the registers in 705/706 (al-Kindi). Speech: no local Greek evidence after the 6th-7th c.; the town shifted to Coptic and then Arabic. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Its district was separate in the 4th-5th c., merged with Herakleopolis by 538 and separate again for taxes by the late 6th c.; listed with Aphroditopolis in a 7th-c. Greek levy account of Arcadia (SB I 5337); seat of a pagarchy in the later 8th c.; Coptic Tiloj survives as Arabic Dalas. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The town was occupied by the Persians (619-629) and taken by the army of 'Amr ibn al-'As in 640/641; the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers put into Arabic in 705/706 (al-Kindi). After that Greek faded as residents went over to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "Ta-ledj? (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "Egyptian form given in modern reference works; Greek Tilothis, Coptic Tiloj and Arabic Dalas continue it.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "see with a bishop by c. 250 (Chaeremon, Eus. HE 6.42.3); city of Arcadia in Hierocles; chief place of a toparchy of the Herakleopolite",
   "status_evidence": "see by c. 250 (Chaeremon, Eus. HE 6.42.3), then Theon (325), Eusebios (431); Hierocles (Arcadia); Ptolemy 4.5 (on an island in the Nile)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Not a nome metropolis; its Greek-speaking community is shown mainly by its early see. Placed at Dalas by the Coptic name; Ptolemy puts it on a Nile island.",
   "sources": [
    "Eusebius, HE 6.42.3",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)",
    "Gonis, Tyche 37 (2022)",
    "Trismegistos Geo 2427",
    "Wikipedia: Delas"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 63,
   "list_group": "Middle Egypt and the Fayum",
   "dates_shown": "c. 250 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af059",
   "latin": "Oxyrhynchus",
   "greek": "Ὀξύρυγχος",
   "other_names": "Per-Medjed (Egyptian); Pemdje (Coptic); Nea Ioustinou polis (Greek honorific name after an emperor Justin, 6th c.); el-Bahnasa (Arabic)",
   "modern": "El-Bahnasa",
   "modern_native": "البهنسا",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "El-Bahnasa, Beni Mazar district, Minya Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Minya",
   "nome": "Oxyrhynchite",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Heptanomia/Arcadia)",
   "lat": 28.543,
   "lon": 30.652,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 736983,
   "tm_geo": 1524,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -250,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -250,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek cleruchs and Greek documents of residents of the Oxyrhynchite nome from the mid-3rd c. BC (Hibeh papyri).",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: Greek stayed the language of the tax and land registers under the first Arab governors; Arabic replaced it in the registers in 705/706 by order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). Speech: the dated Greek papyri from the town thin out after the 640s; the medieval town of el-Bahnasa spoke Coptic and then Arabic. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek documents of the Apion estate and the city to the 610s-620s; papyri dated by the Persian occupation (619-629); a few Greek documents of the early Arab period; Coptic then Arabic afterwards. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. Occupied by the Persians (619-629); taken by the army of 'Amr ibn al-'As in 640/641; the registers were put into Arabic in 705/706 under the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). The Arabic epic of the conquest of el-Bahnasa is legendary.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Per-Medjed (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "gymnasium and gymnasial class; boule from 200/201; theatre; thousands of Greek private letters, contracts and literary papyri of residents (Oxyrhynchus Papyri); later the metropolitan see of Arcadia",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Oxyrhynchite nome; gymnasium; boule from 200/201; see with bishops from 325 (Pelagios); Hierocles (Arcadia)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The origin of the Arabic name el-Bahnasa is uncertain, so no continuity with the Egyptian or Coptic name is claimed.",
   "sources": [
    "Bowman et al., Oxyrhynchus: A City and its Texts (2007)",
    "Bowman & Rathbone, JRS 82 (1992)",
    "Trismegistos Geo 1524",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 64,
   "list_group": "Middle Egypt and the Fayum",
   "dates_shown": "447 – c. 750",
   "period": "4 To the Arab conquest (330-642)",
   "id": "af056",
   "latin": "Theodosiopolis (Arcadia)",
   "greek": "Θεοδοσιούπολις",
   "other_names": "",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "unlocated, Fayum, Faiyum Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Faiyum",
   "nome": "Theodosiopolite",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Heptanomia/Arcadia)",
   "lat": 29.2,
   "lon": 30.8,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": 2375,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 447,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     447,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Named after Theodosius I or II; first attested in a Greek papyrus of 447 as a city with its own nome in the Fayum.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Administration: the Theodosiopolite nome was dissolved by the mid or later 7th c. and survived only as a subregion of the Arsinoite into the 8th c. Speech: its people followed the Fayum's shift to Coptic and Arabic in the 7th-8th c. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek papyri name the city and its nome from 447 (also P.Oxy. LI 3636, 5th c.); the joint pagarchy of Arsinoe and Theodosiopolis last appears in 622 (CPR XIX 32) and the Theodosiopolite nome in 644 (BGU I 320); traces of it as a part of the Arsinoite in the 8th c. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act. The Fayum fell to the army of 'Amr ibn al-'As in 640/641 (John of Nikiu); the separate nome was merged back into the Arsinoite under Arab rule; the registers were put into Arabic in 705/706 under the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "Theodosius I or Theodosius II",
   "founder_group": "emperors in Constantinople 330–698",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "a city (civitas) with its own nome carved from the Arsinoite, attested in Greek papyri from 447; city of Arcadia in Hierocles; its affairs were run by officials of Arsinoe; no bishop of its own is recorded",
   "status_evidence": "Hierocles (Arcadia); Greek papyri from 447 (city and nome); no bishop recorded",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Site unknown: Tebtunis has been proposed but is doubted. A 'formal city' administered from Arsinoe, so a Greek-speaking civic body of its own is not clearly shown.",
   "sources": [
    "Hierocles, Synecdemus (Arcadia)",
    "Tyche: 'The City Solution? Theodosiopolis and the System of Joint Administration in the Late Antique Fayyum'",
    "Gonis, Tyche 37 (2022)",
    "Trismegistos Geo 2375"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 65,
   "list_group": "Middle Egypt and the Fayum",
   "dates_shown": "c. 450 – c. 750",
   "period": "4 To the Arab conquest (330-642)",
   "id": "af062",
   "latin": "Theodosiopolis (Thebaid)",
   "greek": "Θεοδοσιούπολις",
   "other_names": "Toou (Greek form of the earlier village name)",
   "modern": "Taha el-Amida",
   "modern_native": "طحا الأعمدة",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Taha el-Amida (Taha el-Amudein), Minya district, Minya Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Minya",
   "nome": "Hermopolite (later Theodosiopolite)",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 28.172,
   "lon": 30.699,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 737094,
   "tm_geo": 3383,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 450,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     450,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Promoted to a city and named after Theodosius I or II, so by 450 at the latest; attested as a city by Hierocles (c. 527).",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Greek ended in the registers in 705/706 (al-Kindi). Speech: no local Greek evidence after the 6th-7th c.; the area followed the Hermopolite shift to Coptic and then Arabic. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No dated Greek texts of residents are known from the town itself; the Hermopolite as a whole has Greek documents into the 8th c. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. The town was occupied by the Persians (619-629) and passed to the Arabs with the rest of Upper Egypt under the treaty of Alexandria concluded with 'Amr ibn al-'As (641); the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers put into Arabic in 705/706 (al-Kindi). After that Greek faded as residents went over to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "Theodosius I or Theodosius II",
   "founder_group": "emperors in Constantinople 330–698",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The city was the former village Toou (Greek spelling); its Egyptian form is not given here because it is not securely attested.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "city of the Thebaid in Hierocles; created out of the Hermopolite nome, whose towns have abundant Greek documents",
   "status_evidence": "Hierocles (Thebaid); no bishop recorded",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "The Barrington Atlas (75 D4) identifies Theodosiopolis with the village Toou at Taha el-Amida north of Minya; whether the Arabic name continues Toou is not certain. Not to be confused with Theodosiopolis in the Fayum.",
   "sources": [
    "Hierocles, Synecdemus (Thebaid)",
    "Barrington Atlas 75 D4",
    "Trismegistos Geo 3383",
    "Timm, Das christlich-koptische Ägypten"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 66,
   "list_group": "Upper Egypt",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af068",
   "latin": "Antaeopolis",
   "greek": "Ἀνταίου πόλις",
   "other_names": "Tkow (Coptic); Qaw el-Kebir (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Qaw el-Kebir",
   "modern_native": "قاو الكبير",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Qaw el-Kebir (El-Etmaniya), Asyut Governorate (El-Badari district)",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Asyut",
   "nome": "Antaiopolite",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 26.9,
   "lon": 31.51,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "nome metropolis under Rome: the Greek-speaking metropolite and gymnasial class was registered in every metropolis from AD 4/5 (boule from 200/201); no earlier town-specific Greek evidence found; metropolis of the Antaiopolite nome; temple of Antaios built under Ptolemy IV, enlarged under Ptolemy VI and restored under Marcus Aurelius (Greek dedications); see; Hierocles (Ἀνταίου)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Speech: Greek-writing landowners and officials of the city are attested to the 7th c.; the population spoke Coptic. Administration: the pagarchy of Antaiopolis continued under Arab rule with Greek and Coptic paperwork until Arabic began replacing Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Aphrodito papyri (6th c.) show Antaiopolite notables writing Greek; in the Thebaid Coptic replaced Greek as the language of private letters and contracts during the 6th and 7th c.; Greek survived longer in fiscal documents, protocols and among the landowning and clerical elite. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech here: the Greek-speaking community faded by gradual shift to Coptic. Greek administration ended with the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Tjebu (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Antaiopolite nome; a see; seat of a boule and later a pagarchy; Greek contracts and petitions of its citizens in the 6th-c. Aphrodito papyri",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Antaiopolite nome; temple of Antaios built under Ptolemy IV, enlarged under Ptolemy VI and restored under Marcus Aurelius (Greek dedications); see; Hierocles (Ἀνταίου)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The temple of Antaios, still standing in 1813, was swept away by the Nile in 1821.",
   "sources": [
    "Bowman & Rathbone, JRS 82 (1992)",
    "MacCoull, Dioscorus of Aphrodito (1988)",
    "Wikipedia: Antaeopolis",
    "Hierocles, Synecdemus"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 67,
   "list_group": "Upper Egypt",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 720",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af069",
   "latin": "Aphroditopolis (Aphrodito)",
   "greek": "Ἀφροδίτης πόλις (Ἀφροδιτώ)",
   "other_names": "Aphrodito (Greek, village period); Djkow (Coptic); Ishqaw (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Kom Ishqaw",
   "modern_native": "كوم اشقاو",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Kom Ishqaw, Sohag Governorate (Tahta district)",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Sohag",
   "nome": "Aphroditopolite (later Antaiopolite)",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 26.84,
   "lon": 31.42,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 756532,
   "tm_geo": 237,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 720,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     720
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "nome metropolis under Rome: the Greek-speaking metropolite and gymnasial class was registered in every metropolis from AD 4/5 (boule from 200/201); no earlier town-specific Greek evidence found; metropolis of the Aphroditopolite nome (Ptolemy, Geog. 4.5; polis in documents of the 2nd c. BC - 2nd c. AD); a kome from the 3rd c. (Trismegistos Geo 237)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "City status: metropolis in the early Roman period; a village (kome) of the Antaiopolite nome from the 3rd c. on, with autopragia granted under Leo I (457-474). Speech: Dioscorus' circle wrote Greek and Coptic (6th c.); the village archives of the early 8th c. are Coptic for residents' own affairs and Greek and Arabic for the governor's letters (Qurra ibn Sharik, 709-714). Administration: Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    710,
    780
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Dioscorus' Greek poems and contracts (c. 540-585); his own Coptic documents; Basileios archive 709-714: Greek letters of the governor, Coptic for village business; in the Thebaid Coptic replaced Greek as the language of private letters and contracts during the 6th and 7th c.; Greek survived longer in fiscal documents, protocols and among the landowning and clerical elite.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech here: the Greek-speaking community faded by gradual shift to Coptic. Greek administration ended with the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). The village came under the Arab pagarchy of Ishqaw in the early 8th c.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Per-Wadjet (Egyptian)?",
   "pre_greek_note": "Per-Wadjet is given for Aphroditopolis of the 10th Upper Egyptian nome in standard lists; the identification with Kom Ishqaw is the usual one but not beyond doubt.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Aphroditopolite nome in the early Roman period; later a large village whose landowners wrote Greek: Dioscorus of Aphrodito (c. 520-585), notary and Greek poet; Greek and Coptic archive of the pagarch Basileios (709-714)",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Aphroditopolite nome (Ptolemy, Geog. 4.5; polis in documents of the 2nd c. BC - 2nd c. AD); a kome from the 3rd c. (Trismegistos Geo 237)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Counted for its metropolis phase; in the 6th c. (its best-documented period) it was legally a village, though larger than many cities.",
   "sources": [
    "MacCoull, Dioscorus of Aphrodito (1988)",
    "Fournet (ed.), Les archives de Dioscore d'Aphrodité (2008)",
    "Wikipedia: Kom Ishqaw",
    "Ptolemy, Geog. 4.5"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 68,
   "list_group": "Upper Egypt",
   "dates_shown": "c. 100 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af066",
   "latin": "Apollonopolis Heptakomias",
   "greek": "Ἀπόλλωνος πόλις Ἑπτακωμίας",
   "other_names": "Apollonopolis Mikra (Ptolemy); Sbeht (Coptic); Kom Isfaht (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Kom Isfaht",
   "modern_native": "كوم اسفحت",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Kom Isfaht, Asyut Governorate (Abu Tig district)",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Asyut",
   "nome": "Apollonopolite Heptakomias",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 26.94,
   "lon": 31.33,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 756534,
   "tm_geo": 268,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 100,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     100,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "metropolis of a separate nome by the early 2nd c. AD (archive of the strategos Apollonios, 113-120)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Speech: Greek-speaking metropolite class of the Roman period; shift to Coptic in the 6th-7th c. In the early Islamic period the district became the kura of Qahqawa. Administration: the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Few documents from the town itself after the 2nd c.; in the Thebaid Coptic replaced Greek as the language of private letters and contracts during the 6th and 7th c.; Greek survived longer in fiscal documents, protocols and among the landowning and clerical elite. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech here: the Greek-speaking community faded by gradual shift to Coptic. Greek administration ended with the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The Coptic name Sbeht (continued in Arabic Isfaht) is not Greek; its Egyptian original is not securely identified.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Apollonopolite Heptakomias nome; Greek archive of the strategos Apollonios and his family (113-120); a city in Hierocles (Ἀπόλλωνος)",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Apollonopolite Heptakomias nome (Apollonios archive, P.Giss., P.Brem.); Hierocles",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Keep apart from Apollonopolis Mikra/Parva (Qus) and Apollonopolis Magna (Edfu). The Apollonios archive shows a strategos from Hermopolis, an official; the resident Greek-speaking class is inferred from metropolis status.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia: Kom Isfaht",
    "Trismegistos Geo (Apollonopolis Heptakomias)",
    "Kortus, Briefe des Apollonios-Archives (1999)",
    "Bowman & Rathbone, JRS 82 (1992)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 69,
   "list_group": "Upper Egypt",
   "dates_shown": "c. 200 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af081",
   "latin": "Apollonopolis Magna",
   "greek": "Ἀπόλλωνος πόλις ἡ μεγάλη",
   "other_names": "Atbo (Coptic); Idfu/Edfu (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Edfu",
   "modern_native": "إدفو",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Edfu, Aswan Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Aswan",
   "nome": "Apollonopolite",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 24.978,
   "lon": 32.873,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 785974,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -200,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -200,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek ostraca and papyri of residents from the Ptolemaic period (Tell Edfu excavations)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Speech: Greek-speaking settlers, Jews and civic class from the Ptolemaic period; shift to Coptic in the 6th-7th c.; Edfu's medieval documents are Coptic and Arabic. Administration: the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek ostraca of Edfu to the 7th c.; Coptic papyri from Edfu (7th-11th c.); in the Thebaid Coptic replaced Greek as the language of private letters and contracts during the 6th and 7th c.; Greek survived longer in fiscal documents, protocols and among the landowning and clerical elite. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. Work on the temple was halted when the rebels of the great Theban revolt held the region (206-186 BC; Edfu building inscription). Greek administration ended with the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Djeba; Behdet (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Apollonopolite nome; Greek and Demotic ostraca of residents from the Ptolemaic period (Tell Edfu); a Jewish community with Greek names (Greek tax receipts, 1st c. AD); a see",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Apollonopolite nome; see; Hierocles (Ἀπόλλωνος)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "",
   "sources": [
    "Bagnall & Rathbone 2004",
    "Fouilles franco-polonaises, Tell Edfou (1937-1950)",
    "Wikipedia: Edfu"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 70,
   "list_group": "Upper Egypt",
   "dates_shown": "c. 300 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af076",
   "latin": "Apollonopolis Parva (Diocletianopolis)",
   "greek": "Ἀπόλλωνος πόλις ἡ μικρά (Διοκλητιανούπολις)",
   "other_names": "Apollonopolis Mikra; Diocletianopolis (c. 300); Kōs Berbir (Coptic); Qus (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Qus",
   "modern_native": "قوص",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Qus, Qena Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Qena",
   "nome": "Koptite",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 25.917,
   "lon": 32.765,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 785975,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 300,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     300,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "raised to a city as Diocletianopolis under the tetrarchs, c. 300 (first attestation as a city)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Speech: Greek-speaking civic and clerical class of the late Roman city; shift to Coptic in the 6th-7th c.; medieval Qus became the chief Muslim city of Upper Egypt. Administration: the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "In the Thebaid Coptic replaced Greek as the language of private letters and contracts during the 6th and 7th c.; Greek survived longer in fiscal documents, protocols and among the landowning and clerical elite. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech here: the Greek-speaking community faded by gradual shift to Coptic. Greek administration ended with the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Gesa (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "a city as Diocletianopolis in Hierocles and Georgius Cyprius (if the identification holds) and a see; Greek name of the town",
   "status_evidence": "Hierocles 732.3 and Georgius Cyprius 772 (Διοκλητιανούπολις); see (bishop of Apollonopolis Parva at Ephesus, 431?)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Not a nome metropolis; the identification of Diocletianopolis with Qus (Gelzer) is probable but not certain, and Greek-speaking residents are inferred from city and see status. Keep apart from Apollonopolis Heptakomias (Kom Isfaht) and Apollonopolis Magna (Edfu).",
   "sources": [
    "Catholic Encyclopedia: Diocletianopolis",
    "Hierocles, Synecdemus 732.3",
    "Wikipedia: Qus",
    "Timm, Das christlich-koptische Ägypten, s.v. Qus"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 71,
   "list_group": "Upper Egypt",
   "dates_shown": "c. 200 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af075",
   "latin": "Coptos (Koptos)",
   "greek": "Κοπτός",
   "other_names": "Keft/Kebto (Coptic); Qift (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Qift",
   "modern_native": "قفط",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Qift, Qena Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Qena",
   "nome": "Koptite",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 25.995,
   "lon": 32.815,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 786010,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -200,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -200,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek traders and settlers at the Nile end of the Red Sea roads opened by Ptolemy II; Greek dedications at Koptos from the Ptolemaic period",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Speech: Greek-speaking traders and civic class from the Ptolemaic period; the city was taken and partly destroyed twice but rebuilt and remained a see; its last famous bishop, Pisentius (569-632), wrote Coptic. Shift to Coptic in the 6th-7th c. Administration: the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Bishop Pisentius (569-632) preached and wrote in Coptic and fled to the desert during the Persian occupation of Egypt under Shahrbaraz (619-629); in the Thebaid Coptic replaced Greek as the language of private letters and contracts during the 6th and 7th c.; Greek survived longer in fiscal documents, protocols and among the landowning and clerical elite. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. Acts against the city: taken by C. Cornelius Gallus in the Thebaid revolt of 29 BC (Philae stele); occupied with Ptolemais by the Blemmyes and recovered under Probus (c. 279/280; Zosimus 1.71); after a revolt destroyed 'to the ground' together with Busiris by the army of the tetrarchs (Jerome, Chronicle, under 292/293; usually ascribed to Galerius' Thebaid campaign, 293/294, sometimes to Diocletian); the Persian occupation of Egypt under Shahrbaraz (619-629); the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Gebtu (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Koptite nome; Greek merchants and transporters of the Red Sea and India trade (Nikanor archive, 6 BC - AD 62; the Koptos tariff, AD 90); Greek dedications by residents; see",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Koptite nome; Koptos tariff (OGIS 674); see (bishops from the 4th c.); Hierocles (Κοπτώ)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The destruction of 292/293 did not end the city: bishops of Koptos are attested in the 4th-7th c.",
   "sources": [
    "Jerome, Chronicle, a. 292/293",
    "Zosimus 1.71",
    "Philae stele of Cornelius Gallus (29 BC)",
    "Wikipedia: Coptos",
    "Bagnall & Rathbone 2004"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 72,
   "list_group": "Upper Egypt",
   "dates_shown": "325 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af067",
   "latin": "Cusae",
   "greek": "Κοῦσαι",
   "other_names": "Kōs (Greek variant); Kōsei (Coptic); El-Qusiya (Arabic)",
   "modern": "El-Qusiya",
   "modern_native": "القوصية",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "El-Qusiya, Asyut Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Asyut",
   "nome": "Hermopolite (later its own city territory)",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 27.444,
   "lon": 30.817,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 756588,
   "tm_geo": 1176,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 325,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     325,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "first evidence as a city: Achilles, Melitian bishop of Kousai, in the list of 325 (Athanasius, Apol. c. Ar. 71); Hierocles lists it as a city",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Speech: small Greek-speaking civic and clerical class of the late Roman city; shift to Coptic in the 6th-7th c. Administration: the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "In the Thebaid Coptic replaced Greek as the language of private letters and contracts during the 6th and 7th c.; Greek survived longer in fiscal documents, protocols and among the landowning and clerical elite. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech here: the Greek-speaking community faded by gradual shift to Coptic. Greek administration ended with the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Qis (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "a city in Hierocles (Κοῦσαι) and a see from the early 4th c. (Achilles, ordained by Melitius of Lykopolis; Theonas at the council of Constantinople, 553)",
   "status_evidence": "Hierocles (Κοῦσαι); see, suffragan of Antinoopolis (bishops from the Melitian list of 325 to the 6th c.); seat of the Legio II Flavia Constantia in the 5th c. (Notitia dignitatum)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Pharaonic capital of the 14th Upper Egyptian nome; in the Ptolemaic and early Roman period a town of the Hermopolite nome, on the border with the Lykopolite. Greek-speaking residents are inferred from city and see status; the legion does not count.",
   "sources": [
    "Hierocles, Synecdemus",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)",
    "Timm, Das christlich-koptische Ägypten, s.v. el-Qusiya",
    "Wikipedia: Cusae"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 73,
   "list_group": "Upper Egypt",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af072",
   "latin": "Diospolis Parva",
   "greek": "Διὸς πόλις ἡ μικρά",
   "other_names": "Diospolis Mikra; Diospolis Superior (to distinguish it from Diospolis in the Delta); Hou (Coptic); Hiw (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Hiw",
   "modern_native": "هو",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Hiw, Qena Governorate (Nag Hammadi district)",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Qena",
   "nome": "Diospolite (Diospolis Mikra)",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 26.017,
   "lon": 32.283,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 756566,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "nome metropolis under Rome: the Greek-speaking metropolite and gymnasial class was registered in every metropolis from AD 4/5 (boule from 200/201); no earlier town-specific Greek evidence found; metropolis of the Diospolite nome; see; Hierocles (Διόσπολις)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Speech: a small Greek-speaking civic class; shift to Coptic in the 6th-7th c. (the Pachomian monasteries of the district wrote Coptic). Administration: the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Nearby Pachomian foundations (Tabennese, Pbow) wrote Coptic from the 4th c.; in the Thebaid Coptic replaced Greek as the language of private letters and contracts during the 6th and 7th c.; Greek survived longer in fiscal documents, protocols and among the landowning and clerical elite. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech here: the Greek-speaking community faded by gradual shift to Coptic. Greek administration ended with the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Hut-Sekhem (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Diospolite nome with its gymnasial class; a see; a city in Hierocles",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Diospolite nome; see; Hierocles (Διόσπολις)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Greek-speaking residents are inferred mainly from metropolis status; few documents come from the town itself.",
   "sources": [
    "Bowman & Rathbone, JRS 82 (1992)",
    "Timm, Das christlich-koptische Ägypten, s.v. Hu",
    "Wikipedia: Hu, Egypt"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 74,
   "list_group": "Upper Egypt",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af078",
   "latin": "Hermonthis",
   "greek": "Ἑρμῶνθις",
   "other_names": "Ermont (Coptic); Armant (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Armant",
   "modern_native": "أرمنت",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Armant, Luxor Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Luxor",
   "nome": "Hermonthite",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 25.617,
   "lon": 32.54,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 786036,
   "tm_geo": 812,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "nome metropolis under Rome: the Greek-speaking metropolite and gymnasial class was registered in every metropolis from AD 4/5 (boule from 200/201); no earlier town-specific Greek evidence found; metropolis of the Hermonthite nome; see; Hierocles (Ἑρμωνθίς)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Speech: Greek-speaking metropolite class; Bishop Abraham of Hermonthis (c. 600) ran his see in Coptic; shift to Coptic in the 6th-7th c. Administration: the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Coptic archive of Bishop Abraham of Hermonthis (c. 590-620); in the Thebaid Coptic replaced Greek as the language of private letters and contracts during the 6th and 7th c.; Greek survived longer in fiscal documents, protocols and among the landowning and clerical elite. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech here: the Greek-speaking community faded by gradual shift to Coptic. Greek administration ended with the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Iuny (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Hermonthite nome in the Roman period; Greek documents of residents; a see; a city in Hierocles",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Hermonthite nome; see; Hierocles (Ἑρμωνθίς)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The Hermonthite nome took over the territory of the Ptolemaic Pathyrite nome.",
   "sources": [
    "Bowman & Rathbone, JRS 82 (1992)",
    "Krause, Apa Abraham von Hermonthis (1956)",
    "Wikipedia: Armant"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 75,
   "list_group": "Upper Egypt",
   "dates_shown": "c. 126 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af065",
   "latin": "Hypsele (Hypselis)",
   "greek": "Ὑψηλή",
   "other_names": "Shotep (Coptic); Shutb (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Shutb",
   "modern_native": "شطب",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Shutb, Asyut Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Asyut",
   "nome": "Hypselite",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 27.13,
   "lon": 31.16,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 756578,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 126,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     126,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Hypselite nome attested by a nome coin of Hadrian's year 11 (126/127, RPC III 6347); its metropolis in Ptolemy's Geography (mid-2nd c.)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Speech: no Greek writers or archives from the town; its Greek-speaking class was presumably small and shifted to Coptic in the 6th-7th c. Administration: the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Few Greek documents of residents; in the Thebaid Coptic replaced Greek as the language of private letters and contracts during the 6th and 7th c.; Greek survived longer in fiscal documents, protocols and among the landowning and clerical elite. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech here: the Greek-speaking community faded by gradual shift to Coptic. Greek administration ended with the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Shas-hotep (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Hypselite nome in the Roman period; a see in the 4th c. (Arsenius of Hypsele, a Melitian bishop reconciled with Athanasius c. 332-335)",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Hypselite nome (nome coin of Hadrian, 126/127; Ptolemy, Geog. 4.5); see from the early 4th c.; Hierocles (Ὑψηλή)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The Greek-speaking community is inferred from the town's metropolis and see status; direct evidence is thin.",
   "sources": [
    "RPC III 6347",
    "Ptolemy, Geog. 4.5",
    "Athanasius, Apologia contra Arianos 69",
    "Timm, Das christlich-koptische Ägypten, s.v. Schotep",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 76,
   "list_group": "Upper Egypt",
   "dates_shown": "c. 100 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af074",
   "latin": "Kaine (Caene), Maximianopolis",
   "greek": "Καινὴ πόλις (Μαξιμιανούπολις)",
   "other_names": "Kainepolis (Ptolemy); Maximianopolis (4th c.); Kene (Coptic); Qena (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Qena",
   "modern_native": "قنا",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Qena, Qena Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Qena",
   "nome": "Tentyrite (later its own city territory)",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 26.16,
   "lon": 32.72,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 786047,
   "tm_geo": 952,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 100,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     100,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "first attested as Kaine/Kainepolis in the Roman period (Ptolemy, Geog. 4.5; ostraca of the desert roads)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Speech: Greek-speaking settlers and traders of the port town, later the civic and clerical class of Maximianopolis; shift to Coptic in the 6th-7th c. Administration: the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "In the Thebaid Coptic replaced Greek as the language of private letters and contracts during the 6th and 7th c.; Greek survived longer in fiscal documents, protocols and among the landowning and clerical elite. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech here: the Greek-speaking community faded by gradual shift to Coptic. Greek administration ended with the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Greek foundation",
   "founder": "unknown",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Gauthier's identification with an Egyptian place Shabt is uncertain.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Greek name ('New City'); the Nile port for the desert roads to Mons Porphyrites and the Red Sea; a city as Maximianopolis in Hierocles and a see",
   "status_evidence": "Ptolemy, Geog. 4.5 (Καινὴ πόλις); Hierocles (Μαξιμιανούπολις); see (Worp's checklist)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "The Greek name suggests a Ptolemaic or early Roman settlement, but no foundation is recorded; renamed Maximianopolis under the tetrarchs (c. 300) and made a city.",
   "sources": [
    "Ptolemy, Geog. 4.5",
    "Hierocles, Synecdemus",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)",
    "Wikipedia: Qena"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 77,
   "list_group": "Upper Egypt",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af080",
   "latin": "Latopolis",
   "greek": "Λάτων πόλις",
   "other_names": "Sne (Coptic); Isna/Esna (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Esna",
   "modern_native": "إسنا",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Esna, Luxor Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Luxor",
   "nome": "Latopolite",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 25.293,
   "lon": 32.554,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 786059,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "nome metropolis under Rome: the Greek-speaking metropolite and gymnasial class was registered in every metropolis from AD 4/5 (boule from 200/201); no earlier town-specific Greek evidence found; metropolis of the Latopolite nome; see; synod of Latopolis (c. 345); Hierocles (Λάτων)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Speech: Greek-speaking metropolite and clerical class; the temple of Khnum kept Egyptian hieroglyphic texts to the reign of Decius (c. 250); shift to Coptic in the 6th-7th c. Administration: the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Synod of bishops at Latopolis c. 345 that examined Pachomius (Pachomian Life); in the Thebaid Coptic replaced Greek as the language of private letters and contracts during the 6th and 7th c.; Greek survived longer in fiscal documents, protocols and among the landowning and clerical elite. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech here: the Greek-speaking community faded by gradual shift to Coptic. Greek administration ended with the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Iunyt; Ta-senet (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Latopolite nome with its gymnasial class; a see; a city in Hierocles",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Latopolite nome; see; synod of Latopolis (c. 345); Hierocles (Λάτων)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Coptic martyr legends of Esna under Diocletian are hagiography and are not used here.",
   "sources": [
    "Bowman & Rathbone, JRS 82 (1992)",
    "Vita prima Pachomii",
    "Wikipedia: Esna"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 78,
   "list_group": "Upper Egypt",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af064",
   "latin": "Lycopolis",
   "greek": "Λύκων πόλις (Λυκόπολις)",
   "other_names": "Siowt (Coptic); Asyut (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Asyut",
   "modern_native": "أسيوط",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Asyut, Asyut Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Asyut",
   "nome": "Lykopolite",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 27.18,
   "lon": 31.18,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 756593,
   "tm_geo": 1271,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "nome metropolis under Rome: the Greek-speaking metropolite and gymnasial class was registered in every metropolis from AD 4/5 (boule from 200/201); no earlier town-specific Greek evidence found; metropolis of the Lykopolite nome; see by c. 300 (Melitius of Lykopolis, founder of the Melitian schism); a city in Hierocles (Λύκων)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Speech: the Greek-educated class is visible to c. 600 (Greek writers, clergy, documents); everyday speech was Coptic, the town's own Lycopolitan dialect, and medieval Asyut was a Coptic- then Arabic-speaking town. Administration: the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "John of Lycopolis (d. c. 394), the hermit above the town, spoke to the Greek visitor Palladius through an interpreter (Palladius, Lausiac History 35); Coptic literary texts in the Lycopolitan dialect, 4th c.; in the Thebaid Coptic replaced Greek as the language of private letters and contracts during the 6th and 7th c.; Greek survived longer in fiscal documents, protocols and among the landowning and clerical elite. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech here: the Greek-speaking community faded by gradual shift to Coptic. Greek administration ended with the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Zawty (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic: the Lycopolitan dialect)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Lykopolite nome with a Greek-speaking gymnasial class; Greek writers born there: Plotinus (b. c. 205, Eunapius) and Alexander of Lycopolis (c. 300); a see by c. 300",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Lykopolite nome; see by c. 300 (Melitius of Lykopolis, founder of the Melitian schism); a city in Hierocles (Λύκων)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Plotinus' birth at Lycopolis rests on Eunapius and the Suda, not on Porphyry.",
   "sources": [
    "Eunapius, VS 455",
    "Palladius, Lausiac History 35",
    "Bowman & Rathbone, JRS 82 (1992)",
    "Timm, Das christlich-koptische Ägypten, s.v. Asyut",
    "Wikipedia: Asyut"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 79,
   "list_group": "Upper Egypt",
   "dates_shown": "c. 150 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af082",
   "latin": "Ombos (Ombi)",
   "greek": "Ὄμβοι",
   "other_names": "Embo (Coptic); Kom Ombo (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Kom Ombo",
   "modern_native": "كوم أمبو",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Temple of Kom Ombo, Aswan Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Aswan",
   "nome": "Ombite",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 24.452,
   "lon": 32.928,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 786079,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -150,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -150,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek soldiers settled in the Ombite nome under Ptolemy VI (Greek dedication at the temple, 2nd c. BC)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Speech: Greek-speaking settler and metropolite class; the town shrank in late antiquity and the site was later abandoned to the sand; shift to Coptic in the 6th-7th c. Administration: the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "A bishop of Ombos named in a 7th-c. Greek inscription (Lefebvre, Recueil 561); in the Thebaid Coptic replaced Greek as the language of private letters and contracts during the 6th and 7th c.; Greek survived longer in fiscal documents, protocols and among the landowning and clerical elite. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech here: the Greek-speaking community faded by gradual shift to Coptic. Greek administration ended with the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Nubt (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Ombite nome; Greek soldiers and settlers 'in the Ombite nome' dedicated a temple gate under Ptolemy VI; Greek officer Hermias lived there (lawsuit, 117 BC); see",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Ombite nome; Juvenal 15 (feud with Tentyra, AD 127); see (bishops Silvanus and Verres under Theophilus); Hierocles (Ὄμβοι)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The modern town of Kom Ombo lies about 4 km north-east of the ancient site and keeps its name.",
   "sources": [
    "Juvenal 15",
    "Lefebvre, Recueil des inscriptions grecques chrétiennes d'Égypte (1907) 561",
    "Catholic Encyclopedia: Ombus",
    "Wikipedia: Kom Ombo"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 80,
   "list_group": "Upper Egypt",
   "dates_shown": "by AD 5 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af070",
   "latin": "Panopolis",
   "greek": "Πανῶν πόλις (Πανόπολις)",
   "other_names": "Chemmis (Herodotus); Shmin/Khmin (Coptic); Akhmim (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Akhmim",
   "modern_native": "أخميم",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Akhmim, Sohag Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Sohag",
   "nome": "Panopolite",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 26.565,
   "lon": 31.746,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 756613,
   "tm_geo": 1589,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 5,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     5,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "nome metropolis under Rome: the Greek-speaking metropolite and gymnasial class was registered in every metropolis from AD 4/5 (boule from 200/201); no earlier town-specific Greek evidence found; metropolis of the Panopolite nome; gymnasium; boule; see; Hierocles (Πανός)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Speech: a Greek-speaking and Greek-reading elite to the late 5th c. at least (poets, philosophers, pagan notables); the town around it spoke Coptic, and the White Monastery of Shenoute nearby wrote Coptic; Greek documents of residents continue into the 7th c.; medieval Akhmim was a Coptic- then Arabic-speaking town. Administration: the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Pamprepius left Panopolis for Athens and Constantinople (killed 484); Shenoute's Coptic writings against the pagan notables of Panopolis (5th c.); Greek-Coptic bilingual papyri of the 6th-7th c.; in the Thebaid Coptic replaced Greek as the language of private letters and contracts during the 6th and 7th c.; Greek survived longer in fiscal documents, protocols and among the landowning and clerical elite. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. Shenoute of Atripe (d. 465) led monks against the pagan temples of the district and the house of the Greek-educated notable Gessios at Panopolis, which hurt the pagan Greek elite but not Greek as a language. Greek administration ended with the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Ipu; Khent-Min (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Panopolite nome with gymnasium and boule; a centre of Greek letters: Triphiodorus (3rd/4th c.), Zosimus the alchemist (c. 300), Cyrus of Panopolis (5th c.), Nonnus (5th c.), Pamprepius (440-484), Horapollon (5th c.); Greek papyri of residents (P.Panop.Beatty, 298-300; archive of Ammon, 4th c.)",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Panopolite nome; gymnasium; boule; see; Hierocles (Πανός)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Herodotus (2.91) reports Greek-style games for Perseus at Chemmis; this is not evidence of Greek settlers.",
   "sources": [
    "Bowman & Rathbone, JRS 82 (1992)",
    "Cameron, Wandering Poets (1965/2016)",
    "Skeat, P.Panop.Beatty (1964)",
    "Wikipedia: Akhmim"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 81,
   "list_group": "Upper Egypt",
   "dates_shown": "c. 150 BC – 88 BC",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af079",
   "latin": "Pathyris",
   "greek": "Πάθυρις",
   "other_names": "Aphroditopolis (Greek); Gebelein (Arabic)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Gebelein (Nag' el-Gebelein), Luxor Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Luxor",
   "nome": "Pathyrite",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 25.483,
   "lon": 32.483,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 786084,
   "tm_geo": 1628,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -150,
   "greek_until": -88,
   "phases": [
    [
     -150,
     -88
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "military camp set up under Ptolemy VI after the Theban revolt of 206-186 BC; Greek settler families attested from c. 150 BC (Dryton archive)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "The Greek and Demotic archives of Pathyris stop in 88 BC: the camp and town were destroyed in the Theban revolt of that year and the site was never again inhabited on a large scale. The nome was later absorbed into the Hermonthite.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "year",
   "until_range": null,
   "fade_evidence": "Last dated Greek and Demotic papyri of the Pathyris archives, 88 BC.",
   "ended_by": "Destroyed in the Theban revolt of 88 BC, during the war between the Theban rebels and Ptolemy IX Soter II (who crushed the revolt and punished Thebes, Pausanias 1.9.3); scholars differ on whether the rebels or the royal forces destroyed the town.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Per-Hathor; Inerty (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Pathyrite nome in the late 2nd c. BC; Greek soldiers settled there with Egyptian wives: Greek and Demotic family archives of Dryton (a Cretan cavalry officer, citizen of Ptolemais) and Apollonia alias Senmonthis, and of Horos son of Nechoutes",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Pathyrite nome (late 2nd c. BC); hundreds of Greek and Demotic papyri of residents",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Counted as a city only for its short time as nome capital; Krokodilopolis on the other hill of Gebelein was the twin garrison settlement.",
   "sources": [
    "Vandorpe, The Bilingual Family Archive of Dryton (2002)",
    "Vandorpe & Waebens, Reconstructing Pathyris' Archives (2009)",
    "Wikipedia: Gebelein",
    "Pausanias 1.9.3"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 82,
   "list_group": "Upper Egypt",
   "dates_shown": "c. 300 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af071",
   "latin": "Ptolemais Hermiou",
   "greek": "Πτολεμαῒς ἡ Ἑρμείου",
   "other_names": "Psoi (Coptic); El-Mansha (Arabic)",
   "modern": "El-Mansha",
   "modern_native": "المنشاة",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "El-Mansha, Sohag Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Sohag",
   "nome": "Thinite (Ptolemaite)",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 26.48,
   "lon": 31.8,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 756635,
   "tm_geo": 2023,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -300,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -300,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "founded by Ptolemy I Soter as a Greek polis after 312 BC, c. 300 BC (before his death in 283/282)",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Speech: a Greek polis with its own laws to the Roman period (Strabo); its citizens were a privileged Greek body with settlers from the Peloponnese and northern Greece; in late antiquity Coptic prevailed and the city shrank to the small town of El-Mansha. Administration: the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek civic decrees of the boule and demos (3rd-1st c. BC); Strabo 17.1.42 calls it the largest city of the Thebaid, as large as Memphis, with a Greek constitution; see and ecclesiastical metropolis of the Upper Thebaid; Coptic name Psoi; in the Thebaid Coptic replaced Greek as the language of private letters and contracts during the 6th and 7th c.; Greek survived longer in fiscal documents, protocols and among the landowning and clerical elite. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. Events: occupied with Koptos by the Blemmyes and recovered under Probus (c. 279/280; Zosimus 1.71); otherwise gradual shift to Coptic. Greek administration ended with the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Ptolemy I",
   "founder_group": "Alexander and the Ptolemies",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The city was founded at the Egyptian village later called Psoi (Coptic); an Egyptian-script form of the name earlier than the city is not securely attested.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "yes",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Coptic) in late antiquity",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Coptic name Psoi; in late antiquity the town merged into its Coptic-speaking surroundings",
   "status_evidence": "Greek polis with boule, demos, prytaneis and decrees (e.g. OGIS 48); Strabo 17.1.42; see and ecclesiastical metropolis; Hierocles (Πτολεμαΐς); capital of the Upper Thebaid in late antiquity",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Alexandria, Naukratis and Ptolemais were the only Greek poleis of Egypt before Antinoopolis (130).",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 17.1.42",
    "Cohen 2006",
    "Mueller 2006",
    "Wikipedia: Ptolemais Hermiou"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 83,
   "list_group": "Upper Egypt",
   "dates_shown": "311 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af083",
   "latin": "Syene",
   "greek": "Συήνη",
   "other_names": "Souan (Coptic); Aswan (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Aswan",
   "modern_native": "أسوان",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Aswan, Aswan Governorate (with Elephantine island)",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Aswan",
   "nome": "Ombite (Syene and Elephantine)",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 24.088,
   "lon": 32.888,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 786123,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -311,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -311,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek marriage contract of Greek settlers at Elephantine, 311 BC (P.Eleph. 1, the oldest dated Greek papyrus)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Speech: Greek-speaking settler and soldier families from 311 BC; the Patermouthis archive (493-613) shows local soldier and boatman families with Coptic and Egyptian names still writing Greek contracts. The archive ends before the Persian occupation (619-629), which is not evidence that Greek ended; after the Arab conquest Aswan became an Arab frontier town. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek petition of Appion, bishop of Syene, Contra Syene and Elephantine, to Theodosius II and Valentinian III asking for soldiers from Philae to protect his churches against the Blemmyes and Nobades (P.Leid. Z = SB XX 14606, c. 425-450); Patermouthis archive, 493-613 (last Greek private contracts of residents); in the Thebaid Coptic replaced Greek as the language of private letters and contracts during the 6th and 7th c.; Greek survived longer in fiscal documents, protocols and among the landowning and clerical elite. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. Events: Diocletian withdrew the frontier from the Dodekaschoinos to Philae and Elephantine (298; Procopius, Wars 1.19); raids of the Blemmyes and Nobades in the 4th-5th c.; the Persian occupation of Egypt under Shahrbaraz (619-629); the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Aswan was the base for 'Abd Allah ibn Sa'd ibn Abi Sarh's campaign against Makuria and the treaty (baqt) of 652; Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Swenet (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic); Nubian and Blemmyan neighbours",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Greek settlers at Syene and Elephantine from the early Ptolemaic period (P.Eleph. 1, 311 BC); Greek ostraca of residents (Ptolemaic and Roman); a see from the 4th c.; Greek family archive of Patermouthis, soldier and boatman of Syene and Elephantine (493-613)",
   "status_evidence": "see from the 4th c. (Bishop Appion of Syene, 425-450); Syene in Strabo and Ptolemy; Greek documents of residents",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Syene was always a garrison town; it counts here for its Greek settler families, its see and the Patermouthis documents. The fort island of Elephantine opposite is treated with Syene.",
   "sources": [
    "P.Eleph. 1",
    "Farber & Porten, The Patermouthis Archive (in The Elephantine Papyri in English, 1996)",
    "Procopius, Wars 1.19",
    "Wikipedia: Aswan"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 84,
   "list_group": "Upper Egypt",
   "dates_shown": "c. AD 1 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af073",
   "latin": "Tentyra (Tentyris)",
   "greek": "Τέντυρα",
   "other_names": "Tentōre (Coptic); Dendera (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Dendera",
   "modern_native": "دندرة",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Dendera, Qena Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Qena",
   "nome": "Tentyrite",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 26.142,
   "lon": 32.67,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 786127,
   "tm_geo": 2312,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 1,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     1,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek dedication of the Isis propylon by 'those from the metropolis and the nome', year 31 of Augustus, AD 1/2 (OGIS 659; first attestation of the civic body); an earlier Greek dedication by the local strategos Ptolemaios son of Panas, 12 BC",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Speech: Greek-speaking metropolite class of the Roman period; shift to Coptic in the 6th-7th c. Administration: the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Pachomian sources (4th c.) show the bishop of Tentyra among Coptic-speaking monks; in the Thebaid Coptic replaced Greek as the language of private letters and contracts during the 6th and 7th c.; Greek survived longer in fiscal documents, protocols and among the landowning and clerical elite. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech here: the Greek-speaking community faded by gradual shift to Coptic. Greek administration ended with the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Iunet; Ta-netjeret (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Coptic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "metropolis of the Tentyrite nome; Greek dedications of temple buildings by 'those from the metropolis and the nome' (propylon of the Isis temple, AD 1; pronaos of the Hathor temple, AD 35/36); see (Sarapion of Tentyra, 4th c.)",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Tentyrite nome; Greek civic dedications (AD 1, AD 35/36); Juvenal 15 on the feud of Tentyra and Ombos (AD 127); see; Hierocles (Τέντυρα)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "",
   "sources": [
    "OGIS 659",
    "Juvenal 15",
    "Vita prima Pachomii",
    "Wikipedia: Dendera"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 85,
   "list_group": "Upper Egypt",
   "dates_shown": "c. 250 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af077",
   "latin": "Thebes (Diospolis Magna)",
   "greek": "Διὸς πόλις ἡ μεγάλη (Θῆβαι)",
   "other_names": "Diospolis Megale; Djeme (Coptic, the west-bank town); Luxor (Arabic al-Uqsur)",
   "modern": "Luxor",
   "modern_native": "الأقصر",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Luxor (Karnak and Luxor temples, east bank), Luxor Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Luxor",
   "nome": "Theban (Perithebas)",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid",
   "lat": 25.7,
   "lon": 32.64,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 786017,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -250,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -250,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek residents and Greek documents at Thebes from the 3rd c. BC",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Speech: a Greek-speaking minority from the 3rd c. BC; Thebes was reduced to a group of villages after 88 BC (Strabo 17.1.46) but Greek ostraca of residents continue through the Roman period; in the 6th-8th c. the Theban towns (Djeme) used Coptic for their own contracts and letters, with Greek formulae and protocols. Administration: the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi). After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Thousands of Greek ostraca from Thebes (Ptolemaic to 7th c.); the Coptic legal documents of Djeme (7th-8th c.); in the Thebaid Coptic replaced Greek as the language of private letters and contracts during the 6th and 7th c.; Greek survived longer in fiscal documents, protocols and among the landowning and clerical elite. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech. Acts against the city: held by the rebel pharaohs Haronnophris and Chaonnophris in the great Theban revolt (206-186 BC); sacked by Ptolemy IX Soter II after the revolt of 88-86 BC (Pausanias 1.9.3); taken by C. Cornelius Gallus in the revolt of 29 BC (Philae stele); legionary fortress built in the Luxor temple under Diocletian (c. 300); the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (Alexandria surrendered 641, evacuated 642; Upper Egypt passed under Arab rule with it); Arabic replaced Greek in the government registers in 706 on the order of the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik (al-Kindi).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Waset (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Greek residents from the 3rd c. BC (Greek tax receipts and bank documents; the lawsuit of the Greek officer Hermias over a house in Thebes, 117 BC); metropolis of the Theban nome with its gymnasial class in the Roman period",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Theban nome (Diospolis Magna); Greek documents of residents",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Arabic al-Uqsur ('the castles') refers to the Roman fortress and temples, not to an ancient name of the city. Strabo already describes Thebes as villages, but the Greek-writing community did not disappear.",
   "sources": [
    "Pausanias 1.9.3",
    "Strabo 17.1.46",
    "Philae stele of Cornelius Gallus (29 BC)",
    "Wikipedia: Thebes, Egypt",
    "Bagnall & Rathbone 2004"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 86,
   "list_group": "Red Sea coast and the oases",
   "dates_shown": "c. 270 BC – c. AD 750",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af084",
   "latin": "Arsinoe (Cleopatris), later Clysma",
   "greek": "Ἀρσινόη (Κλεοπατρίς), later Κλῦσμα",
   "other_names": "Kleopatris (Strabo 17.1.25-26); Klysma (Roman and later; Hierocles); Peklousma (Coptic); al-Qulzum (Arabic, after the conquest; hence Bahr al-Qulzum, the Arabic name of the Red Sea)",
   "modern": "Suez",
   "modern_native": "السويس",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Kom el-Qolzum (Tell el-Qulzum), north side of Suez, Suez Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Suez",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Red Sea coast (Augustamnica)",
   "lat": 29.97,
   "lon": 32.56,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 727101,
   "tm_geo": 2794,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -270,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     -270,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "founded by Ptolemy II at the head of the Gulf of Suez, at the end of his Nile-Red Sea canal, and named after his sister-wife Arsinoe II, c. 270 BC (Strabo 17.1.25-26; the Pithom stele records a foundation named Arsinoe, which may be this one); later renamed Kleopatris; rebuilt as Klysma under Trajan, early 2nd c. AD",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Klysma was a Greek-speaking port town and bishop's see into the 6th c. (bishops to 553; pilgrims describe its port and church c. 570). Administration: taken with Egypt by the Arabs in 641; 'Amr ibn al-'As reopened the canal to the port, now al-Qulzum, to ship Egyptian grain to Arabia; Greek orders of the governor Qurra ibn Sharik (708-710) name it only as the base of the Arab fleet. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "bishops Iakob (before 347), Tithoes and Paulos (347), Poimen (458/459) and Stephanos (Council of Constantinople, 553) (Worp 1994); Egeria (c. 383/384) and the Piacenza pilgrim (c. 570) describe the port and its church; after the conquest Klysma appears in Greek papyri only as the base of the Arab fleet, in orders of the governor Qurra ibn Sharik to Aphrodito (P. Lond. IV 1346 and 1383, 708-710), which are administrative Greek, not evidence of Greek speakers at Klysma. Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "Taken with the rest of Egypt by the Arabs under 'Amr ibn al-'As, 641; under the caliphs the port became al-Qulzum. No named act ended Greek speech there. Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Ptolemy II (Arsinoe); rebuilt by Trajan (Klysma)",
   "founder_group": "Alexander and the Ptolemies",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "royal foundation of Ptolemy II (Pithom stele; Strabo 17.1.25-26); Klysma a bishop's see 347-553 (Worp, ZPE 100, 1994); Klysma listed by Hierocles (as a kastron)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The Ptolemaic town and Roman Klysma are usually placed at or near Kom el-Qolzum on the north side of Suez; some scholars put Arsinoe a few km away. Treated as one place; the mound is now largely built over.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 17.1.25-26",
    "Cohen 2006",
    "Worp, ZPE 100 (1994)",
    "P. Lond. IV 1346",
    "Trismegistos Geo 2794"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Arsinoe -> Kleopatris (renamed under a Cleopatra, same place) -> Klysma (rebuilt by Trajan, early 2nd c. AD; same area)"
  },
  {
   "no": 87,
   "list_group": "Red Sea coast and the oases",
   "dates_shown": "c. 275 BC – c. AD 525",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af087",
   "latin": "Berenice Troglodytica",
   "greek": "Βερενίκη ἡ Τρωγλοδυτική",
   "other_names": "Berenike Trogodytike; Berenike (Strabo, Pliny); the nearby modern town Berenice (Baranis) takes its name from it",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Medinet el-Haras, south of the town of Berenice (Baranis), Red Sea Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Red Sea",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Red Sea coast (Thebaid)",
   "lat": 23.909,
   "lon": 35.473,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 785986,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -275,
   "greek_until": 525,
   "phases": [
    [
     -275,
     525
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "founded by Ptolemy II and named after his mother Berenike I (Pliny NH 6.168; Strabo 17.1.45), c. 275 BC; the earliest excavated levels are of the 3rd c. BC",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "The port shrank in the late 3rd c., revived in the 4th-5th c. and was abandoned some time before the mid-6th c.; the last shrine went out of use by the early 6th c. The bay later silted up and the site was never reoccupied.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    500,
    550
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek ostraca and papyri of the 1st c. AD (O. Berenike I-III) beside Latin, Tamil-Brahmi, Prakrit, Hebrew, Palmyrene and South Arabian texts; late Roman church; Greek inscriptions of Blemmyan kings (late 4th-5th c.); pottery of the last phase runs to the early 6th c.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: abandoned before the mid-6th c., after a last phase under Blemmyan kings (Isemne, Kabantia); the excavators point to the collapse of the Red Sea trade. No destruction is recorded.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Ptolemy II",
   "founder_group": "Alexander and the Ptolemies",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "no known",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "yes",
   "other_language": "Blemmyan (in the last phase, late 4th to early 6th c.), beside Egyptian",
   "bilingual_evidence": "in the last phase the town had a Blemmyan population and was apparently ruled by Blemmyan kings: Greek inscriptions of the late 4th-5th c. name the kings Isemne and Kabantia, and the late Falcon Shrine served Blemmyan worshippers (Oller Guzman et al., AJA 126, 2022); Greek remained the written language",
   "status_evidence": "royal foundation of Ptolemy II (Pliny NH 6.168); seat of the praefectus montis Berenicidis in the Roman period; Greek ostraca and papyri of residents; excavations 1994-2001 and from 2008",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "A multilingual port town (Greek, Egyptian, Latin, Indian, South Arabian and Aksumite visitors and residents); Greek was the main language of its documents. How far the Blemmyes controlled the last town is debated.",
   "sources": [
    "Pliny NH 6.168",
    "Strabo 17.1.45",
    "Sidebotham, Berenike and the Ancient Maritime Spice Route (2011)",
    "Oller Guzman et al., AJA 126 (2022) 567-591",
    "Cohen 2006"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 88,
   "list_group": "Red Sea coast and the oases",
   "dates_shown": "c. 300 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af088",
   "latin": "Hibis",
   "greek": "Ἵβις (Ὄασις πόλις)",
   "other_names": "'the city of Oasis' (Hdt. 3.26); Hibiton polis ('city of the Hibites'); Ibis; Hebet (Egyptian); metropolis of the Great Oasis (Oasis Magna); the town site is now called Ain Turba (Arabic)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Ain Turba and the Temple of Hibis, with the Bagawat necropolis to the north, 2-3 km north of El-Kharga, New Valley Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "New Valley",
   "nome": "Great Oasis (Oasis Magna)",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid (Great Oasis)",
   "lat": 25.481,
   "lon": 30.556,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 776181,
   "tm_geo": 2786,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 300,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     300,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek-writing civic elite first clearly attested c. 300: the wealthy Hellenized households of Ain Turba (late 3rd-early 4th c., with an Iliad school tablet) and the councillors of the 4th c. Hibis had long been the seat of the administration of the Great Oasis (prefects' edicts of AD 49 and 68 published at its temple), but that is official Greek. Herodotus (3.26) says that in 525 BC 'the city of Oasis' was held by Samians 'said to be of the Aeschrionian tribe'; this single report is not counted as the start of a Greek city.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: the oasis passed under Arab rule after the conquest of Egypt (641); Greek stayed in the government of Egypt until 706. Speech: Greek graffiti at Bagawat still name the 'polis of Hibis' in the 7th-8th c.; a Coptic graffito of 784-883 at Gebel el-Teir shows the town still existed, by then writing Coptic. Greek gave way to Coptic and then Arabic.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "4th-c. Greek and Coptic ostraca and an Iliad school tablet from the Ain Turba houses (Bagnall & Tallet 2015); Greek graffiti at Bagawat of the 7th-8th c.; Coptic graffito of 784-883 at Gebel el-Teir",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek: the Blemmyes raided the Oasis c. 440-450 and carried off the exiled Nestorius (Nestorius' letters in Evagrius, HE 1.7), and the nearby monastery of Deir el-Bagawat was given up in the mid-5th c., possibly after such raids, but the town survived; after the Arab conquest of Egypt by 'Amr ibn al-'As (641/642) Greek faded as Coptic and then Arabic took over.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Hebet (Egyptian)",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "administrative centre of the Great Oasis; probable councillors (bouleutai) in the 4th-c. Douch ostraca; a polis in P. Lips. I 64 (368/9); houses of a Hellenized elite at Ain Turba (late 3rd-4th c.) with Greek ostraca and a school tablet with Iliad phrases beside Coptic letters; Greek graffiti at Bagawat naming the 'polis of Hibis' (7th-8th c.)",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Great Oasis; bouleutai late 3rd-4th c. (Douch ostraca, as interpreted by Bagnall & Tallet 2015); polis in P. Lips. I 64 (368/9); see of the Great Oasis (Oasis Magna) in Thebaid I in the later lists of sees",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The Samians of Hdt. 3.26 are often taken as Greek traders settled in the oasis under Amasis; nothing else is known of them. Bagnall and Tallet (2019) stress how little is known of the administration of the oasis. The ancient town lies largely under fields. The Demotic ostraca of the Persian period from Ayn Manawir in the same oasis (5th-4th c. BC; Chauveau) show an Egyptian-speaking farming community and no Greek settlers, which supports not opening a Greek phase in 525 BC.",
   "sources": [
    "Hdt. 3.26",
    "Bagnall & Tallet, ZPE 196 (2015)",
    "Bagnall & Tallet (eds.), The Great Oasis of Egypt (2019)",
    "Evagrius, HE 1.7",
    "Wagner, Les oasis d'Egypte (1987)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 89,
   "list_group": "Red Sea coast and the oases",
   "dates_shown": "c. 299 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af089",
   "latin": "Mothis",
   "greek": "Μῶθις",
   "other_names": "Mothiton polis ('city of the Mothites'); Mathon",
   "modern": "Mut",
   "modern_native": "موط",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Mut el-Kharab, on the edge of Mut, Dakhla Oasis, New Valley Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "New Valley",
   "nome": "Mothite",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid (Great Oasis)",
   "lat": 25.487,
   "lon": 28.973,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 776202,
   "tm_geo": 3154,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 299,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     299,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "'the city of the Mothites' in Greek contracts from Kellis of c. 299 (SB XXIV 15901, restored) and 320 (P. Kell. I Gr. 52); capital of the Mothite nome, probably created about then; listed as a polis beside Hibis and Trimithis in P. Lips. I 64 (368/9)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Pottery and a church show the town in use to the 6th-7th c. and later (Fatimid and Mamluk pottery). No Greek texts of residents later than the 4th-5th c. have been published, but documentation from the oasis is thin after c. 400, so the silence is not evidence of an early end. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "4th-c. Greek and Coptic papyri of the Mothite nome (Kellis); church and pottery to the 6th-7th c. (Dakhleh Oasis Project). Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town lived on, and Greek gave way to Coptic and then Arabic after the Arab conquest of Egypt (641). Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Mt (Egyptian)?",
   "pre_greek_note": "The Dakhleh Oasis Project gives the Egyptian name as Mt/Mrt; Trismegistos and the 4CARE gazetteer give Pa-Mwt (with a query in Trismegistos).",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "capital of the Mothite nome and a polis from c. 299 (Kellis contracts; P. Lips. I 64, 368/9); seat of a bishop in the 4th c.; Greek and Coptic documents from the nome (Kellis papyri) show a Greek-writing local elite tied to the city",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Mothite nome; polis in SB XXIV 15901 (c. 299), P. Kell. I Gr. 52 (320) and P. Lips. I 64 (368/9); bishop's seat in the 4th c.; Trismegistos Places 3154",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Most Greek evidence for the Mothite nome comes from the village of Kellis; the city itself is little excavated, and the date of the Mothite nome is not certain (Bagnall and Tallet 2019 warn that the administration of the oasis is poorly known).",
   "sources": [
    "Hope, Mut el-Kharab (Dakhleh Oasis Project)",
    "P. Lips. I 64",
    "Bagnall & Tallet (eds.), The Great Oasis of Egypt (2019)",
    "Trismegistos Geo 3154"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 90,
   "list_group": "Red Sea coast and the oases",
   "dates_shown": "c. 150 BC – c. AD 250",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af086",
   "latin": "Myos Hormos",
   "greek": "Μυὸς Ὅρμος",
   "other_names": "Mus Hormos; the site was reoccupied as the medieval port of Quseir al-Qadim (Arabic)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Quseir al-Qadim, 8 km north of El-Quseir, Red Sea Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Red Sea",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Red Sea coast (Thebaid)",
   "lat": 26.157,
   "lon": 34.242,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 786069,
   "tm_geo": 3156,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -150,
   "greek_until": 250,
   "phases": [
    [
     -150,
     250
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Ptolemaic harbour, first named by Agatharchides (mid-2nd c. BC; Diod. 3.39); a foundation under Ptolemy II is often assumed, but the excavations found little Ptolemaic material; the Roman port town flourished from the late 1st c. BC",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "The Roman harbour silted and the town was given up; the excavators date the end of Roman occupation to the 3rd c., with the harbour largely disused by the mid-2nd c. The site was reoccupied only as the Islamic port of Quseir al-Qadim (12th-15th c.).",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    150,
    300
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek ostraca and papyri of the 1st-2nd c. AD (letters, accounts, customs passes) beside Latin, South Arabian, Tamil and Nabataean texts; no Roman occupation layers after the 3rd c.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: abandoned as the harbour silted and the trade moved to Berenike and Klysma (excavators' view).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "the Ptolemies (probably Ptolemy II)",
   "founder_group": "Alexander and the Ptolemies",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ptolemaic and Roman port town (Strabo 16.4.24, 17.1.45; Periplus 1, 19); identified by Peacock and Blue's excavations; Greek ostraca and papyri of residents; no civic institutions attested",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "A port town of traders, soldiers and officials with no attested civic institutions; included as a Ptolemaic port settlement with Greek-speaking residents, as Cohen and Mueller treat it.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 17.1.45",
    "Periplus Maris Erythraei 1, 19",
    "Peacock & Blue, Myos Hormos - Quseir al-Qadim (2006, 2011)",
    "Cohen 2006",
    "Wikipedia: Myos Hormos"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 91,
   "list_group": "Red Sea coast and the oases",
   "dates_shown": "c. 270 BC – c. AD 150",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af085",
   "latin": "Philotera",
   "greek": "Φιλωτέρα",
   "other_names": "Philoteras Limen (Ptolemy, Geog. 4.5)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "unlocated; Red Sea coast between the Gulf of Suez and Quseir (Mersa Gawasis and the Safaga area have been proposed), Red Sea Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Red Sea",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Red Sea coast",
   "lat": 26.55,
   "lon": 34.04,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -270,
   "greek_until": 150,
   "phases": [
    [
     -270,
     150
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "founded under Ptolemy II by his officer Satyros and named after the king's sister Philotera, c. 270 BC (Strabo 16.4.5, after Artemidorus; Pithom stele)",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Nothing is known of the town after its foundation; Strabo's source (c. 100 BC) still names it and Ptolemy's Geography (mid-2nd c. AD) lists only a harbour of that name. No remains have been identified.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -100,
    200
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "last named by Ptolemy, Geog. 4.5 (mid-2nd c. AD), as a harbour",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the place is unlocated and simply drops out of the sources.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Ptolemy II (through Satyros)",
   "founder_group": "Alexander and the Ptolemies",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "royal foundation of Ptolemy II (Strabo 16.4.5); Cohen 2006 (Red Sea foundations)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Included as a named royal foundation; no town remains or Greek documents of residents are known, and it may never have been more than a harbour settlement.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 16.4.5",
    "Ptolemy, Geog. 4.5",
    "Cohen 2006",
    "Mueller 2006"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 92,
   "list_group": "Red Sea coast and the oases",
   "dates_shown": "c. AD 1 – c. 750",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af091",
   "latin": "Psobthis",
   "greek": "Ψῶβθις",
   "other_names": "chief place of the Small Oasis (Oasis Parva); the oasis was later called the 'Oasis of Oxyrhynchus' (Coptic period) and the 'Oasis of el-Bahnasa' (Arabic)",
   "modern": "El-Qasr",
   "modern_native": "القصر",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "El-Qasr, beside El-Bawiti, Bahariya Oasis, Giza Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Giza",
   "nome": "Small Oasis (tied to the Oxyrhynchite)",
   "ancient_region": "Aegyptus (Heptanomia/Arcadia), Small Oasis",
   "lat": 28.35,
   "lon": 28.851,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": 8248,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 1,
   "greek_until": 750,
   "phases": [
    [
     1,
     750
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek dedications from the town, c. AD 1 (SB XXII 15621; SEG LIII 1956); earlier Greek presence in the oasis (Alexander's temple of Ammon at Qasr el-Miqisba; Greco-Roman necropolis at El-Bawiti) does not show a civic community",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Greek ostraca of the oasis run to the early 5th c., a pagarch is attested in the 5th-6th c., and 5th-c. churches carry Greek inscriptions; the later oasis was Coptic-speaking ('Oasis of Oxyrhynchus') and then Arabic. Later Greek evidence is lacking, but so is evidence of any kind. After 641: no evidence either way for Greek speakers in the town, so the end is the Egypt-wide estimate, c. 750 (650-850).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    850
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek ostraca dated 374/5-412/3 (era years); Bir Shawish ostraca to 403 and the 5th c.; 5th-c. churches with Greek inscriptions (found 2019-2021). Egypt-wide markers: see the Egypt-wide estimate.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: Greek faded in late antiquity and after the Arab conquest of Egypt (641); the oasis later became Muslim. Under Arab rule the governor 'Abd Allah ibn 'Abd al-Malik had the registers kept in Arabic from 705/706 (al-Kindi); this ended Greek as the language of government, and no ban on Greek speech is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Pa-sbt (Egyptian)?",
   "pre_greek_note": "Egyptian form as given by Trismegistos (with the gloss 'the wall'); no hieroglyphic or Demotic attestation is cited.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Demotic, then Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "called the metropolis of the Small Oasis (Wagner 1987; Trismegistos); Greek dedications from the town of the 1st c. AD (SB XXII 15621; SEG LIII 1956); Greek ostraca of the oasis, 374/5-412/3; 5th-c. churches with Greek inscriptions",
   "status_evidence": "metropolis of the Small Oasis according to Wagner 1987 and Trismegistos Places 8248; Greek dedications of the 1st c. AD; no boule, gymnasium or bishop known",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "The Small Oasis was closely tied to the Oxyrhynchite nome, and its civic status is poorly documented; included only on the evidence that Psobthis was the metropolis of the oasis.",
   "sources": [
    "Wagner, Les oasis d'Egypte (1987) 197-198",
    "Trismegistos Geo 8248",
    "Bagnall, review of Wagner (BASP)",
    "Wikipedia: Bahariya Oasis"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 93,
   "list_group": "Red Sea coast and the oases",
   "dates_shown": "304 – c. 400",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af090",
   "latin": "Trimithis",
   "greek": "Τριμίθις",
   "other_names": "",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Amheida, Dakhla Oasis, New Valley Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "New Valley",
   "nome": "Mothite",
   "ancient_region": "Thebaid (Great Oasis)",
   "lat": 25.668,
   "lon": 28.871,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 776235,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 304,
   "greek_until": 400,
   "phases": [
    [
     304,
     400
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "a village that became a polis by 304, when a Greek contract from Kellis names a man 'from the city of the Trimithites' (P. Kell. I Gr. 49); the date of the grant is unknown. The house of the councillor Serenos (c. 340-365), the Greek school and P. Lips. I 64 (368/9) show the city in the mid-4th c.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "The town declined after the 360s (the house of Serenos abandoned c. 365); coins run to the end of the 4th or the early 5th c., when dunes covered the town. It was never reoccupied.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    375,
    425
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "house B1 (Serenos) abandoned c. 365; coins to the late 4th/early 5th c.; sand invasion at the end of the 4th c. or soon after (Davoli in An Oasis City, 2015)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: decline after the 360s and abandonment around 400, as dunes invaded the town and the water supply failed (excavators' view).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Egyptian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Egyptian (Coptic)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "a polis by 304 (P. Kell. I Gr. 49) and beside Hibis and Mothis in P. Lips. I 64 (368/9); house of the city councillor Serenos with household records in Greek; a school (mid-4th c.) with Greek verses painted on the walls; Greek ostraca of residents (O. Trim.)",
   "status_evidence": "polis in P. Kell. I Gr. 49 (304) and P. Lips. I 64 (368/9); councillor Serenos (O. Trim.); NYU excavations from 2004",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Kellis, 30 km to the east, has richer Greek papyri but remained a village.",
   "sources": [
    "Bagnall et al., An Oasis City (2015)",
    "Ast & Bagnall, O. Trim. I (2016)",
    "P. Kell. I Gr. 49",
    "P. Lips. I 64"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 94,
   "list_group": "Cyrenaica and Marmarica",
   "dates_shown": "c. 150 BC – c. AD 600",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af102",
   "latin": "Antiphrae (Marina el-Alamein)",
   "greek": "Ἀντίφραι",
   "other_names": "Leukaspis (Λευκάσπις)? (both names are proposed for the excavated town)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Marina El Alamein, Matrouh Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Matrouh",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Marmarica",
   "lat": 30.83,
   "lon": 29.05,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 716524,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -150,
   "greek_until": 600,
   "phases": [
    [
     -150,
     600
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "the excavated town at Marina el-Alamein was founded in the second half of the 2nd c. BC (Polish excavations)",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "The town declined after an earthquake in the mid-3rd c. AD and was abandoned at the end of the 6th or beginning of the 7th c.; Greek speech ended with the abandonment.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    550,
    650
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek public inscriptions for Trajan or Hadrian, for the prefect of Egypt T. Flavius Titianus (129) and for Commodus (182-183); church of c. 400; bishops of Antiphrai Menas (362) and Apollo (458/459); desertion c. 600.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town shrank after the mid-3rd-c. earthquake (natural) and was deserted c. 600, before the Arab conquest of 642.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "forum/agora, civic basilica, baths and Greek public inscriptions; see of Antiphrai (bishops 362, 458/459), if the identification holds",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The ancient name of the Marina el-Alamein town is not secure (Antiphrai or Leukaspis). The site lies at the western edge of the Mareotis and may also appear among the Egyptian cities.",
   "sources": [
    "Daszewski, Marina el-Alamein reports (PCMA)",
    "PATHs: Marina el-Alamein",
    "Wikipedia: Diocese of Antiphrae"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 95,
   "list_group": "Cyrenaica and Marmarica",
   "dates_shown": "c. 100 – c. 642",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af100",
   "latin": "Antipyrgus",
   "greek": "Ἀντίπυργος",
   "other_names": "Tubruq (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Tobruk",
   "modern_native": "طبرق",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Tobruk, Butnan District",
   "country": "Libya",
   "admin1": "Butnan",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Marmarica",
   "lat": 32.08,
   "lon": 23.96,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 100,
   "greek_until": 642,
   "phases": [
    [
     100,
     642
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "first named as a harbour of Marmarica in Roman-period sources (Ptolemy; Stadiasmus Maris Magni); a see in late antiquity",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: a harbour town and see of Libya Inferior until 'Amr ibn al-'As's advance through Marmarica, 642. Speech: Greek after the conquest is not attested. There is no evidence either way on how long Greek speakers stayed: no Greek text of a resident is known from after 642, and the Arabic accounts of the conquest of Barqa name only the Lawata Berbers as the party to the treaty (Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam). The end date is that of the conquest, and the range allows for a remnant.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    642,
    700
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "bishop Serapion at Nicaea, 325; Aemilianus at the council of Constantinople, 553; Justinian made it a garrisoned stronghold against the Moors (Procopius, Buildings 6.2.2); no later Greek evidence.",
   "ended_by": "Arab conquest of Marmarica by 'Amr ibn al-'As, 642; no named later act.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Greek name; harbour town; see of Libya Inferior (Serapion at Nicaea 325; Aemilianus 553); stronghold under Justinian",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Positive evidence of a resident Greek-speaking civic community is thin: a Greek name, a harbour and a see in a province whose hinterland was Libyan.",
   "sources": [
    "Ptolemy, Geography 4.5",
    "Stadiasmus Maris Magni",
    "Le Quien, Oriens Christianus II",
    "Wikipedia: Tobruk"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 96,
   "list_group": "Cyrenaica and Marmarica",
   "dates_shown": "c. 600 BC – c. AD 643",
   "period": "1 Before Alexander (c. 640-332 BC)",
   "id": "af093",
   "latin": "Apollonia (Cyrenaica)",
   "greek": "Ἀπολλωνία",
   "other_names": "Sozousa (Σώζουσα, late-antique name); Marsa Susa (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Susa",
   "modern_native": "سوسة",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Susa (Marsa Susa), Jabal al Akhdar District",
   "country": "Libya",
   "admin1": "Jabal al Akhdar",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Cyrenaica (Pentapolis)",
   "lat": 32.9,
   "lon": 21.97,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 373732,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -600,
   "greek_until": 643,
   "phases": [
    [
     -600,
     643
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "harbour of Cyrene from its early years (earliest finds c. 600 BC); an independent city of the Pentapolis from the Hellenistic period (2nd-1st c. BC)",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: seat of the governor of Libya Superior in the 6th c.; Roman rule ended with the Arab conquest, 642/643. Speech: Greek after 643 is not attested; the town seems to have shrunk to little after the conquest. There is no evidence either way on how long Greek speakers stayed after the conquest: no Greek inscription, papyrus or letter of a resident is known from after 643, and the Arabic accounts of the conquest name only the Lawata Berbers as the party to the treaty of Barqa and its tribute (Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam, Futuh Misr), saying nothing of the Greek townspeople. The end date is therefore that of the conquest, and the range allows for a Greek-speaking remnant.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    643,
    700
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "damage in the earthquake of 365 and subsidence of the harbour (natural); 5th-6th c. churches and the governor's palace with Greek inscriptions; no Greek text after 643. The modern town was founded in 1897 by Muslim refugees from Crete, many Greek-speaking: later newcomers, not a continuation of the ancient community.",
   "ended_by": "Arab conquest of the Pentapolis by 'Amr ibn al-'As, 642/643 (Barqa capitulated and agreed a tribute of 13,000 dinars: Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam; al-Baladhuri; al-Bakri); no named later act. Earlier: the earthquake of 365 (natural) and the raids of Synesius' time.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Cyrene (as its harbour)",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Arabic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Pentapolis city (Strabo 17.3.20 as harbour of Cyrene; independent city from the Hellenistic period); renamed Sozousa and seat of the governor of Libya Superior; see in late antiquity",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The move of the governor's seat from Ptolemais is dated to the 5th or 6th c.; one recent study puts it c. 468-470.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 17.3.20",
    "Laronde 1987",
    "Goodchild 1976",
    "Wikipedia: Apollonia (Cyrenaica)"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Renamed Sozousa in late antiquity (same site)"
  },
  {
   "no": 97,
   "list_group": "Cyrenaica and Marmarica",
   "dates_shown": "c. 637 BC – c. 570 BC",
   "period": "1 Before Alexander (c. 640-332 BC)",
   "id": "af106",
   "latin": "Aziris",
   "greek": "Ἄζιρις",
   "other_names": "",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Wadi el-Khalij, near Bomba on the Gulf of Bomba, Derna District",
   "country": "Libya",
   "admin1": "Derna",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Marmarica",
   "lat": 32.43,
   "lon": 23.14,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": null,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -637,
   "greek_until": -570,
   "phases": [
    [
     -637,
     -570
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "the Theraean colonists moved from Platea to Aziris and stayed six years before moving to Cyrene in 631 BC (Hdt. 4.157-158); Greek pottery from c. 640 BC at the site",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Herodotus has the colonists leave for Cyrene after six years; the excavated pottery runs to c. 570 BC, so a small Greek settlement stayed on until then.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    -580,
    -560
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "excavated pottery from c. 640 to c. 570 BC.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the colonists moved to Cyrene, guided by Libyans, c. 631 BC (Hdt. 4.158); the remaining settlement was given up c. 570 BC.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Theraeans under Battos I",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Thera",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "seat of the Theraean colony for six years (Hdt. 4.157-158); excavated Greek settlement",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "It housed the whole colonial community before Cyrene, but it was a temporary seat rather than a lasting city.",
   "sources": [
    "Hdt. 4.157-158",
    "Boardman, BSA 61 (1966)",
    "Laronde 1987"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 98,
   "list_group": "Cyrenaica and Marmarica",
   "dates_shown": "c. 560 BC – c. AD 643",
   "period": "1 Before Alexander (c. 640-332 BC)",
   "id": "af094",
   "latin": "Barca (Barke)",
   "greek": "Βάρκη",
   "other_names": "Barqa (Arabic; capital of the Arab province, whose name passed to all Cyrenaica)",
   "modern": "Al Marj",
   "modern_native": "المرج",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "old town of Al Marj (destroyed by the 1963 earthquake), Marj District",
   "country": "Libya",
   "admin1": "Marj",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Cyrenaica (Pentapolis)",
   "lat": 32.49,
   "lon": 20.83,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 373750,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": 1025,
   "greek_from": -560,
   "greek_until": 643,
   "phases": [
    [
     -560,
     643
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "founded c. 560-550 BC by brothers of King Arkesilaos II of Cyrene who quarrelled with him (Hdt. 4.160)",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Administration: Barke capitulated to 'Amr ibn al-'As in 642/643 and became Barqa, capital of the Arab province. Speech: Greek after 643 is not attested; Arab writers describe its people as Berbers (Lawata) and Arabs. There is no evidence either way on how long Greek speakers stayed after the conquest: no Greek inscription, papyrus or letter of a resident is known from after 643, and the Arabic accounts of the conquest name only the Lawata Berbers as the party to the treaty of Barqa and its tribute (Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam, Futuh Misr), saying nothing of the Greek townspeople. The end date is therefore that of the conquest, and the range allows for a Greek-speaking remnant.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    643,
    800
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "sacked by the Persians, 515/514 BC; eclipsed by its harbour Ptolemais from the 3rd c. BC and a small town under Rome; bishops Zopyros (325), Zenobios (431), Theodoros (449); al-Bakri (11th c.) describes Barqa as a prosperous Muslim town exporting wool and honey; decline after the Banu Hilal invasion (11th c.).",
   "ended_by": "Capitulated to 'Amr ibn al-'As, 642/643, agreeing a tribute of 13,000 dinars (Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam; al-Baladhuri; al-Bakri). Earlier: besieged and sacked by the Persian satrap Aryandes for Pheretime, 515/514 BC, part of its people deported to Bactria by Darius I (Hdt. 4.200-204). No named act ends Greek speech after 643. Later: c. 688-690 an imperial force landed in Cyrenaica and killed the Arab commander Zuhayr ibn Qays al-Balawi near Barqa, and Barqa was briefly out of Muslim control; no Greek-speaking civil community is attested in connection with it.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "brothers of Arkesilaos II of Cyrene",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Cyrene",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Herodotus says the founders won over the local Libyans (4.160); no earlier town is known at the site.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP 1025; coinage of the 5th-4th c. BC; see (bishops at Nicaea 325, Ephesus 431 and 449)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Barke lay inland; its harbour became Ptolemais (separate entry). No ancient remains are visible at Al Marj.",
   "sources": [
    "Hdt. 4.160, 4.200-204",
    "IACP 1025",
    "Laronde 1987",
    "Wikipedia: Barca (ancient city)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 99,
   "list_group": "Cyrenaica and Marmarica",
   "dates_shown": "c. 246 BC – c. AD 643",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af098",
   "latin": "Berenice (Berenike)",
   "greek": "Βερενίκη",
   "other_names": "Barniq (medieval Arabic)",
   "modern": "Benghazi",
   "modern_native": "بنغازي",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Sidi Khrebish, Benghazi, Benghazi District",
   "country": "Libya",
   "admin1": "Benghazi",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Cyrenaica (Pentapolis)",
   "lat": 32.118,
   "lon": 20.061,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 373757,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -246,
   "greek_until": 643,
   "phases": [
    [
     -246,
     643
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "founded c. 250-246 BC beside Euesperides and named after Berenike II, daughter of Magas and wife of Ptolemy III",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the Arab conquest, 642/643. Speech: the Sidi Khrebish quarter was occupied into the 7th c.; Greek after 643 is not attested. Medieval Barniq was a small place; the modern name Benghazi comes from a local saint. There is no evidence either way on how long Greek speakers stayed after the conquest: no Greek inscription, papyrus or letter of a resident is known from after 643, and the Arabic accounts of the conquest name only the Lawata Berbers as the party to the treaty of Barqa and its tribute (Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam, Futuh Misr), saying nothing of the Greek townspeople. The end date is therefore that of the conquest, and the range allows for a Greek-speaking remnant.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    643,
    750
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek decrees of the Jewish politeuma (1st c. BC-1st c. AD); bishop Dachius at Nicaea, 325; Justinian rebuilt the circuit wall and built a public bath (Procopius, Buildings 6.2.5); no Greek text after 643.",
   "ended_by": "Arab conquest of the Pentapolis by 'Amr ibn al-'As, 642/643 (Barqa capitulated and agreed a tribute of 13,000 dinars: Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam; al-Baladhuri; al-Bakri); no named later act.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "a Ptolemaic ruler, traditionally Ptolemy III (named for Berenike II)",
   "founder_group": "Alexander and the Ptolemies",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Pentapolis city; Greek civic and Jewish politeuma decrees; see (Dachius at Nicaea 325)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The founder is disputed: some credit Berenike II herself, in the years after Magas' death, rather than Ptolemy III.",
   "sources": [
    "Cohen 2006",
    "Lloyd (ed.), Excavations at Sidi Khrebish, Benghazi (Berenice)",
    "Procopius, Buildings 6.2",
    "Reynolds 1977"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Successor of Euesperides (new site)"
  },
  {
   "no": 100,
   "list_group": "Cyrenaica and Marmarica",
   "dates_shown": "631 BC – c. AD 643",
   "period": "1 Before Alexander (c. 640-332 BC)",
   "id": "af092",
   "latin": "Cyrene",
   "greek": "Κυρήνη",
   "other_names": "Claudiopolis (briefly, after the earthquake of 262, honouring Claudius II); Grennah (local Arabic form recorded by 19th-c. travellers); Qurina (modern Arabic name of the ruins)",
   "modern": "Shahhat",
   "modern_native": "شحات",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Shahhat, Jabal al Akhdar District",
   "country": "Libya",
   "admin1": "Jabal al Akhdar",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Cyrenaica (Pentapolis)",
   "lat": 32.825,
   "lon": 21.858,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 373778,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": 1028,
   "greek_from": -631,
   "greek_until": 643,
   "phases": [
    [
     -631,
     643
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "founded by Theraean colonists under Battos I (Aristoteles), 631 BC by the traditional date (Hdt. 4.150-159; Pindar, Pythian 4-5); the earliest Greek pottery at the site is of the late 7th c. BC",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the Arab conquest of the Pentapolis, 642/643. Speech: Greek was the language of the shrunken late-antique town (Greek inscriptions of the 5th-6th c.); no Greek text of residents after 643 is known, and how long a Greek-speaking remnant stayed is unknown. There is no evidence either way on how long Greek speakers stayed after the conquest: no Greek inscription, papyrus or letter of a resident is known from after 643, and the Arabic accounts of the conquest name only the Lawata Berbers as the party to the treaty of Barqa and its tribute (Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam, Futuh Misr), saying nothing of the Greek townspeople. The end date is therefore that of the conquest, and the range allows for a Greek-speaking remnant.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    643,
    750
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Jewish revolt of 115-117: temples of Apollo and Zeus, the Caesareum and roads destroyed (Dio 68.32; Euseb. HE 4.2), rebuilt under Hadrian; earthquake of 262 and the great earthquake of 21 July 365 (natural); seat of government moved to Ptolemais c. 300; Synesius (c. 400-413) describes a poor, half-empty city and raids by the Ausurians (Austuriani) in 405 and 411-412; the inhabited area shrank in the 5th-6th c., but the Central and East churches were built then and bishops are known to Leontius (c. 600); no Greek text after 643.",
   "ended_by": "Arab conquest of the Pentapolis by 'Amr ibn al-'As, 642/643 (Barqa capitulated and agreed a tribute of 13,000 dinars: Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam; al-Baladhuri; al-Bakri). Earlier blows: the Jewish revolt of 115-117 under Lukuas (Andreas), the Marmaritae raid repulsed in 268/269, the raids of the Ausurians (Austuriani) and Macetae described by Synesius (405, 411-412), and the earthquakes of 262 and 365 (natural events). No named act ends Greek speech after 643.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Theraeans under Battos I (Aristoteles)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Thera",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Herodotus says Libyans led the settlers to the spring of Apollo (4.158); no pre-Greek town is known at the site.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP 1028; civic coinage from the 6th c. BC; boule, demos, gymnasium and ephebes; Pentapolis city; see in late antiquity",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The colonists' earlier seats at Platea and Aziris are separate entries.",
   "sources": [
    "Hdt. 4.150-159",
    "IACP 1028",
    "Laronde 1987",
    "Synesius, Catastasis and Letters",
    "Dio 68.32; Euseb. HE 4.2"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Restored by Hadrian after the revolt of 115-117 (same site); briefly Claudiopolis after 262"
  },
  {
   "no": 101,
   "list_group": "Cyrenaica and Marmarica",
   "dates_shown": "c. 100 – c. 643",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af099",
   "latin": "Darnis",
   "greek": "Δάρνις",
   "other_names": "Dardanis (Synesius); Derne, Terne (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Derna",
   "modern_native": "درنة",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Derna, Derna District",
   "country": "Libya",
   "admin1": "Derna",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Cyrenaica (Pentapolis)",
   "lat": 32.765,
   "lon": 22.637,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 373780,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 100,
   "greek_until": 643,
   "phases": [
    [
     100,
     643
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "first named in Roman-period geography (Ptolemy, 2nd c. AD) as a town at the eastern edge of the Pentapolis; a Greek see by the 4th c.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: civil and later church metropolis of Libya Inferior; Roman rule ended with the Arab conquest, 642/643. Speech: Greek after the conquest is not attested. There is no evidence either way on how long Greek speakers stayed after the conquest: no Greek inscription, papyrus or letter of a resident is known from after 643, and the Arabic accounts of the conquest name only the Lawata Berbers as the party to the treaty of Barqa and its tribute (Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam, Futuh Misr), saying nothing of the Greek townspeople. The end date is therefore that of the conquest, and the range allows for a Greek-speaking remnant.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    643,
    750
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "bishops Piso (347), Dioscurus (c. 410, in a dispute with Paul of Erythron settled by Synesius, Ep. 67), Daniel (431), Theodore (5th c., John Moschus); no Greek evidence after 643.",
   "ended_by": "Arab conquest of the Pentapolis by 'Amr ibn al-'As, 642/643 (Barqa capitulated and agreed a tribute of 13,000 dinars: Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam; al-Baladhuri; al-Bakri); no named later act. Later: in 688 raiders from the imperial forces killed the Arab commander Zuhayr ibn Qays al-Balawi and some seventy of his men in the province of Barqa; he is buried at Derna (the Sahaba mosque). This was a military raid and brought back no Greek-speaking community.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The name Darnis is not Greek and may be Libyan, but it is known only from Greek and Latin sources.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Arabic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "see from the 4th c. (Piso 347; Daniel at Ephesus 431); metropolis of Libya Inferior",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Its Greek character rests on the see, Synesius' letters and its place on the Pentapolis coast; its Hellenistic history is unknown. Ptolemy and Ammianus place it in the Pentapolis, later lists in Libya Inferior.",
   "sources": [
    "Ptolemy, Geography 4.4",
    "Synesius, Ep. 67",
    "Le Quien, Oriens Christianus II",
    "Wikipedia: Derna, Libya"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 102,
   "list_group": "Cyrenaica and Marmarica",
   "dates_shown": "c. 300 BC – c. AD 643",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af104",
   "latin": "Erythrum (Erythron)",
   "greek": "Ἐρυθρόν",
   "other_names": "",
   "modern": "Al Athrun (Latrun)",
   "modern_native": "الأثرون",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Al Athrun (Latrun), 9 km east of Ras al-Hilal, Derna District",
   "country": "Libya",
   "admin1": "Derna",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Cyrenaica (Pentapolis)",
   "lat": 32.867,
   "lon": 22.267,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 373785,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -300,
   "greek_until": 643,
   "phases": [
    [
     -300,
     643
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "a Hellenistic foundation on the coast east of Apollonia: occupation from the 4th c. BC (French excavations); named by Ptolemy (Geography 4.4.3); a see from the second half of the 4th c. AD",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended with the Arab conquest, 642/643. Speech: the town was occupied until the 8th c., but Greek after 643 is not attested. There is no evidence either way on how long Greek speakers stayed after the conquest: no Greek inscription, papyrus or letter of a resident is known from after 643, and the Arabic accounts of the conquest name only the Lawata Berbers as the party to the treaty of Barqa and its tribute (Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam, Futuh Misr), saying nothing of the Greek townspeople. The end date is therefore that of the conquest, and the range allows for a Greek-speaking remnant.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    643,
    800
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "see from the later 4th c.; bishop Paul (c. 410, Synesius, Ep. 67); a cathedral with baptistery and a pilgrimage church of the 6th c.; occupation to the 8th c.; no Greek text after 643.",
   "ended_by": "Arab conquest of the Pentapolis by 'Amr ibn al-'As, 642/643 (Barqa capitulated and agreed a tribute of 13,000 dinars: Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam; al-Baladhuri; al-Bakri); no named later act.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "see from the later 4th c. (Paul, c. 410: Synesius, Ep. 67); greatest extent in late antiquity; 6th-c. cathedral and pilgrimage church",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "A village or large town under the early Empire; its rise to a city came with the see. Synesius shows its diocese reaching over the villages of Hydrax and Palaebisca.",
   "sources": [
    "Synesius, Ep. 67",
    "Ptolemy, Geography 4.4.3",
    "Widrig, PBSR 46 (1978)",
    "French mission: Erythron (Latrun)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 103,
   "list_group": "Cyrenaica and Marmarica",
   "dates_shown": "c. 600 BC – c. 250 BC",
   "period": "1 Before Alexander (c. 640-332 BC)",
   "id": "af097",
   "latin": "Euesperides (Hesperides)",
   "greek": "Εὐεσπερίδες",
   "other_names": "Hesperides (Ἑσπερίδες)",
   "modern": "Benghazi",
   "modern_native": "بنغازي",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Sidi Abeid, Benghazi, Benghazi District",
   "country": "Libya",
   "admin1": "Benghazi",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Cyrenaica (Pentapolis)",
   "lat": 32.124,
   "lon": 20.081,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 373786,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": 1026,
   "greek_from": -600,
   "greek_until": -250,
   "phases": [
    [
     -600,
     -250
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "the earliest Greek pottery from the Sidi Abeid excavations is usually put in the early 6th c. BC, though its dating is disputed; Herodotus names the city in the events of 515 BC (4.171, 4.204)",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Abandoned c. 250 BC when its people moved to the new city of Berenike nearby (latest coins of the 250s BC); Greek speech went on at Berenike.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    -260,
    -240
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "new settlers sent by Arkesilaos IV c. 462 BC; besieged by Libyans and relieved by Gylippos' Peloponnesian ships in 413 BC (Thuc. 7.50.2); last coins c. 250 BC.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the city was given up c. 250 BC and its people moved to Berenike, named after Berenike II; silting of the harbour lagoon and Ptolemaic policy after the reconquest of Cyrenaica are the usual explanations.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "settlers from Cyrene (perhaps with Barke)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Cyrene",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP 1026; coinage of the 5th-4th c. BC; Thuc. 7.50.2; Hdt. 4.171, 4.204",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Euesperides and Berenike are separate sites within Benghazi; the mother city is not recorded and Cyrene is assumed. Some accounts date the foundation as late as c. 525 BC; the city is certainly older than 515 BC.",
   "sources": [
    "IACP 1026",
    "Thuc. 7.50.2",
    "Hdt. 4.171, 4.204",
    "Wilson et al., Libyan Studies (Euesperides reports)",
    "Cohen 2006"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Euesperides -> Berenike (c. 250-246 BC; new site, separate entry)"
  },
  {
   "no": 104,
   "list_group": "Cyrenaica and Marmarica",
   "dates_shown": "c. 120 – c. 643",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af105",
   "latin": "Hadrianopolis (Cyrenaica)",
   "greek": "Ἁδριανούπολις",
   "other_names": "Adriane (Antonine Itinerary)",
   "modern": "Daryanah",
   "modern_native": "دريانة",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Daryanah (Driana), Benghazi District",
   "country": "Libya",
   "admin1": "Benghazi",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Cyrenaica (Pentapolis)",
   "lat": 32.347,
   "lon": 20.309,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 373824,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 120,
   "greek_until": 643,
   "phases": [
    [
     120,
     643
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "founded by Hadrian (117-138), probably soon after the Jewish revolt, when he sent settlers to the devastated province (Orosius 7.12.6)",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Named in the Antonine Itinerary, the Peutinger Table and the Ravenna Cosmography; its later history and the date it was deserted are unknown.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    300,
    643
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "no inscriptions, bishops or late-antique texts of the town are known.",
   "ended_by": "No named act is recorded for the town; the Pentapolis fell to 'Amr ibn al-'As in 642/643.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Roman foundation",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Hadrian",
   "founder_group": "Roman emperors to 330",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Arabic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "imperial foundation bearing Hadrian's name, on the Peutinger Table (with town vignette) and in the Antonine Itinerary",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "The settlers' origin and language are not recorded; Greek is assumed from the Pentapolis setting without direct evidence from the site, which may lie at Wadi Jawbiyah rather than Daryanah.",
   "sources": [
    "Orosius 7.12.6",
    "Tabula Peutingeriana 7C4",
    "Barrington Atlas 38 B1",
    "Pleiades 373824"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 105,
   "list_group": "Cyrenaica and Marmarica",
   "dates_shown": "c. 100 – c. 643",
   "period": "3 Rome (30 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "af103",
   "latin": "Olbia (Theodorias)",
   "greek": "Ὀλβία",
   "other_names": "Theodorias (Θεοδωριάς), 'new city' from 539",
   "modern": "Qasr Libya",
   "modern_native": "قصر ليبيا",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Qasr Libya, between Al Marj and Al Bayda, Jabal al Akhdar District",
   "country": "Libya",
   "admin1": "Jabal al Akhdar",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Cyrenaica (Pentapolis)",
   "lat": 32.633,
   "lon": 21.398,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 373864,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": 100,
   "greek_until": 643,
   "phases": [
    [
     100,
     643
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "named in Roman-period geography (Ptolemy); a see by c. 410 (Synesius)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: refounded by Justinian as Theodorias in 539; Roman rule ended with the Arab conquest, 642/643. Speech: Greek after 643 is not attested. There is no evidence either way on how long Greek speakers stayed after the conquest: no Greek inscription, papyrus or letter of a resident is known from after 643, and the Arabic accounts of the conquest name only the Lawata Berbers as the party to the treaty of Barqa and its tribute (Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam, Futuh Misr), saying nothing of the Greek townspeople. The end date is therefore that of the conquest, and the range allows for a Greek-speaking remnant.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    643,
    700
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "bishops Athamas and Antonios (Synesius, c. 412), Publius (431), Makarios and Theodoros (539/540); Greek mosaic inscriptions of the East Church dated 539/540; no Greek text after 643.",
   "ended_by": "Arab conquest of the Pentapolis by 'Amr ibn al-'As, 642/643 (Barqa capitulated and agreed a tribute of 13,000 dinars: Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam; al-Baladhuri; al-Bakri). Earlier: damage from raiders in the 5th and early 6th c. before Justinian's refoundation.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "see from c. 410 (Synesius); refounded as a 'new city' (polis nea) Theodorias by Justinian, 539 (dated mosaics)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The identification of Qasr Libya with Olbia rests on the mosaics and the episcopal list.",
   "sources": [
    "Synesius, Letters",
    "Alfoldi-Rosenbaum & Ward-Perkins 1980",
    "Livius: Theodorias",
    "Wikipedia: Olbia, Libya"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Olbia -> Theodorias (Justinian, 539; same site)"
  },
  {
   "no": 106,
   "list_group": "Cyrenaica and Marmarica",
   "dates_shown": "c. 300 BC – c. AD 642",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af101",
   "latin": "Paraetonium (Paraitonion)",
   "greek": "Παραιτόνιον",
   "other_names": "Ammonia (Strabo 17.1.14); al-Baratun (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Marsa Matruh",
   "modern_native": "مرسى مطروح",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Marsa Matruh, Matrouh Governorate",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "admin1": "Matrouh",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Marmarica",
   "lat": 31.35,
   "lon": 27.24,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 716615,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -300,
   "greek_until": 642,
   "phases": [
    [
     -300,
     642
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Alexander passed it on his way to Siwa in 331 BC (Arrian, Anabasis 3.3.3); a Ptolemaic harbour and naval base from the 3rd c. BC",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: metropolis of Libya Inferior; taken in 'Amr ibn al-'As's advance west in 642; al-Baratun was then a station on the Arab coastal road. Speech: Greek after the conquest is not attested.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    642,
    750
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "bishops Titus (Nicaea 325) and Gaius (Alexandria 362); Justinian made it a garrisoned stronghold against the Moors (Procopius, Buildings 6.2.2); no Greek document of residents after 642.",
   "ended_by": "Taken by 'Amr ibn al-'As on his march to Barqa, 642; no named later act. Earlier: Cornelius Gallus seized the town for Octavian and beat off Antony's attack, 30 BC (Dio 51.9), without ending it.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "A Late Bronze Age trading post on Bates's Island in the lagoon (14th-13th c. BC) had Cypriot and Aegean pottery but was not a Greek settlement and has no link with the later town.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 17.1.14 (city and large harbour); see (Titus at Nicaea 325); metropolis of Libya Inferior; Justinian's stronghold",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "No ancient source records a royal foundation; a foundation by Alexander or the first Ptolemies is sometimes suggested.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 17.1.14",
    "Arrian, Anabasis 3.3.3",
    "Procopius, Buildings 6.2",
    "White, Marsa Matruh (2002)",
    "Wikipedia: Marsa Matruh"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 107,
   "list_group": "Cyrenaica and Marmarica",
   "dates_shown": "c. 600 BC – c. AD 643",
   "period": "1 Before Alexander (c. 640-332 BC)",
   "id": "af095",
   "latin": "Ptolemais (Cyrenaica)",
   "greek": "Πτολεμαΐς",
   "other_names": "harbour of Barke before the refoundation; Tulmaytha (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Tolmeita",
   "modern_native": "طلميثة",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Tolmeita, Marj District",
   "country": "Libya",
   "admin1": "Marj",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Cyrenaica (Pentapolis)",
   "lat": 32.71,
   "lon": 20.95,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 373879,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -600,
   "greek_until": 643,
   "phases": [
    [
     -600,
     643
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "small Greek harbour settlement from the late 7th or early 6th c. BC (archaeology), later the port of Barke ('the harbour of the Barkaians' in Pseudo-Scylax 108, 4th c. BC); refounded on the same site as the city of Ptolemais under the Ptolemies in the 3rd c. BC (Ptolemy III is usually named, though Ptolemy I has been proposed; its citizens are attested by c. 250 BC)",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: capital of Libya Superior from c. 300; Roman rule ended with the Arab conquest, 642/643. Speech: occupation went on for centuries (glazed wares of the 10th-13th c.), but Greek after 643 is not attested. There is no evidence either way on how long Greek speakers stayed after the conquest: no Greek inscription, papyrus or letter of a resident is known from after 643, and the Arabic accounts of the conquest name only the Lawata Berbers as the party to the treaty of Barqa and its tribute (Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam, Futuh Misr), saying nothing of the Greek townspeople. The end date is therefore that of the conquest, and the range allows for a Greek-speaking remnant.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    643,
    800
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Synesius, bishop here c. 410-413, describes raids by the Ausurians (Austuriani) and the town under siege; the edict of Anastasius on the Libyan garrison (c. 501) was set up here; Justinian restored the aqueduct of a town half-deserted for lack of water (Procopius, Buildings 6.2.9-11); domestic occupation into the Islamic period (Ward-Perkins; Kennet 1991); no Greek text after 643.",
   "ended_by": "Arab conquest of the Pentapolis by 'Amr ibn al-'As, 642/643 (Barqa capitulated and agreed a tribute of 13,000 dinars: Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam; al-Baladhuri; al-Bakri). Earlier: the raids of the Ausurians (Austuriani) described by Synesius (405, 411-412) and the earthquake of 365 (natural). No named act ends Greek speech after 643.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Barke (as its harbour); refounded as Ptolemais by a Ptolemaic king (Ptolemy I, II or III; disputed)",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Before the refoundation the site was the Greek harbour of Barke; no pre-Greek settlement is known.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Arabic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Pentapolis city; Greek civic inscriptions (gymnasiarchs, ephebes); metropolis of Libya Superior; see (Secundus at Nicaea 325, Synesius c. 410-413, Evoptius 431, Georgius 553)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The founder is disputed: a papyrus attesting citizens of Ptolemais by 252 BC rules out a foundation by Ptolemy III. Some accounts have the town destroyed and abandoned at the conquest; excavated pottery shows occupation into the Islamic period.",
   "sources": [
    "Cohen 2006",
    "Kraeling 1962",
    "Libyan Studies: 'Dating the Ptolemaic city-foundations in Cyrenaica'",
    "Procopius, Buildings 6.2",
    "Kennet 1991"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Harbour of Barke -> Ptolemais (royal refoundation, mid-3rd c. BC; first papyrus naming its citizens 252 BC; same site)"
  },
  {
   "no": 108,
   "list_group": "Cyrenaica and Marmarica",
   "dates_shown": "c. 620 BC – c. AD 643",
   "period": "1 Before Alexander (c. 640-332 BC)",
   "id": "af096",
   "latin": "Taucheira (Teucheira)",
   "greek": "Ταύχειρα",
   "other_names": "Arsinoe (Ἀρσινόη, Ptolemaic name after Arsinoe II); Teucheira (late-antique spelling); Tukra (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Tocra",
   "modern_native": "توكرة",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Tocra, Marj District",
   "country": "Libya",
   "admin1": "Marj",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Cyrenaica (Pentapolis)",
   "lat": 32.533,
   "lon": 20.578,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 373736,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": 1029,
   "greek_from": -620,
   "greek_until": 643,
   "phases": [
    [
     -620,
     643
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "the earliest Greek pottery from the sanctuary deposit is of c. 620 BC (Boardman and Hayes); Herodotus (4.171) knows it as a city in the territory of Barke",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Administration: the Arab advance of 642/643 ended Roman rule; the date and manner of Teucheira's own surrender are not recorded. A modern reconstruction (Goodchild) makes Teucheira, which Justinian had strongly fortified, the last stronghold of the Roman forces, from which the garrison and the wealthier townspeople left by sea; the primary source for this evacuation is not securely identified and it should be treated as a hypothesis. Speech: the town lived on under Muslim rule to about the 10th c. (Arabic inscription in the bath), but there is no evidence either way on how long Greek speakers stayed: no Greek text of a resident is known from after 643, and al-Idrisi (12th c.) calls its people Berbers. The end date is that of the conquest, and the range allows for a remnant.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    643,
    800
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "walls of the late 5th-6th c.; Procopius says Justinian strongly fortified Teucheira (Buildings 6.2.4); Greek inscriptions to the 6th c.; the evacuation of the garrison and the wealthy by sea after 642/643 is a modern reconstruction (Goodchild); Arabic inscription over the door of the bath (King 1989); al-Idrisi: Berber inhabitants.",
   "ended_by": "Arab conquest of the Pentapolis by 'Amr ibn al-'As, 642/643 (Barqa capitulated and agreed a tribute of 13,000 dinars: Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam; al-Baladhuri; al-Bakri). Goodchild put the town's fall in a later campaign, with the Roman forces and wealthy townspeople leaving by sea; the sources do not say how it fell. No named act ends Greek speech after 643.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "settlers from Cyrene",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Cyrene",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The name Taucheira is not Greek and may be Libyan, but it is known only from Greek and Latin sources.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Arabic",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP 1029; Pentapolis city; see in late antiquity",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Recent work dates the walled compound once called the last monument of Roman rule to Anastasius rather than the 640s.",
   "sources": [
    "Hdt. 4.171",
    "IACP 1029",
    "Boardman & Hayes, Excavations at Tocra (1966, 1973)",
    "Christides 2000",
    "Kenrick 2013"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Renamed Arsinoe in the 3rd c. BC (same site), later Teucheira again"
  },
  {
   "no": 109,
   "list_group": "Tripolitania and Numidia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 514 BC – c. 512 BC",
   "period": "1 Before Alexander (c. 640-332 BC)",
   "id": "af108",
   "latin": "Cinyps (colony of Dorieus)",
   "greek": "Κίνυψ",
   "other_names": "",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "near the mouth of Wadi Ka'am (Wadi Qaam, the ancient Cinyps river) between Al-Khums (Lepcis Magna) and Zliten, Murqub District; exact site unknown",
   "country": "Libya",
   "admin1": "Murqub",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Tripolitania",
   "lat": 32.53,
   "lon": 14.45,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": 344413,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -514,
   "greek_until": -512,
   "phases": [
    [
     -514,
     -512
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "colony founded on the Cinyps river by the Spartan prince Dorieus, son of King Anaxandridas, with Theraean guides (Hdt. 5.42); the date c. 515/514 BC is a modern reckoning from the accession of Cleomenes I; no archaeological trace of the settlement",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Speech and administration ended together: Herodotus says Dorieus settled 'the fairest spot in Libya, by the river', and was driven out in the third year; the colonists went back to the Peloponnese, and Dorieus later tried again in western Sicily (Herakleia near Eryx), where he was killed (Hdt. 5.42-46).",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    -513,
    -510
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Hdt. 5.42 is the only evidence; rescue excavations in the Wadi Ka'am valley found a Punic and Roman cemetery (3rd c. BC - 1st c. AD) but nothing of the Spartan settlement.",
   "ended_by": "Expelled in the third year by the Macae, other Libyans and the Carthaginians (Hdt. 5.42), c. 512 BC.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Dorieus of Sparta, son of Anaxandridas, with Theraean guides",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Sparta",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Cinyps (Κίνυψ) is the name of the river and of the Libyan district (Hdt. 4.175, 4.198); no non-Greek form is attested.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Hdt. 5.42 (an organized colony under an oikist, sent out with Theraean guides); not an attested polis with known institutions",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "A real but very short-lived colony (two to three years). Whether it ever functioned as a city with civic institutions is unknown, and it has not been located; it is kept as the only historical Greek foundation in Tripolitania.",
   "sources": [
    "Hdt. 5.42-46",
    "Hdt. 4.175, 4.198",
    "Pleiades 344413 (Kinyps, near the mouth of Wadi Caam)",
    "Livius: Cinyps (Wadi Qaam)",
    "Wikipedia: Dorieus"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 110,
   "list_group": "Tripolitania and Numidia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 148 BC – c. 112 BC",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af109",
   "latin": "Cirta",
   "greek": "Κίρτα",
   "other_names": "Cirta Regia (royal seat of the Numidian kings); colonia Iulia Iuvenalis Honoris et Virtutis Cirta (Roman colony); Constantina (renamed by Constantine, 313); Qusantina (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Constantine",
   "modern_native": "قسنطينة",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Constantine (the Rhumel rock and the El Hofra sanctuary), Constantine Province",
   "country": "Algeria",
   "admin1": "Constantine Province",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Numidia",
   "lat": 36.365,
   "lon": 6.614,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": 305064,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -148,
   "greek_until": -112,
   "phases": [
    [
     -148,
     -112
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek settlers placed in the town by Micipsa, king of Numidia 148-118 BC (Strabo 17.3.13); Greek dedications at the El Hofra sanctuary of Baal Hammon, before the Roman conquest (2nd-1st c. BC)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Numidian kings to 46 BC, then Rome. Speech: the Greek community is known only from Strabo's notice on Micipsa and the undated Greek stelae of El Hofra (the dated stelae run from 163/2 to c. 122/1 BC). In 112 BC Jugurtha took Cirta after a long siege and killed Adherbal, the adult Numidians and the foreign traders (Sall. Jug. 26.3); in 46 BC Caesar gave the town to P. Sittius and his men, and Roman Cirta, head of the four colonies, has a large and almost entirely Latin epigraphy. No Greek-speaking community is attested after the 2nd c. BC; the end date is an estimate.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    -120,
    -46
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Last datable El Hofra stelae c. 122/1 BC (Micipsa); Greek stelae individually undated; the Roman colony's inscriptions (CIL VIII, ILAlg II) are Latin.",
   "ended_by": "No named act against the Greeks as such: Jugurtha took Cirta in 112 BC and massacred the adult Numidians and the negotiatores (Sall. Jug. 26.3), and Caesar handed the town to P. Sittius and his followers as a Roman colony in 46 BC (App. BC 4.54); whether the Greeks settled by Micipsa were among Jugurtha's victims is not recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Libyan town",
   "founder": "Micipsa, king of Numidia, settled Greeks in the existing royal town",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Cirta was the capital of Syphax and Masinissa before Micipsa (Livy 30.12); the name is native (Libyan or Punic) and is used in Greek and Latin without change; its Punic spelling is not given here.",
   "name_continues": "Latin name",
   "name_via": "Latin",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Punic (the written and court language of Numidian Cirta) and Libyan (Numidian)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "FOR: Strabo 17.3.13 says King Micipsa 'settled a colony of Greeks in it' and made Cirta strong enough to send out 10,000 horse and twice as many foot; among the c. 700 stelae from the El Hofra sanctuary, 17 are inscribed in Greek beside c. 281 Punic and neo-Punic and 7 Latin, so Greek is the second language of the sanctuary (Greek and Latin stelae to Kronos and Tanit, before the Roman conquest: Le Glay 1966); modern accounts describe Micipsa's rebuilt Cirta as a mixed Libyan, Punic and Greek town, with Greek architects at court and refugees, including Greek mercenaries, after the fall of Carthage in 146 BC. AGAINST: no Greek civic institutions or coins; at least one Greek-script stele merely transliterates a Punic text, so some Greek writing comes from Punic speakers; the foreign traders who defended Cirta in 112 BC are called Italici (Sall. Jug. 21, 26).",
   "status_evidence": "royal capital of the Numidian kings; Strabo 17.3.13 (Greek settlers); El Hofra Greek stelae (Berthier and Charlier 1955); later Roman colony and see",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Doubtful case. Strabo's notice is explicit and the El Hofra Greek share (c. 6% of the legible stelae) resembles Rome's, but it rests on one sanctuary and some Greek-script dedicants were Punic speakers; it is kept as the only North African town west of Cyrenaica with a recorded settlement of Greek residents.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 17.3.13",
    "Sall. Jug. 21-26",
    "Berthier and Charlier, Le sanctuaire punique d'El-Hofra a Constantine (1955)",
    "Le Glay, Saturne africain. Monuments II (1966)",
    "Wikipedia: Cirta steles"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Roman colony of P. Sittius, 46 BC; renamed Constantina by Constantine, 313 (same site)"
  },
  {
   "no": 111,
   "list_group": "Red Sea coast of Sudan",
   "dates_shown": "c. 270 BC – c. 145 BC",
   "period": "2 The Ptolemies and the kings (332-30 BC)",
   "id": "af110",
   "latin": "Ptolemais Theron",
   "greek": "Πτολεμαῒς Θηρῶν",
   "other_names": "Ptolemais of the Hunts; Ptolemais Epitheras (Pliny 6.171); Ptolemais in Troglodytis (Pliny 2.183)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "unlocated; most likely at Aqiq (Khor Aqiq), Red Sea State, Sudan; Trinkitat, Suakin (Sudan) and Arqiqo (Eritrea) have also been proposed",
   "country": "Sudan",
   "admin1": "Red Sea State",
   "nome": "",
   "ancient_region": "Red Sea coast (Trogodytike)",
   "lat": 18.23,
   "lon": 38.18,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": 39409,
   "tm_geo": null,
   "iacp": null,
   "greek_from": -270,
   "greek_until": -145,
   "phases": [
    [
     -270,
     -145
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "founded for Ptolemy II by Eumedes, whom the king sent to the elephant-hunting grounds: he enclosed a peninsula with a ditch and a wall and won over the natives who tried to stop him (Strabo 16.4.7); the Pithom stele (l. 22-24), under year 16 (270/269 BC), records 'a great city' with the king's name built by the general who caught elephants for him, usually taken as this foundation",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Founded as the base of the royal elephant hunt. Administration: the hunts were run by royal commanders and soldiers under Ptolemy II-IV; they were cut off by the Great Revolt of the Thebaid (205-186 BC), which closed the Koptos-Berenike route, and ended in the 2nd c. BC, at the latest when Ptolemy VI's revived programme stopped at his death in 145 (Burstein). Speech: no Greek residents are attested after the hunting period. By c. AD 40-70 the Periplus (ch. 3) knows it only as a small trading place without a harbour, reached by small boats, selling tortoiseshell and a little ivory, on a coast under Zoskales, king of the Aksumites (ch. 5); Greek traders who came by sea from Egypt were visitors, not residents. The end date is an estimate.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -205,
    70
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Pithom stele, year 16 (270/269 BC); dedications by the commanders of Ptolemy IV's elephant hunts found in Egypt (OGIS 82-86); noon-shadow observations at Ptolemais reported by Eratosthenes and Pliny (NH 2.183); Agatharchides (c. 145-132 BC) on the hunting coast; Periplus 3 (c. AD 40-70): a small trading place; Ptolemy, Geography 4.7.7 (c. AD 150) still lists it.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the elephant hunts for which the town was founded were cut off by the Great Revolt of the Thebaid under the native pharaohs Haronnophris and Chaonnophris (205-186 BC) and given up by the Ptolemies in the 2nd c. BC, at the latest after the death of Ptolemy VI (145 BC); by the 1st c. AD the coast lay under Zoskales, king of the Aksumites (Periplus 5).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Ptolemy II, through Eumedes",
   "founder_group": "Alexander and the Ptolemies",
   "metropolis": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Strabo says Eumedes built on a peninsula and won over local people who resisted; no earlier settlement or native name is attested.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "royal foundation: 'a city founded by Eumedes' (Strabo 16.4.7); Pithom stele l. 23, 'a great city with the name of the king'; 'oppidum' in Pliny, NH 6.171; listed by Ptolemy, Geography 4.7.7; Cohen 2006",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The site is not securely located: Aqiq is favoured by Burstein and a Russian-Sudanese survey of 2025 found 3rd-c. BC pottery there, but the identification is unproven. The foundation is well attested, but whether a Greek civic community lived there beyond the king's hunters and soldiers is not documented.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 16.4.7; Pliny, NH 2.183, 6.171",
    "Pithom stele, l. 22-24 (year 16 of Ptolemy II)",
    "Periplus Maris Erythraei 3, 5",
    "Cohen 2006; Mueller 2006",
    "Burstein 2021; Cobb, Greece & Rome 2016"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  }
 ],
 "left_out": [
  {
   "name": "Thonis-Herakleion (Θῶνις / Ἡράκλειον)",
   "reason": "Emporion and customs post at the Canopic mouth with a temple of Amun-Gereb/Herakles (Hdt. 2.113; Naukratis stela of 380 BC); no civic status; declined from the 2nd c. BC and later submerged. Greek traders lived there, but it was never a city."
  },
  {
   "name": "Plinthine (Kom el-Nugus)",
   "reason": "Egyptian town on the Mareotic ridge (Hellanicus; Hdt. 2.6 'Plinthinetic gulf') with Greek imports from the 7th c. BC; no evidence of civic status or of a Greek-speaking civic community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Marea / Mareia (Μάρεια)",
   "reason": "Egyptian border fortress and town (Hdt. 2.18, 2.30; Thuc. 1.104); in the Roman period part of Alexandria's territory (the Mareotes): Athanasius says the Mareotis never had a bishop or city (Apol. c. Ar. 85); the Arian bishops Ischyras (c. 338) and Pistos were not a regular see. Its large late antique harbour town at Hawwariya (often identified with Philoxenite, the pilgrim station for Abu Mina) had no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Philoxenite (Hawwariya)",
   "reason": "Late 5th-6th c. pilgrim town and harbour on Lake Mareotis serving Abu Mina; no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Abu Mina (shrine of St Menas)",
   "reason": "Pilgrimage sanctuary with a 6th-c. town; no bishop or civic status attested."
  },
  {
   "name": "Menouthis",
   "reason": "Village near Kanopos with the shrine of Isis and later of Cyrus and John; a village, not a city (treated under Kanopos)."
  },
  {
   "name": "Menelaos (city of Menelaus near Kanopos)",
   "reason": "Named by Strabo 17.1.18 as eponym of the Menelaite nome, but unlocated; the late Roman see of the Menelaites is treated under Schedia and the district under Kanopos."
  },
  {
   "name": "Rhakotis",
   "reason": "Not a separate city: the Egyptian name (Ra-Kedet) of the site or quarter of Alexandria; treated under Alexandria."
  },
  {
   "name": "Eleusis (near Alexandria)",
   "reason": "Suburb of Alexandria (Polybius, Livy, Strabo); no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Bolbitine (Rosetta area)",
   "reason": "Town at the Bolbitine mouth named by Herodotus and Strabo; no civic status or bishop attested before the Arab conquest (the see of Rashid is medieval)."
  },
  {
   "name": "Kom el-Hisn (Imau)",
   "reason": "Egyptian town; may be the site of Gynaikopolis or Momemphis, which are entered under their Greek names."
  },
  {
   "name": "Kom Firin",
   "reason": "Egyptian fortress and temple town of the western Delta with Roman occupation; no civic status attested under any Greek name (an identification with Phragonis is unproven)."
  },
  {
   "name": "Behbeit el-Hagar (Iseion, Isidis oppidum)",
   "reason": "Temple of Isis near Samannud; a sanctuary and village, not a city."
  },
  {
   "name": "Nitriote nome (Wadi el-Natrun)",
   "reason": "The Nitriote district (Strabo 17.1.23) had no known metropolis; its monastic settlements (Nitria, Kellia, Scetis) belonged to the see of Hermopolis Parva and were not cities."
  },
  {
   "name": "Boukolia",
   "reason": "District see of the northern Delta marshes named in episcopal lists, without a known town; the possibly related see of Elearchia is entered separately."
  },
  {
   "name": "Prosopis",
   "reason": "A city of this name is attested only in late sources and may never have existed; the Prosopite metropolis was Nikiou (entered)."
  },
  {
   "name": "Stratopeda (camps of the Ionians and Carians)",
   "reason": "Military camps of Psamtik I's Greek and Carian mercenaries on the Pelusiac branch (Hdt. 2.154), in the eastern Delta, outside this region; camps, not cities."
  },
  {
   "name": "Pharos",
   "reason": "Island and lighthouse of Alexandria, joined to the city by the Heptastadion; part of Alexandria, not a separate city."
  },
  {
   "name": "Daphnai (Tell Defenna)",
   "reason": "Saite frontier fortress 'Daphnai of Pelusium' with Greek (and Carian) mercenaries and much Greek pottery (Hdt. 2.30, 2.107; Petrie 1886), 7th-6th c. BC; a garrison, not a city. Tahpanhes of Jeremiah. Its identification with the late antique Aphnaion is not secure."
  },
  {
   "name": "Aphnaion (Aphnaeum)",
   "reason": "Listed among the cities of Augustamnica I by Hierocles and later a titular see, but no bishop, inscription or resident is attested for it, so there is no positive evidence of a Greek-speaking community; site unknown (perhaps Tell Defenna)."
  },
  {
   "name": "Pentaschoinon",
   "reason": "Road station on the coast road east of Pelusium, listed by Hierocles but with no bishop, inscription or resident attested; no positive evidence of a Greek-speaking civic community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Skenai within and outside Gerrha",
   "reason": "Listed by Hierocles as two places beside Gerrha; road settlements of Gerrha without separate evidence; folded into Gerrha."
  },
  {
   "name": "Magdolos (Migdol; Tell el-Herr)",
   "reason": "Frontier fortress (Hdt. 2.159; Tell el-Herr, a Persian, Ptolemaic and Roman fort) and later the station Magdolum; a fort, not a city."
  },
  {
   "name": "Thou",
   "reason": "Roman road station and fort in the eastern Delta (Itinerarium Antonini; Notitia Dignitatum, 'Thohu'); no civic status or Greek community attested."
  },
  {
   "name": "Skenai Mandrai (Scenae Mandrae)",
   "reason": "Roman military post (Notitia Dignitatum) near the head of the Delta; no civic status attested."
  },
  {
   "name": "Scenae Veteranorum",
   "reason": "Roman road station and veterans' post in the Heliopolite area (Itinerarium Antonini; Notitia Dignitatum); no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Leontopolis of Onias (Oniou; Tell el-Yahudiya)",
   "reason": "Jewish military settlement and temple founded by the priest Onias IV, c. 160 BC, in the Heliopolite nome ('the land of Onias'); its residents spoke Greek (Greek epitaphs, JIGRE 29-105), but it was a military colony and temple settlement that Josephus calls a small town (polichne), without civic status; the temple was closed by Lupus and Paulinus on Vespasian's order, AD 73/74 (Jos. BJ 7.420-436)."
  },
  {
   "name": "Aphroditopolis (Delta)",
   "reason": "The Delta Aphroditopolis (Atarbechis, Hdt. 2.41) lay on the Prosopite island in the central-western Delta, outside this area; known only as a cult town, with no civic status or Greek community attested."
  },
  {
   "name": "Phelbes (Bilbeis)",
   "reason": "Later a titular see of Augustamnica II, and a fortified town taken by 'Amr ibn al-'As in 640 after a siege, but no ancient bishop, inscription or resident Greek-speaking community is attested in the sources consulted."
  },
  {
   "name": "Shata",
   "reason": "Town near Damietta known as a see only from the Arab period (Coptic sources); no Greek-period civic evidence."
  },
  {
   "name": "Hermopolis of the 15th Lower Egyptian nome (Baqliya)",
   "reason": "Old Egyptian nome capital (Ba'h, Tell el-Naqus) with no attested Greek-period metropolis, see or Greek community; not to be confused with Hermopolis Parva (Damanhur) in the western Delta."
  },
  {
   "name": "Raphia (Rafah)",
   "reason": "Out of area: the ancient city lies under Rafah in the Gaza Strip (Palaestina Prima); the modern border divides only the later town."
  },
  {
   "name": "Monastery of Sinai (St Catherine)",
   "reason": "Fortified monastery built under Justinian (c. 548-565) with Greek-speaking monks to this day; a monastery, not a city."
  },
  {
   "name": "Raithou (El-Tor)",
   "reason": "Monastic settlement and small port with a fort in South Sinai; no civic status or see."
  },
  {
   "name": "Avaris / Pi-Ramesse (Tell el-Dab'a, Qantir)",
   "reason": "Bronze Age capitals abandoned long before the Greek period."
  },
  {
   "name": "Ptolemais Hormou (El-Lahun, Fayum)",
   "reason": "Ptolemaic harbour of the Fayum at the entrance of the Bahr Yusuf; despite the name it was a village (kome) of the Arsinoite in the papyri, with no gymnasium, boule or see; Greek-speaking residents but no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Philadelpheia (Kom el-Kharaba el-Kebir, Fayum)",
   "reason": "Greek-speaking village founded under Ptolemy II (Zenon archive); a kome of the Arsinoite, never a city."
  },
  {
   "name": "Karanis (Kom Aushim, Fayum)",
   "reason": "Large Greek-speaking village of the Arsinoite; no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Tebtunis (Umm el-Breigat, Fayum)",
   "reason": "Village of the Arsinoite (temple of Soknebtunis, Greek and Demotic papyri); sometimes proposed as the site of Theodosiopolis, which is doubted; listed under Theodosiopolis (Arcadia) only as a candidate site."
  },
  {
   "name": "Soknopaiou Nesos (Dime, Fayum)",
   "reason": "Temple village of the Arsinoite with mostly Demotic and Greek temple documents; no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Bakchias (Kom Umm el-Atl, Fayum)",
   "reason": "Village of the Arsinoite; no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Dionysias (Qasr Qarun, Fayum)",
   "reason": "Village of the Arsinoite with a late Roman fort; no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Other Fayum villages (Narmouthis, Theadelpheia, Euhemeria, Philoteris, Kerkeosiris, Magdola)",
   "reason": "Greek-speaking villages of the Arsinoite founded or settled under the Ptolemies; none had civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Ankyronon polis (el-Hiba)",
   "reason": "Fortified village of the Herakleopolite (source of the Hibeh papyri); no civic status or see."
  },
  {
   "name": "Hipponon",
   "reason": "Village and late Roman fort station (Notitia Dignitatum) in Middle Egypt; no civic status; exact site disputed."
  },
  {
   "name": "Akoris (Tehna el-Gebel)",
   "reason": "Important Ptolemaic and Roman town with Greek dedications, but a village (kome) in the papyri; no boule, see or entry in Hierocles."
  },
  {
   "name": "Alabastrine / Alabastron polis",
   "reason": "Village by the alabaster quarries in the Hermopolite-Antinoite area; 'polis' only in its name; no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Tilothis",
   "reason": "Same place as Nilopolis (Coptic Tiloj, modern Dalas); entered under Nilopolis."
  },
  {
   "name": "Ibion",
   "reason": "Name of several villages of the Arsinoite and Hermopolite (Ibion Eikosipentarouron and others); no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Pempte",
   "reason": "Village known from papyri; no civic status, see or Greek civic institutions."
  },
  {
   "name": "Saqqara (Serapeum of Memphis)",
   "reason": "Sanctuary and necropolis of Memphis; included under Memphis, not a city."
  },
  {
   "name": "Akanthos (Dahshur)",
   "reason": "Village and sanctuary of the Memphite nome; no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Alphocranon (placed at Helwan by the modern list of titular sees)",
   "reason": "The name is a corruption of Phragonis, a see with bishops 325-458 that the checklists place at al-Farragin, outside this area; no ancient city at Helwan is attested."
  },
  {
   "name": "Oasis Parva (Bahariya, Giza Governorate)",
   "reason": "District of the Small Oasis linked to the Oxyrhynchite; Greek officials and soldiers, but no city with civic status or Greek-speaking civic community is attested; left to any Western Desert listing."
  },
  {
   "name": "Thinis (This), near Girga (El-Birba?), Sohag Governorate",
   "reason": "Old capital of the Thinite nome, site not securely located; from the Ptolemaic period the centre of the nome was the Greek city Ptolemais Hermiou. No Greek civic institutions or Greek-speaking civic community attested at Thinis itself; its modern listing as a titular see does not establish one."
  },
  {
   "name": "Abydos (Ἄβυδος), Sohag Governorate",
   "reason": "Temple and pilgrimage centre (the Memnonion, oracle of Bes) in the territory of Ptolemais; the many Greek graffiti are by visitors. Never a nome metropolis or see with civic institutions in the Greek period."
  },
  {
   "name": "Athribis / Triphieion (Wannina), Sohag Governorate",
   "reason": "Temple town of the Panopolite nome; village without civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Lepidotonpolis (Nag el-Mashayikh), Sohag Governorate",
   "reason": "Small temple town/village of the Thinite district; no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Chenoboskion (Sheneset, Qasr es-Sayed), Qena Governorate",
   "reason": "Village; known for Pachomius' early monastery and the Nag Hammadi codices found nearby; no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Tabennese and Pbow (Faw Qibli), Qena Governorate",
   "reason": "Villages and Pachomian monasteries (Coptic-speaking communities); no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Krokodilopolis (Gebelein), Luxor Governorate",
   "reason": "Garrison settlement on the second hill of Gebelein, twin of Pathyris; a village, not a nome metropolis. Its Greek soldiers are covered under Pathyris."
  },
  {
   "name": "Memnonia / Djeme (Medinet Habu, Theban west bank), Luxor Governorate",
   "reason": "District and village (kastron Memnonion; Coptic town of Djeme, 6th-8th c.) within the territory of Thebes; not a city in its own right. Its documents are used under Thebes."
  },
  {
   "name": "Medamud (Madu), Luxor Governorate",
   "reason": "Temple village of the Theban nome; no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Tuphium (Tod), Luxor Governorate",
   "reason": "Village of the Hermonthite nome; no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Asphynis (Asfun el-Mata'na), Luxor Governorate",
   "reason": "Village; no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Eileithyiaspolis (Elkab), Aswan Governorate",
   "reason": "Pharaonic nome capital (Nekheb), in the Greek period a temple town between Latopolis and Apollonopolis Magna; Greek texts there are mainly visitors' graffiti. No metropolis status, see or Greek civic institutions attested."
  },
  {
   "name": "Hierakonpolis (Nekhen, Kom el-Ahmar), Aswan Governorate",
   "reason": "Pharaonic town, small and of no civic status in the Greek and Roman periods."
  },
  {
   "name": "Silsilis (Gebel el-Silsila), Aswan Governorate",
   "reason": "Sandstone quarries with a garrison post and shrines; not a city."
  },
  {
   "name": "Contra Syene, Contrapollonopolis, Contra Latopolis",
   "reason": "Garrison posts on the bank opposite the cities (Notitia dignitatum); not cities."
  },
  {
   "name": "Elephantine (Yebu), Aswan Governorate",
   "reason": "Fortress island (phrourion) opposite Syene; its Greek settlers (P.Eleph. 1, 311 BC) and the late Roman soldier families of the Patermouthis archive are counted under Syene, which was the civic centre and see."
  },
  {
   "name": "Philae (Φίλαι), Aswan Governorate",
   "reason": "Temple island with a late Roman garrison; bishops of Philae are attested from the 4th c. (Macedonius) but there were no civic institutions, and the Greek texts are by officials, soldiers, pilgrims and the bishop rather than a resident Greek-speaking community. The temple of Isis was closed by Narses under Justinian (c. 537; Procopius, Wars 1.19)."
  },
  {
   "name": "Leukos Limen (Quseir?)",
   "reason": "Harbour listed by Ptolemy (Geog. 4.5); no town with civic status or Greek residents attested, and the identification with El-Quseir or with Quseir al-Qadim is disputed (Quseir al-Qadim is now Myos Hormos)."
  },
  {
   "name": "Nechesia (Marsa Nakari?)",
   "reason": "Harbour in Ptolemy's list; the Ptolemaic-Roman settlement at Marsa Nakari is a small harbour station, not a city."
  },
  {
   "name": "Abu Sha'ar",
   "reason": "Late Roman fort (building inscription of 309/311), later a Christian pilgrimage place; a fort, not a city."
  },
  {
   "name": "Mons Porphyrites (Gebel Abu Dukhan)",
   "reason": "Imperial porphyry quarry with workers' settlement and forts; quarry, not a city."
  },
  {
   "name": "Mons Claudianus",
   "reason": "Imperial granite quarry with fortified workers' camp; quarry, not a city."
  },
  {
   "name": "Mons Smaragdus (Sikait, Senskis and the emerald mines)",
   "reason": "Mining settlements; no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Bir Umm Fawakhir",
   "reason": "Late Roman gold-mining settlement (5th-6th c.) on the Koptos-Quseir road; mining town, not a city."
  },
  {
   "name": "Praesidia and hydreumata of the Eastern Desert roads (Didymoi, Maximianon, Krokodilo, Persou, Phoinikon, Aphrodites Oros, Dios, Xeron Pelagos, Kompasi, Apollonos Hydreuma, Kainon Hydreuma, Vetus Hydreuma and others)",
   "reason": "Ptolemaic and Roman forts and watering stations; Greek ostraca were written by soldiers and travellers, not by a civic community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Shenshef and Hitan Rayan",
   "reason": "Late Roman desert settlements near Berenike, probably linked to Blemmyan groups; villages, not cities."
  },
  {
   "name": "Mersa Gawasis (Saww)",
   "reason": "Pharaonic Red Sea harbour; no Greek city (sometimes proposed for Philotera, see that entry)."
  },
  {
   "name": "Berenike Panchrysos",
   "reason": "Ptolemaic gold-mining settlement, probably Deraheib in the Wadi Allaqi near the Sudan border; mining town, not a city."
  },
  {
   "name": "Arsinoe Trogodytike and other Ptolemaic harbours south of Berenike",
   "reason": "Unlocated or on the Sudanese and Eritrean coast (other regions); no evidence of towns with Greek residents on the Egyptian coast."
  },
  {
   "name": "Monasteries of St Antony and St Paul",
   "reason": "Monasteries, not cities."
  },
  {
   "name": "Kysis (Dush)",
   "reason": "Village with a fort and temple in the Kharga Oasis; Greek ostraca (O. Douch) of villagers and soldiers, but no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Other Kharga sites (Qasr el-Ghueita, Qasr Zayyan/Tchonemyris, Mounesis/Shams el-Din, Ain el-Labakha, Umm el-Dabadib, El-Deir, Ain Manawir)",
   "reason": "Villages, temples and forts, not cities."
  },
  {
   "name": "Bagawat",
   "reason": "Christian necropolis of Hibis; part of the Hibis entry."
  },
  {
   "name": "Ibis",
   "reason": "Variant spelling of Hibis; merged into that entry."
  },
  {
   "name": "Kellis (Ismant el-Kharab)",
   "reason": "Village of the Mothite nome, abandoned c. 400; famous Greek and Coptic papyri but never a city."
  },
  {
   "name": "Other Dakhla sites (Ain el-Gedida, Deir el-Hagar, Ain Birbiya, Mesobe)",
   "reason": "Villages and temples, not cities."
  },
  {
   "name": "Farafra",
   "reason": "Small oasis with Roman-period villages (Ain Besay, Qasr Farafra); no town with civic status or Greek community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Bahariya forts and villages (El-Bawiti necropolis, Qaret el-Toub, El-Haiz, Bir Shawish)",
   "reason": "Necropolis, Roman fort and villages; the chief place is treated under Psobthis."
  },
  {
   "name": "Ammonion (Siwa Oasis: Aghurmi, Umm Ubayda, Gebel el-Mawta)",
   "reason": "Oracle sanctuary of Ammon in a Libyan-speaking oasis; Greek visitors and dedications and a Greek-style tomb (Si-Amun) but no Greek-speaking civic community; a see 'Ammoniace' appears only in modern titular lists; Siwi (Berber) is spoken there today."
  },
  {
   "name": "Qara and other small oases of the Matrouh interior",
   "reason": "No ancient city attested."
  },
  {
   "name": "Balagrai (Balagrae, Al Bayda)",
   "reason": "Sanctuary of Asclepius and village in the territory of Cyrene; no civic institutions, coinage or see attested."
  },
  {
   "name": "Hydrax",
   "reason": "Village; Synesius (Ep. 67) calls Hydrax and Palaebisca two villages of the Pentapolis on the frontier of arid Libya, briefly given their own bishop (Siderius) and then returned to the see of Erythron."
  },
  {
   "name": "Palaebisca",
   "reason": "Village (Synesius, Ep. 67); a short-lived bishopric with Hydrax, not a city."
  },
  {
   "name": "Phykous (Ras al-Hilal area, Zawiet el-Hamama)",
   "reason": "Cape and anchorage of Cyrene (Strabo 17.3.20); no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Naustathmos (El Hania)",
   "reason": "Anchorage and road station east of Apollonia; no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Kainopolis (Cenopolis)",
   "reason": "Known only as a name in Ptolemy and on the Peutinger Table; site and status unknown, no evidence of a civic community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Boreion (Boreum)",
   "reason": "Procopius (Buildings 6.2.12-23) calls it the westernmost city of the Pentapolis, unwalled and untaxed, with an old Jewish community whose temple Justinian made a church; later a see; no positive evidence of a Greek-speaking civic community (no Greek inscriptions, coins or bishops of the town)."
  },
  {
   "name": "Lasamikes",
   "reason": "Village or station in Ptolemy; no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Zygris (Zawiyet el-Hamam?)",
   "reason": "A see of Libya Inferior (bishops Marcus 362, Lucius 449), but Ptolemy calls it a village and there is no positive evidence of a resident Greek-speaking civic community; location uncertain."
  },
  {
   "name": "Zagylis",
   "reason": "A see of Libya Inferior (bishops 449, 457, c. 480) whose site is unknown; no positive evidence of a Greek-speaking civic community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Dysthis (Dystis)",
   "reason": "A see of Libya Superior (bishops Samuel 431, Petrus 458) whose site is unknown; it cannot be placed on a map and no evidence of the town itself survives."
  },
  {
   "name": "Paliouros (Paliurus, Timimi)",
   "reason": "Village or station in Ptolemy and the itineraries; no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Apis (west of Marsa Matruh)",
   "reason": "Border town of Libyans and Egyptians (Hdt. 2.18); no positive evidence of a Greek-speaking civic community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Augila (Awjila)",
   "reason": "Libyan oasis (Hdt. 4.172); Procopius (Buildings 6.2.14-20) has its people worship Ammon until Justinian converted them and built a church of the Mother of God; no Greek-speaking community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Jalu oasis",
   "reason": "No ancient city attested; Libyan oasis."
  },
  {
   "name": "Arae Philaenorum",
   "reason": "Boundary monument and road station on the Gulf of Sirte between Carthaginian and Cyrenaean territory; no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Automala",
   "reason": "Fort and station on the Gulf of Sirte; no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Corniclanum / Ajdabiya",
   "reason": "Roman road station; the town of Ajdabiya is an Arab-period foundation (al-Ya'qubi, al-Bakri)."
  },
  {
   "name": "Katabathmos Megas (Sollum)",
   "reason": "Pass and boundary station between Egypt and Libya; no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Menelaos harbour (Menelai Portus)",
   "reason": "Harbour of Marmarica (where Agesilaos II died, 360/359 BC); no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Leuke Akte",
   "reason": "Cape and harbour on the Marmarican coast; no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Bates's Island (Marsa Matruh)",
   "reason": "Late Bronze Age trading camp with Cypriot and Aegean pottery; not a Greek settlement or city (noted under Paraitonion)."
  },
  {
   "name": "Leukaspis",
   "reason": "Harbour named by Strabo and Ptolemy; possibly the same excavated town as Antiphrai at Marina el-Alamein, entered there."
  },
  {
   "name": "Marmarica (see of Theonas, 325)",
   "reason": "A see named after the region, held by Theonas at Nicaea; its town is not identified."
  },
  {
   "name": "Slonta",
   "reason": "Libyan rock sanctuary in the Jabal al Akhdar; not a city."
  },
  {
   "name": "Agriolode and Dinarthisum",
   "reason": "Monasteries fortified by Justinian on the southern edge of the Pentapolis (Procopius, Buildings 6.2.7-8); not cities."
  },
  {
   "name": "Carthage (Qart-hadasht; Karchedon; Carthago), Tunis, Tunisia",
   "reason": "Punic, then Latin city (renamed Iustiniane under Justinian, Procopius, Aed. 6.5.8); Greek is not shown to have been one of its two main languages in any period. Punic period: a Greek resident community existed (in 396 BC, after the plague at Syracuse, the Carthaginians adopted the cult of Demeter and Kore and 'chose out the most prominent Greeks who lived among them' for the service of the goddesses, Diod. 14.77.5; Greek mercenaries, wives and tutors of the elite), but Justin 20.5.12-13 records a decree that no Carthaginian should study Greek letters or speech after a traitor wrote to Dionysius I in Greek, which shows Greek was a learned language, not a common one; Punic was the city's language until its destruction by Scipio Aemilianus in 146 BC. Roman colony (44 BC, settled under Augustus): Latin and Punic; Greek appears as an educated or immigrant language (Apuleius' Greek and Latin hymn, Florida 18; Tertullian's lost Greek works; Perpetua speaks Greek with the bishop Optatus and the priest Aspasius in her vision, Passio 13), and Greek epitaphs are a small minority of the city's funerary inscriptions. Under Constantinople (533-698): the Greek of exarchs, officials and garrison does not count; Greek-speaking civilians are attested (Eastern monks such as Maximus the Confessor, near Carthage from c. 630, who disputed in Greek with the ex-patriarch Pyrrhus at Carthage in 645 before the exarch Gregory and African bishops; refugees from Syria, Palestine and Egypt, including anti-Chalcedonian nuns from Alexandria, Maximus Ep. 12; the Greek-speaking Eastern Jews forcibly baptized in Carthage in the Greek Doctrina Jacobi, set in 634), but the African church wrote Latin (the councils and letters of 646), the townspeople spoke Latin, and the Greek-speaking administrators were a 'minute fraction' of the population (Conant, Staying Roman, 2012). A Greek-speaking immigrant minority, not a bilingual city (doubtful call for the 7th c.). Hassan ibn al-Nu'man took Carthage in 695, the patrician John retook it by sea in 697, and Hassan took and destroyed it in 698. Ancient DNA, which is evidence of ancestry and not of language: the genomes of 17 people from Carthage and 27 from nearby Kerkouane, of the Punic period, show mostly a Sicilian-Aegean-like ancestry, a minority of North African ancestry and almost no ancestry from the Levant (Ringbauer et al., Nature 643, 2025; for Kerkouane also Moots et al., Nature Ecology and Evolution 2023). The data cannot tell Sicily and the Aegean apart, and the authors name contact with the Greek colonies of the central Mediterranean and Cyrenaica as one possible source. It does not show what language these people spoke, so it does not change the decision; it does raise the possibility that Greeks were among the city's inhabitants, perhaps adopting its language and culture, an episode of linguistic conversion either in Africa or in the source of these genetically Aegean-Sicilian people."
  },
  {
   "name": "Hadrumetum / Iustiniane (Sousse, Tunisia)",
   "reason": "Phoenician-Punic town, then Roman colony and capital of Byzacena, renamed Iustiniane under Justinian (Procopius, Aed. 6.6.1-7); Latin and Punic. Greek appears only in magic (Greek curse tablets and the Greek love charm of the 3rd c. AD, Audollent DT 271) and in imperial administration; besieged by Agathocles c. 310 BC (Diod. 20) only as a military episode. No resident Greek-speaking community attested."
  },
  {
   "name": "Utica (Henchir Bou Chateur, Tunisia)",
   "reason": "Phoenician colony, then Punic town and capital of Roman Africa before Carthage; Latin and Punic. Stormed by Agathocles in 307 BC (Diod. 20.54-55), a military act only; no Greek settlers or Greek civic evidence."
  },
  {
   "name": "Lepcis Magna (Lpqy; 'Neapolis' in Strabo 17.3.18; Al-Khums, Libya)",
   "reason": "Punic town, then Roman municipium and colony; its bilingual inscriptions are Punic-Latin (Annobal Tapapius Rufus, 8 BC and AD 1/2); the Greek name Neapolis is a geographers' name. A few Greek dedications are by visitors or for the Severan court; no resident Greek-speaking community attested. Raided by the Austuriani in 363-365 (Amm. 28.6); under Constantinople from 533; reached by the Arab campaign of 'Amr ibn al-'As in 642/643."
  },
  {
   "name": "Oea (Wy't; Tripoli, Libya)",
   "reason": "Punic-Latin town. Apuleius (Apology 82-87, 98) shows a rich local family using Greek in letters (Pudentilla) and a son, Pudens, who spoke only Punic and a little Greek and no Latin: elite learned Greek, not a Greek-speaking community. Taken by 'Amr ibn al-'As after a siege of about a month in 643 (Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam)."
  },
  {
   "name": "Sabratha (Sbrtn; 'Abrotonon' in Greek geographers; Sabratha, Libya)",
   "reason": "Punic town, then Roman municipium and colony; Punic and Latin. The Greek name Abrotonon (Strabo 17.3.18; Pliny 5.25) and the Hellenistic style of Mausoleum B do not show Greek speakers; Apuleius was tried here (c. 158/9). No Greek civic evidence. Taken by 'Amr ibn al-'As's troops after Oea, 643."
  },
  {
   "name": "Gigthis (Bou Ghara, Medenine, Tunisia)",
   "reason": "Punic emporion, then Roman municipium; Latin inscriptions; no Greek evidence."
  },
  {
   "name": "Tacapae (Gabes, Tunisia)",
   "reason": "Punic-Roman port town and later see; Latin and Punic; no Greek-speaking community attested."
  },
  {
   "name": "Thapsus (Ras Dimass, Tunisia)",
   "reason": "Punic-Roman town (battle of Thapsus, 46 BC); taken by Agathocles c. 310 BC (Diod. 20) as a military act only; no Greek civic evidence."
  },
  {
   "name": "Leptis Minor (Lamta, Tunisia)",
   "reason": "Punic-Roman town; Latin and Punic; no Greek evidence."
  },
  {
   "name": "Neapolis (Nabeul, Tunisia)",
   "reason": "Carthaginian emporion with a Greek name, used by Greek sailors as the nearest African port to Sicily (Thuc. 7.50.2, 413 BC); Punic, then Roman colony; no Greek residents attested."
  },
  {
   "name": "Kerkouane (Cap Bon, Tunisia)",
   "reason": "Punic town with Greek architectural and ceramic influence; abandoned in the mid-3rd c. BC (probably during the Roman invasion of 256-255 BC); no Greek inscriptions or Greek residents attested."
  },
  {
   "name": "Meninx / Girba (island of Djerba, Tunisia)",
   "reason": "Punic-Roman town and see on the island the Greek geographers identified with Homer's land of the Lotus-eaters (Strabo 17.3.17); a literary identification only, not a Greek settlement; Latin and Punic."
  },
  {
   "name": "Cercina (Kerkennah islands, Tunisia)",
   "reason": "Punic-Roman island town and see; no Greek evidence."
  },
  {
   "name": "Hippo Regius (Annaba, Algeria)",
   "reason": "Punic-Numidian royal town, then Roman municipium and see of Augustine; Latin and Punic (Augustine on Punic speakers in his diocese, Ep. 108, 209); Augustine himself learned Greek only poorly (Conf. 1.13-14). No Greek-speaking community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Caesarea / Iol (Cherchell, Algeria)",
   "reason": "Punic Iol refounded as Caesarea by Juba II (25 BC - AD 23) and Cleopatra Selene, whose court was Greek in culture (Greek legends on the queen's coins, Greek scholars and artists, Juba's Greek books); but a court is not enough. The town's large epigraphy is overwhelmingly Latin and Greek inscriptions are few; no Greek civic institutions or resident Greek-speaking community attested. Roman colony under Claudius (c. 40/42). Doubtful only in that the royal household included Greek-speaking freedmen."
  },
  {
   "name": "Tipasa (Algeria)",
   "reason": "Punic trading town, then Latin municipium and colony; Latin epigraphy; no Greek-speaking community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Volubilis (near Moulay Idriss, Morocco)",
   "reason": "Mauretanian (Libyan-Punic) town, then Roman municipium; Punic, Libyan and Latin inscriptions; its Hellenistic bronzes are imported art, not evidence of Greek speakers. No Greek community attested."
  },
  {
   "name": "Lixus (Larache, Morocco)",
   "reason": "Phoenician-Punic town, then Roman colony; the Greek myths placed here (Antaeus, the Garden of the Hesperides, Pliny 5.3) are legends; no Greek settlement."
  },
  {
   "name": "Tingi (Tangier, Morocco)",
   "reason": "Mauretanian-Punic town, then Roman colony; the Antaeus and Sophax foundation story (Plut. Sert. 9) is legend; Latin. No Greek community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Septem / Septem Fratres (Ceuta)",
   "reason": "Out of area: Ceuta belongs to Spain. In any case a fort of the emperors in Constantinople with a garrison only (Procopius, Aed. 6.7.14-15)."
  },
  {
   "name": "Rusaddir (Melilla)",
   "reason": "Out of area: Melilla belongs to Spain; a Punic-Roman town in any case."
  },
  {
   "name": "Aspis / Clupea (Kelibia, Nabeul, Tunisia)",
   "reason": "Strabo 17.3.16 says Agathocles 'colonised' (synoikise) the hill of Aspis when he invaded Africa (310-307 BC), and Solinus 27.8 ascribes it to Sicilians; but there was a Punic town there, Agathocles' occupation was a military base held for at most three years, and when he left in 307 BC his army in Africa gave back the towns it held, was enrolled by Carthage or shipped to Solous in Sicily, and those who resisted were stormed (Diod. 20.69). Punic again (taken by Regulus in 256 BC, Polyb. 1.29), then a Roman colony. No resident Greek community. Doubtful call."
  },
  {
   "name": "Hippou Akra / Hippo Diarrhytus (Bizerte, Tunisia)",
   "reason": "Phoenician-Punic town stormed by Agathocles in 307 BC (Diod. 20.55.3), a military act only; then Roman colony and Latin see. No Greek-speaking community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Kybos (Κύβος), 'a city of the Ionians in Phoenician Libya' (Hecataeus in Stephanus of Byzantium)",
   "reason": "Known only from one lexicon entry quoting Hecataeus; unlocated; no other text, coin or archaeology. Unsupported claim."
  },
  {
   "name": "Karikon Teichos ('Carian Wall') and the other towns of Hanno's Periplus (Thymiaterion, Gytte, Akra, Melitta, Arambys), Atlantic Morocco",
   "reason": "Carthaginian foundations; the Greek names are the Greek translation of a Punic report. Not Greek settlements."
  },
  {
   "name": "Kerne and Mogador (Essaouira, Morocco)",
   "reason": "Phoenician-Punic trading post (Ps.-Scylax 112 describes Phoenician traders at Kerne); a few Greek pots among the Phoenician finds at Mogador show trade, not Greek residents."
  },
  {
   "name": "Charax and the Tower of Euphrantas (Gulf of Sirte, Libya)",
   "reason": "Charax was a Carthaginian emporion for smuggled Cyrenaic silphium, and Euphrantas' tower a frontier landmark (Strabo 17.3.20). Greek names, no Greek settlement or civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Pithekoussai of Numidia (Diod. 20.58)",
   "reason": "Three native towns named by the Greeks after their monkeys; Agathocles' general Eumachus destroyed one and won over the other two (Diod. 20.58); Greek name only, no Greek settlement."
  },
  {
   "name": "Lake Tritonis and the 'hundred Greek cities' (Hdt. 4.178-179)",
   "reason": "Legend: the oracle of Jason's tripod that a hundred Greek cities would be founded round Lake Tritonis, which the Libyans thwarted by hiding the tripod. No settlement."
  },
  {
   "name": "Massaliote periplus (Avienus, Ora Maritima) and Hecataeus' Libyan towns",
   "reason": "No Greek settlement in north-west Africa is named in them; the African places they list are Libyan or Phoenician (e.g. Kanthele, 'a city of the Libyan Phoenicians', Hecataeus F 339)."
  },
  {
   "name": "Caput Vada (Ras Kaboudia, Tunisia)",
   "reason": "Justinian made Belisarius' landing place a walled city (Procopius, Aed. 6.6.8-16), but there is no evidence of Greek-speaking residents; a Latin town under imperial rule. Out."
  },
  {
   "name": "Vaga / Theodorias (Beja, Tunisia)",
   "reason": "Renamed after the empress Theodora (Procopius, Aed. 6.5.14); Latin town with a garrison; no Greek-speaking community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Sufetula (Sbeitla, Tunisia)",
   "reason": "Latin Roman town; seat of the rebel exarch Gregory, defeated and killed there by 'Abd Allah ibn Sa'd ibn Abi Sarh in 647; no Greek-speaking civilian community attested."
  },
  {
   "name": "Mauritania (whole country)",
   "reason": "No Greek settlement, Greek inscription or Greek-speaking community is recorded; the identifications of Hanno's and Ps.-Scylax's Kerne with sites on this coast are conjectures about Punic voyages."
  },
  {
   "name": "Megalepolis and White Tunis (Tynes Leukos), Cap Bon and Tunis, Tunisia",
   "reason": "Punic towns taken by Agathocles in 310 BC (Diod. 20.8); 'Great City' is a Greek rendering, not a Greek foundation; no Greek settlement."
  },
  {
   "name": "Garama (Germa, Fezzan, Libya)",
   "reason": "Capital of the Garamantes; Roman and Mediterranean imports only; no Greek settlement or Greek-speaking community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Parembole (Debod), Aswan Governorate, Egypt",
   "reason": "Temple of Amun built by the Meroitic king Adikhalamani and enlarged under the Ptolemies and Augustus, with a Roman camp (the Greek name means 'camp'); a fort and temple site in the Dodekaschoinos, not a city; no Greek-speaking civic community. The temple was moved to Madrid in 1968-1972."
  },
  {
   "name": "Tzitzis (Kertassi), Aswan Governorate, Egypt",
   "reason": "Sandstone quarry with a kiosk and many Greek inscriptions of quarry workers and soldiers (2nd-3rd c.); a quarry, not a city."
  },
  {
   "name": "Talmis (Kalabsha), Aswan Governorate, Egypt",
   "reason": "Temple town of Mandulis in the Dodekaschoinos with a Roman garrison. Its Greek texts are official or royal: soldiers' and visitors' prayers (proskynemata), the decree of Aurelius Besarion also called Ammonios, strategos of the Ombite nome and Elephantine, ordering pigs out of 'the sacred village of Talmis' (OGIS 210, AD 248/249), and the Greek victory inscription of Silko, 'king of the Nobades and all the Ethiopians' (5th or early 6th c.), written in the Greek of a Nubian court; beside them the Meroitic inscription of the king Kharamadoye. The residents spoke Egyptian, Meroitic and later Blemmye and Nobadian; no Greek civic institutions or Greek-speaking resident community are attested. Not a city with civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Taphis (Tafa), Aswan Governorate, Egypt",
   "reason": "Small temple and Roman fort site in the Dodekaschoinos; no civic status and no Greek-speaking community beyond soldiers."
  },
  {
   "name": "Contra Pselchis (Quban, Baki), Aswan Governorate, Egypt",
   "reason": "Fortress at the mouth of the Wadi Allaqi gold route opposite Pselchis, used from the Middle Kingdom to Roman times; a fort, not a city."
  },
  {
   "name": "Pselchis (Dakka), Aswan Governorate, Egypt",
   "reason": "Temple of Thoth of Pnubs begun by the Meroitic king Arkamani (Ergamenes) with Ptolemy IV and finished under the Romans; called a town of the Ethiopians taken by C. Petronius in 24 BC (Strabo 17.1.54). In Roman times it was a garrison post: the Greek ostraca and inscriptions are those of soldiers and visitors. No civic status and no resident Greek-speaking community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Hiera Sykaminos (Maharraqa), Aswan Governorate, Egypt",
   "reason": "Southern limit of the Dodekaschoinos and of Roman Egypt from Augustus to Diocletian (Ptolemy, Geography; Itinerarium Antonini), a Roman fort and station with a temple of Isis and Serapis; Greek inscriptions are those of soldiers and travellers. Diocletian withdrew the frontier to Philae in 298 (Procopius, Wars 1.19.27-37). A station, not a city."
  },
  {
   "name": "Primis (Qasr Ibrim), Aswan Governorate, Egypt",
   "reason": "Meroitic fortress town (Premnis) stormed by C. Petronius in 24 BC and held by a Roman garrison of 400 men until the settlement with the Meroites in 21/20 BC (Strabo 17.1.54); the papyri of that period found there (among them the Latin elegies of Cornelius Gallus) belong to the garrison. Later a Meroitic, Nobadian and Christian Nubian centre and episcopal see, where Greek was used in church and in some documents beside Coptic, Old Nubian and Arabic. No Greek-speaking resident community; Greek was official, military or ecclesiastical."
  },
  {
   "name": "Pachoras (Faras), Northern State, Sudan (now under Lake Nubia)",
   "reason": "Capital of the Nubian kingdom of Nobadia and seat of its bishops, with the cathedral and its wall paintings; the inscriptions and captions are in Greek, Coptic and Old Nubian, and the list of bishops is in Coptic. Greek here was the language of the liturgy and of formal writing among Nubian speakers, not a spoken community language (Ochala 2014; Lajtar). Not a Greek or bilingual city in the sense used here."
  },
  {
   "name": "Sai, Northern State, Sudan",
   "reason": "Island town and fortress with Pharaonic, Kushite, Meroitic and Christian remains, a Nubian bishopric in the Christian period; Greek only in ecclesiastical inscriptions. Nubian-speaking; no Greek-speaking community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Old Dongola (Tungul), Northern State, Sudan",
   "reason": "Capital of the Nubian kingdom of Makuria, founded c. 5th c.; it withstood Arab attacks in 642 and 652, ended by the treaty (baqt) with 'Abd Allah ibn Sa'd ibn Abi Sarh. Greek was used for liturgy, funerary epitaphs and royal titles into the 12th-14th c., beside Old Nubian and Coptic, but by Nubian speakers; scholars treat it as a written and church language, not the speech of a resident community (Lajtar; Ochala 2014). Not a Greek or bilingual city."
  },
  {
   "name": "Soba, Khartoum State, Sudan",
   "reason": "Capital of the Nubian kingdom of Alodia (Alwa), converted by the mission of Longinus c. 580 (John of Ephesus, Ecclesiastical History 4.49-53); a few Greek and Old Nubian church inscriptions; Nubian-speaking, no Greek community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Napata (Jebel Barkal / Karima), Northern State, Sudan",
   "reason": "Kushite royal and religious centre, sacked by C. Petronius in 24/23 BC (Strabo 17.1.54; Res Gestae 26; Pliny, NH 6.181-182); Egyptian and Meroitic in language; no Greek community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Meroe (Begrawiya), River Nile State, Sudan",
   "reason": "Capital of the kingdom of Kush; Diodorus (3.6.3) says King Ergamenes had a Greek education, and Hellenistic objects and a fragmentary Greek victory inscription of a 4th-c. Aksumite king were found there; but it was a Meroitic-speaking city and Greek was known only to a few at court. No Greek-speaking community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Miam (Aniba) and Karanog, Aswan Governorate, Egypt",
   "reason": "Meroitic administrative centre of Lower Nubia, seat of the Meroitic governors (peshto) in the 2nd-3rd c., with Meroitic funerary inscriptions; no Greek community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Gebel Adda, Aswan Governorate, Egypt",
   "reason": "Meroitic, Nobadian and Christian Nubian town; Meroitic, Old Nubian and church inscriptions; no Greek community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Ballana and Qustul, Aswan Governorate, Egypt",
   "reason": "Royal tombs of the Nobadian kings (4th-6th c.) with imported Roman silver and bronze; cemeteries, not cities, and no Greek community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Kawa (Gematon), Northern State, Sudan",
   "reason": "Kushite temple town with Egyptian-language and Meroitic inscriptions; no Greek community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Musawwarat es-Sufra and Naqa, River Nile State, Sudan",
   "reason": "Meroitic religious and royal centres (Naqa has a temple kiosk in a Roman-influenced style); Meroitic-speaking, no Greek community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Elephant-hunting stations of the Trogodytic coast (Soteira Limen, Eumenes' Grove, the hunts of Pytholaos and Lichas, the Harbour of Antiphilos, Cape Pytholaos and others), Sudan and Eritrea",
   "reason": "Bases and landmarks of the Ptolemaic elephant hunts named after their commanders (Strabo 16.4.8-15; Pliny, NH 6.171-173); manned by hunters, soldiers and sailors and given up when the hunts ended in the 2nd c. BC. Stations without civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Berenike of the Sabai, Red Sea coast (Eritrea or Sudan, unlocated)",
   "reason": "Strabo (16.4.10, after Artemidorus) names 'Berenike, a Sabaean city' and 'Sabai, a good-sized city' on the African coast south of Ptolemais; a Ptolemaic name for a place in a native region, with no evidence of Greek settlers or civic life and no located remains."
  },
  {
   "name": "Sabai, Red Sea coast (Eritrea or Sudan, unlocated)",
   "reason": "Native town called 'a good-sized city' by Strabo (16.4.10); no Greek community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Arsinoe near Deire, near Assab, Southern Red Sea Region, Eritrea (unlocated)",
   "reason": "A Ptolemaic Arsinoe just before the strait of Deire, 'a city and harbour' in Strabo (16.4.14, after Artemidorus), also in Pliny (NH 6.170) and Ptolemy (Geography 4.7) (Pleiades 39295); known only from geographers' lists, with no evidence of Greek settlers, civic life or excavated remains. Probably a station of the hunting and naval network. Rejected for lack of positive evidence; doubtful."
  },
  {
   "name": "Berenike Epi Deires, Ras Siyan (Obock Region, Djibouti) or near Assab (Eritrea)",
   "reason": "Pliny (NH 6.170) counts 'Berenice Epi Dires' among the Ptolemaic Berenices, Ptolemy (Geography 4.7) lists Deire as a city, and Artemidorus (in Strabo 16.4.4) knows at the strait a town of the same name 'inhabited by Ichthyophagi'. The name shows a Ptolemaic foundation or renaming, but no Greek settlers, civic institutions, inscriptions or remains are attested and the site is unexcavated. Rejected for lack of positive evidence of a Greek community; doubtful."
  },
  {
   "name": "Adulis (Zula), Northern Red Sea Region, Eritrea",
   "reason": "Port of Aksum. Pliny (NH 6.172) tells that runaway Egyptian slaves founded it (a tale built on the name); the Periplus (4) calls it a fair-sized village and a lawful market, and says King Zoskales knew Greek letters (5). Its Greek texts are royal: Ptolemy III's victory inscription (which may point to a Ptolemaic hunting station there in the 3rd c. BC, i.e. soldiers and hunters, not settlers) and the Greek inscription of an Aksumite king (Monumentum Adulitanum), both copied c. 518-525 by Cosmas Indicopleustes at the request of the governor of Adulis under King Kaleb. Roman merchants came and went by sea (Cosmas was one of them), and imported amphorae, Roman wares and a Menas flask are found, but no inscriptions, ostraca, clergy or institutions of a resident Greek-speaking community are known. The town was abandoned in the late 6th or 7th c. (Zazzaro 2014; the traditional Arab raid of 640 is unproven). Greek was a royal and trade language here, not a community language."
  },
  {
   "name": "Aksum (Axum), Tigray Region, Ethiopia",
   "reason": "Capital of the Aksumite kingdom. Greek was used in royal inscriptions (the Greek versions of King Ezana's inscriptions, c. 330-360, beside Ge'ez in Ethiopic and in South Arabian script) and on coin legends from c. 270 to the early 7th c.; but it was a royal, diplomatic and trade language. Rufinus (Ecclesiastical History 10.9-10) tells that Frumentius, a Greek from Tyre at the court, gathered the Roman merchants staying in the kingdom into Christian meeting places (c. 330s): a small foreign merchant colony, not a community that made Greek one of the city's main languages. The people spoke Ge'ez; no Greek civic institutions or Greek-speaking civic community are attested."
  },
  {
   "name": "Koloe (Qohaito), Southern Region, Eritrea",
   "reason": "Inland town and ivory market of the Periplus (4) and Ptolemy (Geography 4.7); an Aksumite town with Ge'ez and Sabaic remains; no Greek community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Matara, Southern Region, Eritrea",
   "reason": "Aksumite town near Senafe excavated by F. Anfray (from 1959), with a Ge'ez inscription on a stela and Aksumite coins; no Greek community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Avalites (probably Zeila, Awdal, Somaliland, Somalia; some propose a site near Assab, Eritrea)",
   "reason": "Small market of the 'far-side' coast (Periplus 7), where goods were brought on rafts and small boats; under local chiefs (Periplus 14). A native emporion visited by Greek-speaking merchants from Egypt; no Greek residents or civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Malao (Berbera, Sahil, Somaliland, Somalia)",
   "reason": "Market of the Periplus (8), an open roadstead whose natives were 'more peaceable'; a native emporion visited by traders from Egypt; no Greek community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Mundu (probably Heis/Xiis, Sanaag, Somaliland, Somalia)",
   "reason": "Market of the Periplus (9) on an offshore island; native emporion; no Greek community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Mosylon (near Bosaso or Ras Hantara, Bari, Puntland, Somalia)",
   "reason": "Market of the Periplus (10) exporting cassia; native emporion; no Greek community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Spice Market (Aromaton Emporion), near Cape Guardafui (Damo), Bari, Somalia",
   "reason": "Market and anchorage of the Periplus (12); native emporion; no Greek community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Opone (Ras Hafun), Bari, Somalia",
   "reason": "Market of the Periplus (13) for cinnamon and slaves; excavations by N. Chittick (1975) and later work found occupation from about the 1st c. BC to the 5th c. AD with Roman amphorae and wares; a native trading settlement visited by Mediterranean merchants; no Greek residents or civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Sarapion and Nikon, Benadir coast, Somalia",
   "reason": "Names of anchorages on the 'courses of Azania' given by Greek-speaking sailors (Periplus 15; Ptolemy, Geography 1.17); not settlements of Greeks."
  },
  {
   "name": "Rhapta (unlocated: Rufiji delta or Pangani, Tanzania)",
   "reason": "The last market of Azania (Periplus 16; Ptolemy, Geography 1.9, 4.7, the 'metropolis' of Barbaria); governed for the king of the Himyarites through the chief of Mapharitis, and its trade was in the hands of Arab merchants from Muza who married local women and knew the language (Periplus 16). No Greek community."
  },
  {
   "name": "Menouthias (Pemba, Zanzibar or Mafia, Tanzania)",
   "reason": "Island of the Periplus (15) inhabited by native fishermen; no Greek presence beyond passing ships."
  },
  {
   "name": "Pyralaon islands and the Channel (Lamu archipelago, Lamu County, Kenya)",
   "reason": "Islands of the Periplus (15) on the Azanian coast, with native inhabitants; no Greek presence beyond passing ships."
  },
  {
   "name": "Dioskorides (Socotra)",
   "reason": "Outside the area: Socotra belongs to Yemen. The Periplus (30) mentions Greek traders among its mixed population and Cosmas (3.65) Greek-speaking Christian settlers."
  },
  {
   "name": "Phagroriopolis (Phagroriopolite nome)",
   "reason": "Strabo 17.1.26 names the Phagroriopolite nome and its city on the canal to the Red Sea (eastern Delta, near the Wadi Tumilat); unlocated, absent from Ptolemy, Hierocles and the bishop lists, and no Greek civic evidence; a nome capital of the early Roman period that never shows up as a city."
  },
  {
   "name": "Anthylla",
   "reason": "Town near Naukratis whose revenue paid for the queen's shoes under the Persians (Hdt. 2.97-98; Athenaeus 1.33d on its wine); no civic status, nome, see or Greek civic evidence."
  },
  {
   "name": "Archandroupolis",
   "reason": "Town named only by Herodotus (2.97-98) on the road from Naukratis to Memphis; unlocated, no later evidence (sometimes linked with Andropolis, which is entered)."
  },
  {
   "name": "Kerkasoros (Kerkesoura)",
   "reason": "Village at the head of the Delta (Hdt. 2.15, 2.17; Strabo 17.1.4); no civic status."
  },
  {
   "name": "Platea (island off the Gulf of Bomba, Libya)",
   "reason": "First seat of the Theraean colonists under Battos for two years (Hdt. 4.151-157), before they moved to Aziris on the mainland and then to Cyrene (631 BC); a camp of the colonists, not a city. Greek pottery on the island."
  }
 ],
 "stories": [
  {
   "city_id": "af001",
   "city": "Alexandria",
   "title": "The Museum and the Library",
   "text": "Founded by Alexander in 331 BC, the capital of the Ptolemies drew the scholars of the Greek world to its Museum and Library. Euclid wrote the Elements here, Eratosthenes ran the Library, Hero built his machines and Claudius Ptolemy wrote the Almagest. The Jewish Law was first put into Greek here, the beginning of the Septuagint, and the Pharos lighthouse was one of the Seven Wonders. The philosopher Hypatia taught here until a Christian mob killed her in 415."
  },
  {
   "city_id": "af001",
   "city": "Alexandria",
   "title": "Two women at the festival of Adonis",
   "text": "In Theocritus' fifteenth Idyll (270s BC) two Syracusan housewives living in Alexandria, Gorgo and Praxinoa, push through the crowded streets to the palace, where Queen Arsinoe II is holding the festival of Adonis. They grumble about their husbands, admire the tapestries and snap at a stranger who mocks their Doric vowels, then hear a singer's hymn to Adonis."
  },
  {
   "city_id": "af092",
   "city": "Cyrene",
   "title": "The pleasure philosophers",
   "text": "Aristippus of Cyrene, a companion of Socrates, taught that the good is the pleasure of the moment, and is counted the founder of the Cyrenaic school. He taught his daughter Arete, and she taught her son, Aristippus, called 'the mother-taught'. Later Cyrenaics went further: Theodorus 'the Atheist' denied the gods, and Hegesias argued so well that life is not worth living that a King Ptolemy is said to have forbidden him to teach it, because his hearers killed themselves (Cicero, Tusculan Disputations 1.83)."
  },
  {
   "city_id": "af092",
   "city": "Cyrene",
   "title": "Callimachus, Eratosthenes, Carneades",
   "text": "Cyrene gave Alexandria some of its greatest scholars. The poet Callimachus (c. 305–240 BC), who claimed descent from the city's founder Battos, catalogued Greek literature in the 120 books of his Pinakes and wrote that 'a big book is a big evil'. Eratosthenes (c. 276–194 BC) became head of the Library. Carneades (214–129 BC) led Plato's Academy in Athens; sent to Rome in 155 BC, he spoke for justice one day and against it the next, and Cato had the embassy sent home. Earlier, Theodorus of Cyrene had shown that the square roots of 3, 5 and the other numbers up to 17 that are not squares are irrational (Plato, Theaetetus 147d)."
  },
  {
   "city_id": "af092",
   "city": "Cyrene",
   "title": "Cyrene in Pindar",
   "text": "Pindar wrote three victory odes for men of Cyrene. The longest of all his odes, the Fourth Pythian (462 BC), celebrates the chariot victory of King Arkesilas IV and tells the story of the Argonauts and of the founding of Cyrene by Battos, the descendant of an Argonaut, on the Delphic oracle's command."
  },
  {
   "city_id": "af095",
   "city": "Ptolemais (Cyrenaica)",
   "title": "Synesius, bishop and philosopher",
   "text": "Synesius of Cyrene (c. 373–c. 414), a pupil of the philosopher Hypatia at Alexandria, became bishop of Ptolemais in 410 on condition that he could keep his wife and his philosophy. His letters describe the defence of the city against nomad raids."
  },
  {
   "city_id": "af083",
   "city": "Syene",
   "title": "Where Eratosthenes measured the Earth",
   "text": "Syene was thought to lie on the tropic: at noon on the summer solstice the sun stood straight overhead and lit the water of a well (Strabo 17.1.48). Eratosthenes of Cyrene found that at Alexandria, on the same day, the sun stood a fiftieth of a circle from the zenith. Taking Syene to be 5,000 stadia away, he made the circumference of the Earth 250,000 stadia (Cleomedes): close to the true figure, though how close depends on the length of his stadion."
  },
  {
   "city_id": "af070",
   "city": "Panopolis",
   "title": "Nonnos and the poets of Panopolis",
   "text": "Nonnos of Panopolis wrote the Dionysiaca in the 5th century AD: 48 books, as many as the Iliad and the Odyssey together, and some 21,000 lines of Greek hexameters on the god Dionysus, the longest poem to survive from Greek and Roman antiquity. He also put the Gospel of John into hexameters. That this vast epic came from a man of a town deep in Upper Egypt, where most people spoke Coptic, is one of the surprises of Greek literature. Panopolis gave its age a whole school of Greek poets, among them Cyrus and Pamprepius; a century earlier it had produced the alchemist Zosimos."
  },
  {
   "city_id": "af005",
   "city": "Naucratis",
   "title": "The Greeks' port in Egypt",
   "text": "Herodotus tells that Charaxus, the brother of the poet Sappho, bought the freedom of the courtesan Rhodopis at Naukratis, and that nine cities of the East Greeks built a common sanctuary here, the Hellenion (Herodotus 2.135, 2.178; Strabo 17.1.33). Naukratis later gave Greek literature Athenaeus (c. AD 200), whose Deipnosophists, a dinner-party conversation in fifteen books, preserves quotations from hundreds of lost works."
  },
  {
   "city_id": "af005",
   "city": "Naucratis",
   "title": "The poet of the Argonauts?",
   "text": "Apollonius, the author of the Argonautica, the epic of Jason and the Golden Fleece, was head of the Library at Alexandria before Eratosthenes. His ancient Lives call him an Alexandrian, but Athenaeus (7.283d) and Aelian say he came from Naukratis. Why he was called 'of Rhodes' is uncertain."
  },
  {
   "city_id": "af003",
   "city": "Canopus",
   "title": "A leap year before Caesar",
   "text": "In March 238 BC the priests of Egypt met at Canopus and passed a decree in hieroglyphs, Demotic and Greek in honour of Ptolemy III and Berenike II. It added a day to every fourth year, so that the festivals would stop drifting through the seasons, two centuries before Julius Caesar; the reform was not kept. A copy was found at Tanis in 1866."
  },
  {
   "city_id": "af007",
   "city": "Sais",
   "title": "Solon and Atlantis",
   "text": "Plato has Solon visit Sais, the city of the pharaohs of the 26th dynasty, where an old priest told him that 'you Greeks are always children' and that Athens had once defeated Atlantis (Timaeus 21e–25d)."
  },
  {
   "city_id": "af027",
   "city": "Pelusium",
   "title": "The skulls of Pelusium",
   "text": "At Pelusium, the gate of Egypt, the Persian king Cambyses defeated the Egyptians in 525 BC. Herodotus saw the bones still lying in two heaps on the battlefield, and was told that Persian skulls could be pierced with a pebble while Egyptian skulls could hardly be broken with a stone (Herodotus 3.12)."
  },
  {
   "city_id": "af051",
   "city": "Memphis",
   "title": "The decree on the Rosetta Stone",
   "text": "Greeks and Carians lived in their own quarters at Memphis from the 6th century BC. In 196 BC the priests of Egypt, gathered at Memphis, passed a decree in honour of the young Ptolemy V, to be set up in hieroglyphs, Demotic and Greek. A copy found at Rosetta in 1799 gave the key to the hieroglyphs."
  },
  {
   "city_id": "af055",
   "city": "Arsinoe (Krokodilopolis)",
   "title": "Faces of the Fayum",
   "text": "Krokodilopolis was the capital of the Fayum, the province Ptolemy II named after his sister and queen Arsinoe; the town later took her name too. From the cemeteries of the Fayum come most of the mummy portraits of the 1st to 3rd centuries AD: painted faces of its townspeople, some with their names in Greek, among the few painted portraits to survive from antiquity."
  },
  {
   "city_id": "af059",
   "city": "Oxyrhynchus",
   "title": "The rubbish mounds of Oxyrhynchus",
   "text": "From the winter of 1896–97 Bernard Grenfell and Arthur Hunt dug the town's rubbish mounds and found hundreds of thousands of papyri: the letters, contracts and school exercises of its families, lost works of Sappho, Pindar, Menander and Sophocles, and some of the earliest copies of the Gospels. The series they began, The Oxyrhynchus Papyri, has reached 88 volumes."
  },
  {
   "city_id": "af063",
   "city": "Antinoopolis (Antinoe)",
   "title": "Hadrian's city for Antinous",
   "text": "Hadrian founded Antinoopolis in 130 on the bank of the Nile where his favourite, the young Bithynian Antinous, had drowned. It was a Greek city with the laws of Naukratis, settlers from Ptolemais Hermiou and the Fayum, and games in honour of Antinous."
  },
  {
   "city_id": "af064",
   "city": "Lycopolis",
   "title": "Plotinus",
   "text": "Plotinus (205–270), the founder of Neoplatonism, was born at Lycopolis according to Eunapius. He studied philosophy at Alexandria for eleven years under Ammonius Saccas before teaching in Rome. His Enneads, edited by his pupil Porphyry, shaped pagan, Christian and Muslim thought for a thousand years."
  },
  {
   "city_id": "af071",
   "city": "Ptolemais Hermiou",
   "title": "Ptolemy's birthplace?",
   "text": "Claudius Ptolemy, the author of the Almagest and the Geography, worked at Alexandria in the 2nd century AD, and his dated observations were made there. Where he was born is unknown: only Theodore Meliteniotes, an astronomer at Constantinople around 1360, says it was Ptolemais Hermiou, the Greek city Ptolemy I had founded in Upper Egypt. The claim is late, but it could be right."
  },
  {
   "city_id": "af077",
   "city": "Thebes (Diospolis Magna)",
   "title": "The singing statue",
   "text": "Greek and Roman visitors crossed the river from Thebes to hear the northern colossus of Memnon, a giant statue of the pharaoh Amenhotep III, 'sing' at dawn, and cut more than a hundred poems and notes on its legs. Julia Balbilla, who came with the emperor Hadrian in 130, left her verses in the Aeolic Greek of Sappho."
  },
  {
   "city_id": "af087",
   "city": "Berenice Troglodytica",
   "title": "Elephants and pepper",
   "text": "Ptolemy II founded Berenike on the Red Sea (c. 275 BC) to bring war elephants from the African coast. Under Rome it became a port of the trade with India: excavations have found Indian pepper, teak and a statue of the Buddha."
  }
 ],
 "patriarchate_of_alexandria": {
  "sees_as_listed": "the Patriarchate's hierarchy page, October 2026",
  "sees": [
   {
    "see": "Patriarchal Archdiocese of Alexandria",
    "see_greek": "Πατριαρχείο Αλεξανδρείας",
    "type": "patriarchal see",
    "hierarch": "Theodore II",
    "exarch_title": "",
    "seat_city": "Alexandria",
    "country": "Egypt",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": 31.2,
    "lon": 29.92
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Nairobi",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Ναϊρόμπι",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Makarios",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of Kenya",
    "seat_city": "Nairobi",
    "country": "Kenya",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": -1.29,
    "lon": 36.82
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Caesarea",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολις Καισαρείας",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Theophylaktos",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of the 'Black Land' (Γῆς Μελαίνης)",
    "seat_city": null,
    "country": null,
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": null,
    "lon": null
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Leontopolis",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Λεοντοπόλεως",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Gabriel",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of Second Augustamnica and the Red Sea",
    "seat_city": "Ismailia",
    "country": "Egypt",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": 30.6,
    "lon": 32.27
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Zimbabwe and Angola",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Ζιμπάμπουε και Αγκόλας",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Seraphim",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of Southernmost Africa",
    "seat_city": "Harare",
    "country": "Zimbabwe",
    "other_countries": [
     "Angola"
    ],
    "lat": -17.83,
    "lon": 31.05
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Good Hope",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Καλής Ελπίδος",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Sergios",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of all Natal and the surrounding lands",
    "seat_city": "Cape Town",
    "country": "South Africa",
    "other_countries": [
     "Namibia",
     "Lesotho",
     "Eswatini"
    ],
    "lat": -33.92,
    "lon": 18.42
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Kyrene",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Κυρήνης",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Athanasios",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of the Libyan Sea",
    "seat_city": "Marsa Matruh region (contact address: Alexandria)",
    "country": "Egypt",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": 31.35,
    "lon": 27.24
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Kampala",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Καμπάλας",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Hieronymos (Jerome Muzeeyi)",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of all Uganda",
    "seat_city": "Kampala",
    "country": "Uganda",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": 0.35,
    "lon": 32.58
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Guinea",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Γουϊνέας",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Georgios",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of Coastal Africa",
    "seat_city": "Conakry",
    "country": "Guinea",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": 9.51,
    "lon": -13.71
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Hermopolis",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Ερμουπόλεως",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Nikolaos",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of First Egypt",
    "seat_city": "Tanta",
    "country": "Egypt",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": 30.79,
    "lon": 31.0
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Irinoupolis",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Ειρηνουπόλεως",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Dimitrios",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of Eastern Tanzania and the Seychelles",
    "seat_city": "Dar es Salaam",
    "country": "Tanzania",
    "other_countries": [
     "Seychelles"
    ],
    "lat": -6.82,
    "lon": 39.27
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Johannesburg and Pretoria",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Ιωαννουπόλεως και Πρετορίας",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Damaskinos",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of all South Africa",
    "seat_city": "Johannesburg",
    "country": "South Africa",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": -26.2,
    "lon": 28.05
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Antananarivo and North Madagascar",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Ανταναναρίβο και Βορείου Μαδαγασκάρης",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Ignatios",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of the Indian Ocean Islands",
    "seat_city": "Antananarivo",
    "country": "Madagascar",
    "other_countries": [
     "Comoros",
     "Mauritius",
     "Reunion (France)",
     "Mayotte (France)"
    ],
    "lat": -18.88,
    "lon": 47.51
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Diospolis",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Διοσπόλεως",
    "type": "metropolis (synodal)",
    "hierarch": "Emmanouil",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of Ancient Egypt",
    "seat_city": "Cairo (contact address, Hamzawi)",
    "country": "Egypt",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": 30.05,
    "lon": 31.26
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Cameroon",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Καμερούν",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Grigorios",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of Central Africa",
    "seat_city": "Yaounde",
    "country": "Cameroon",
    "other_countries": [
     "Central African Republic",
     "Chad",
     "Equatorial Guinea",
     "Sao Tome and Principe"
    ],
    "lat": 3.87,
    "lon": 11.52
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Memphis",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Μέμφιδος",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Nikodimos",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of Egypt; Patriarchal Epitropos of Cairo",
    "seat_city": "Cairo",
    "country": "Egypt",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": 30.04,
    "lon": 31.24
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Katanga",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Κατάγκας",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Meletios",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of Continental Africa",
    "seat_city": "Lubumbashi",
    "country": "DR Congo",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": -11.66,
    "lon": 27.48
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Libya",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Λιβύης",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Gennadios",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of Tripoli and Benghazi",
    "seat_city": "Tripoli",
    "country": "Libya",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": 32.89,
    "lon": 13.19
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Heliopolis",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Ηλιουπόλεως",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Theodoros",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of Lower Egypt",
    "seat_city": "Heliopolis, Cairo",
    "country": "Egypt",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": 30.09,
    "lon": 31.32
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Nubia",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Νουβίας",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Savvas",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of Sudan",
    "seat_city": "Khartoum",
    "country": "Sudan",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": 15.59,
    "lon": 32.53
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Zambia and Mozambique",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Ζάμπιας και Μοζαμβίκης",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Ioannis",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of Middle Africa",
    "seat_city": "Lusaka",
    "country": "Zambia",
    "other_countries": [
     "Mozambique"
    ],
    "lat": -15.39,
    "lon": 28.32
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Ptolemais",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Πτολεμαΐδος",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Panteleimon",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of Upper Egypt",
    "seat_city": "Minya",
    "country": "Egypt",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": 28.1,
    "lon": 30.75
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Pelusium",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Πηλουσίου",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Narkissos",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of First Augustamnica and the South",
    "seat_city": "Port Said",
    "country": "Egypt",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": 31.26,
    "lon": 32.3
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Carthage",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Καρθαγένης",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Meletios",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of North Africa",
    "seat_city": "Tunis",
    "country": "Tunisia",
    "other_countries": [
     "Algeria",
     "Morocco",
     "Mauritania"
    ],
    "lat": 36.81,
    "lon": 10.18
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Brazzaville and Gabon",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Μπραζαβίλ και Γκαμπόν",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Theodoros",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of Atlantic Africa",
    "seat_city": "Brazzaville",
    "country": "Republic of the Congo",
    "other_countries": [
     "Gabon"
    ],
    "lat": -4.27,
    "lon": 15.28
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Accra",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Άκκρας",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Daniel",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of West Africa",
    "seat_city": "Accra",
    "country": "Ghana",
    "other_countries": [
     "Cote d'Ivoire",
     "Liberia",
     "Mali",
     "Gambia",
     "Guinea-Bissau"
    ],
    "lat": 5.6,
    "lon": -0.19
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Kinshasa",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Κινσάσας",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Theodosios",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of Central Africa (Κεντρώας Αφρικῆς)",
    "seat_city": "Kinshasa",
    "country": "DR Congo",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": -4.32,
    "lon": 15.31
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Axum",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Αξώμης",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Petros",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of all Ethiopia and Eritrea",
    "seat_city": "Addis Ababa",
    "country": "Ethiopia",
    "other_countries": [
     "Eritrea",
     "Djibouti",
     "Somalia"
    ],
    "lat": 9.03,
    "lon": 38.74
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Kananga",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Κανάγκας",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Chariton",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of Equatorial Africa",
    "seat_city": "Kananga",
    "country": "DR Congo",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": -5.9,
    "lon": 22.42
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Nigeria",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Μητρόπολη Νιγηρίας",
    "type": "metropolis",
    "hierarch": "Nikodimos",
    "exarch_title": "Exarch of Western Africa (Ἑσπερίας Ἀφρικῆς)",
    "seat_city": "Lagos",
    "country": "Nigeria",
    "other_countries": [
     "Niger"
    ],
    "lat": 6.52,
    "lon": 3.38
   },
   {
    "see": "Diocese of Eldoret and North Kenya",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Επισκοπή Έλντορετ και Βορείου Κένυας",
    "type": "diocese",
    "hierarch": "Neophytos",
    "exarch_title": "",
    "seat_city": "Eldoret",
    "country": "Kenya",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": 0.51,
    "lon": 35.27
   },
   {
    "see": "Diocese of Arusha and Central Tanzania",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Επισκοπή Αρούσας και Κεντρικής Τανζανίας",
    "type": "diocese",
    "hierarch": "Agathonikos",
    "exarch_title": "",
    "seat_city": "Arusha",
    "country": "Tanzania",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": -3.37,
    "lon": 36.68
   },
   {
    "see": "Diocese of Jinja and East Uganda",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Επισκοπή Τζίντζα και Ανατολικής Ουγκάντας",
    "type": "diocese",
    "hierarch": "Silvestros",
    "exarch_title": "",
    "seat_city": "Jinja",
    "country": "Uganda",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": 0.44,
    "lon": 33.2
   },
   {
    "see": "Diocese of Malawi",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Επισκοπή Μαλάουι",
    "type": "diocese",
    "hierarch": "Photios",
    "exarch_title": "",
    "seat_city": "Lilongwe",
    "country": "Malawi",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": -13.96,
    "lon": 33.79
   },
   {
    "see": "Diocese of Toliara and South Madagascar",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Επισκοπή Τολιάρας και Νοτίου Μαδαγασκάρης",
    "type": "diocese",
    "hierarch": "Prodromos",
    "exarch_title": "",
    "seat_city": "Toliara",
    "country": "Madagascar",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": -23.35,
    "lon": 43.67
   },
   {
    "see": "Diocese of Kisumu and West Kenya",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Επισκοπή Κισούμου και Δυτικής Κένυας",
    "type": "diocese",
    "hierarch": "Markos",
    "exarch_title": "",
    "seat_city": "Kisumu",
    "country": "Kenya",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": -0.09,
    "lon": 34.77
   },
   {
    "see": "Diocese of Gulu and North Uganda",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Επισκοπή Γκούλου και Βορείου Ουγκάντας",
    "type": "diocese",
    "hierarch": "Nektarios",
    "exarch_title": "",
    "seat_city": "Gulu",
    "country": "Uganda",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": 2.78,
    "lon": 32.3
   },
   {
    "see": "Diocese of Bukoba and West Tanzania",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Επισκοπή Μπουκόμπας και Δυτικής Τανζανίας",
    "type": "diocese",
    "hierarch": "Chrysostomos",
    "exarch_title": "",
    "seat_city": "Bukoba",
    "country": "Tanzania",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": -1.33,
    "lon": 31.81
   },
   {
    "see": "Diocese of Nyeri and Mount Kenya",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Επισκοπή Νιέρι και Όρους Κένυας",
    "type": "diocese",
    "hierarch": "Panaretos",
    "exarch_title": "",
    "seat_city": "Nyeri",
    "country": "Kenya",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": -0.42,
    "lon": 36.95
   },
   {
    "see": "Diocese of Bujumbura and Burundi",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Επισκοπή Μπουζουμπούρας και Μπουρούντι",
    "type": "diocese",
    "hierarch": "Isaak",
    "exarch_title": "",
    "seat_city": "Bujumbura",
    "country": "Burundi",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": -3.38,
    "lon": 29.36
   },
   {
    "see": "Diocese of Bunia, Kisangani and East Congo",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Επισκοπή Μπούνιας, Κισαγκάνι και Ανατολικού Κογκό",
    "type": "diocese",
    "hierarch": "Polykarpos",
    "exarch_title": "",
    "seat_city": "Bunia",
    "country": "DR Congo",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": 1.56,
    "lon": 30.25
   },
   {
    "see": "Diocese of Goma and Great Kivu",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Επισκοπή Γκόμας και Μεγάλου Κίβου",
    "type": "diocese",
    "hierarch": "Timotheos",
    "exarch_title": "",
    "seat_city": "Goma",
    "country": "DR Congo",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": -1.68,
    "lon": 29.23
   },
   {
    "see": "Diocese of Benin, Togo and Burkina Faso",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Επισκοπή Μπενίν, Τόγκο και Μπουρκίνα Φάσο",
    "type": "diocese",
    "hierarch": "Athanasios",
    "exarch_title": "",
    "seat_city": "Cotonou",
    "country": "Benin",
    "other_countries": [
     "Togo",
     "Burkina Faso"
    ],
    "lat": 6.37,
    "lon": 2.42
   },
   {
    "see": "Diocese of Juba and South Sudan",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Επισκοπή Τζούμπας και Νοτίου Σουδάν",
    "type": "diocese",
    "hierarch": "Konstantinos",
    "exarch_title": "",
    "seat_city": "Juba",
    "country": "South Sudan",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": 4.85,
    "lon": 31.58
   },
   {
    "see": "Diocese of Gaborone and Botswana",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Επισκοπή Γκαμπορόνε και Μποτσουάνας",
    "type": "diocese",
    "hierarch": "vacant",
    "exarch_title": "",
    "seat_city": "Gaborone",
    "country": "Botswana",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": -24.65,
    "lon": 25.91
   },
   {
    "see": "Diocese of Kigali and Rwanda",
    "see_greek": "Ιερά Επισκοπή Κιγκάλι και Ρουάντας",
    "type": "diocese",
    "hierarch": "vacant (Patriarchal commissioner)",
    "exarch_title": "",
    "seat_city": "Kigali",
    "country": "Rwanda",
    "other_countries": [],
    "lat": -1.94,
    "lon": 30.06
   }
  ]
 },
 "greek_communities_after_1800": [
  {
   "city": "Alexandria",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "lat": 31.2,
   "lon": 29.92,
   "start": "Greek merchants settled under Muhammad Ali; Greek consulate 1833 (Michael Tositsas), consulate general 1835; the Greek Community (Elliniki Koinotita Alexandreias) was founded in 1843.",
   "peak": "37,106 Greek nationals (25,393 in 1917)",
   "peak_year": 1927,
   "peak_basis": "census of Greek nationals (city)",
   "decline": "The Montreux Convention (8 May 1937) abolished the Capitulations, so Greek nationals lost their tax and legal privileges, and the Mixed Courts closed in 1949. The Company Law (Law 138 of 1947), passed under King Farouk's prime minister Mahmud Fahmi al-Nuqrashi, required Egyptian majorities among the staff and capital of companies. After the Free Officers' coup (1952) Gamal Abdel Nasser's agrarian reform (1952, tightened 1961) and above all his 'socialist laws' of July 1961 (Laws 117-119 of 1961) and the 1963 decrees nationalized banks, insurance, large firms and the cotton export trade, where Greek business was concentrated; thousands of Greek employees then emigrated, and the exodus peaked in 1962. The Greeks were not expelled; Dalachanis stresses that departures had begun before 1952 and also followed the Greek state's diaspora policy. About 70% of the community is thought to have left between 1957 and 1962 (estimate).",
   "today": "The community still runs its schools (2023-24 school year opened as usual). Egypt as a whole had about 3,800 Greeks (Greek Foreign Ministry); a figure for Alexandria alone was",
   "sources": [
    "Hellas Journal, '1843-2023, 180 years of the Greek Community of Alexandria: educational institutions and benefactors' (Sept 2023) - https://hellasjournal.com/2023/09/1843-2023-180-chronia-zois-tis-ellinikis-kinotitas-alexandrias-ta-ellinika-ekpedeftika-idrimata-ke-i-ethniki-evergetes/",
    "Kitroeff, The Greeks in Egypt 1919-1937: Ethnicity and Class (Ithaca Press 1989), Alexandria figures as cited by Bluebird Maps, 'Greek communities in Egypt' (2017) - https://bluebirdmaps.com/2017/07/08/greek-communities-in-egypt/",
    "Dalachanis, The Greek Exodus from Egypt: Diaspora Politics and Emigration, 1937-1962 (Berghahn 2017), introduction and Table 1 (census sources: Annuaire statistique 1910, 1927-28, 1937-38, 1947-48; The Census of Egypt Taken in 1917, vol. 2; 1960 census tables) - https://mail.berghahnbooks.com/downloads/intros/DalachanisGreek_intro.pdf",
    "Dalachanis interview, 'Rethinking Greece', Greek News Agenda - https://www.greeknewsagenda.gr/dalachanis/",
    "Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs, bilateral relations: Egypt - https://www.mfa.gr/en/bilateral-relations/egypt",
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Egypt' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Egypt"
   ],
   "grade": "A"
  },
  {
   "city": "Cairo",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "lat": 30.04,
   "lon": 31.24,
   "start": "Greek Orthodox merchants and the patriarchal church in Cairo since the Ottoman period; first organised community in 1856.",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "The Montreux Convention (8 May 1937) abolished the Capitulations, so Greek nationals lost their tax and legal privileges, and the Mixed Courts closed in 1949. The Company Law (Law 138 of 1947), passed under King Farouk's prime minister Mahmud Fahmi al-Nuqrashi, required Egyptian majorities among the staff and capital of companies. After the Free Officers' coup (1952) Gamal Abdel Nasser's agrarian reform (1952, tightened 1961) and above all his 'socialist laws' of July 1961 (Laws 117-119 of 1961) and the 1963 decrees nationalized banks, insurance, large firms and the cotton export trade, where Greek business was concentrated; thousands of Greek employees then emigrated, and the exodus peaked in 1962. The Greeks were not expelled; Dalachanis stresses that departures had begun before 1952 and also followed the Greek state's diaspora policy.",
   "today": "With Alexandria, the largest remaining community (Greek Foreign Ministry); part of Egypt's c. 3,800 Greeks.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Egypt' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Egypt",
    "Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs, bilateral relations: Egypt - https://www.mfa.gr/en/bilateral-relations/egypt",
    "Dalachanis, The Greek Exodus from Egypt: Diaspora Politics and Emigration, 1937-1962 (Berghahn 2017), introduction and Table 1 (census sources: Annuaire statistique 1910, 1927-28, 1937-38, 1947-48; The Census of Egypt Taken in 1917, vol. 2; 1960 census tables) - https://mail.berghahnbooks.com/downloads/intros/DalachanisGreek_intro.pdf"
   ],
   "grade": "B"
  },
  {
   "city": "Port Said",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "lat": 31.26,
   "lon": 32.3,
   "start": "Greek workers came with the digging of the Suez Canal (1859-1869), many of them Dodecanese islanders; the community was founded in 1870.",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "The Suez war of 1956 (the Anglo-French landing at Port Said after Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal Company on 26 July 1956) and the war of June 1967, after which the canal was closed and the canal cities were evacuated during the War of Attrition and resettled from 1974, uprooted the canal community; Nasser's 1961 nationalizations hit it as elsewhere.",
   "today": "A small community survives; Greece keeps a port consular office in Port Said.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Egypt' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Egypt",
    "Dalachanis, The Greek Exodus from Egypt: Diaspora Politics and Emigration, 1937-1962 (Berghahn 2017), introduction and Table 1 (census sources: Annuaire statistique 1910, 1927-28, 1937-38, 1947-48; The Census of Egypt Taken in 1917, vol. 2; 1960 census tables) - https://mail.berghahnbooks.com/downloads/intros/DalachanisGreek_intro.pdf",
    "Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs, bilateral relations: Egypt - https://www.mfa.gr/en/bilateral-relations/egypt"
   ],
   "grade": "B"
  },
  {
   "city": "Ismailia",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "lat": 30.6,
   "lon": 32.27,
   "start": "Grew with the canal town (founded 1863) and the Suez Canal Company.",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "As Port Said: the 1956 and 1967 wars and the evacuation of the canal cities (1967-1974), and Nasser's 1961 nationalizations.",
   "today": "A small community still exists (Greek Foreign Ministry).",
   "sources": [
    "Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs, bilateral relations: Egypt - https://www.mfa.gr/en/bilateral-relations/egypt",
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Egypt' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Egypt"
   ],
   "grade": "B"
  },
  {
   "city": "Suez",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "lat": 29.97,
   "lon": 32.53,
   "start": "Grew with the canal works (1859-1869).",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "The 1967 war and the evacuation of the canal cities (1967-1974); Nasser's 1961 nationalizations.",
   "today": "Not listed among the surviving communities by the Greek Foreign Ministry.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Egypt' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Egypt"
   ],
   "grade": "C"
  },
  {
   "city": "Mansoura",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "lat": 31.04,
   "lon": 31.38,
   "start": "Cotton trade of the Delta; community founded 1860.",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "Company Law of 1947; Nasser's land reforms (1952, 1961) and the nationalization of the cotton trade (1961).",
   "today": "Not listed among the surviving communities by the Greek Foreign Ministry.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Egypt' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Egypt"
   ],
   "grade": "B"
  },
  {
   "city": "Tanta",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "lat": 30.79,
   "lon": 31.0,
   "start": "Cotton and trade of the central Delta; community founded 1880.",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "As Mansoura: the 1947 Company Law, Nasser's land reforms (1952, 1961) and the 1961 nationalization of the cotton trade.",
   "today": "Not listed among the surviving communities by the Greek Foreign Ministry.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Egypt' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Egypt"
   ],
   "grade": "B"
  },
  {
   "city": "Zagazig",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "lat": 30.59,
   "lon": 31.5,
   "start": "Cotton trade of Sharqiya; community founded 1850.",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "As Mansoura.",
   "today": "Not listed among the surviving communities.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Egypt' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Egypt"
   ],
   "grade": "B"
  },
  {
   "city": "Kafr el-Zayat",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "lat": 30.82,
   "lon": 30.82,
   "start": "Cotton ginning and trade on the Rosetta branch of the Nile.",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "As Mansoura.",
   "today": "One of the small communities still listed by the Greek Foreign Ministry.",
   "sources": [
    "Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs, bilateral relations: Egypt - https://www.mfa.gr/en/bilateral-relations/egypt"
   ],
   "grade": "B"
  },
  {
   "city": "Minya",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "lat": 28.11,
   "lon": 30.75,
   "start": "Said to be the oldest Greek community of Upper Egypt, founded 1812 (doubtful).",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "As Mansoura (cotton, land reform, 1961 nationalizations).",
   "today": "Not listed among the surviving communities.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Egypt' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Egypt"
   ],
   "grade": "C"
  },
  {
   "city": "Asyut",
   "country": "Egypt",
   "lat": 27.18,
   "lon": 31.18,
   "start": "Greek traders in the cotton and retail trade of Upper Egypt.",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "As Mansoura.",
   "today": "Not listed among the surviving communities.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Egypt' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Egypt (only as one of 'about fifteen smaller communities')"
   ],
   "grade": "C"
  },
  {
   "city": "Khartoum (with Omdurman and Khartoum North)",
   "country": "Sudan",
   "lat": 15.5,
   "lon": 32.56,
   "start": "A few hundred Greek officers and traders after the Egyptian conquest of 1820-1821; 54 Greeks stayed in Khartoum through the Mahdist siege, of whom seven survived its fall (January 1885), and Greek captives were held in Omdurman for over 13 years (Kitchener's army found 87 Greeks there in 1898). The Hellenic Community of Khartoum was founded in 1902, when about 150 Greeks lived in the area.",
   "peak": "c. 6,000 in Sudan (Chaldeos); c. 7,000 in the 1950s (Makris)",
   "peak_year": 1957,
   "peak_basis": "community estimate (whole country)",
   "decline": "The exodus began under Ja'far Nimeiry, who seized power in May 1969 and nationalized foreign banks and large firms in 1970 (the Contomichalos firm was hard hit). Nimeiry's 'September Laws' of 1983 introduced sharia and banned alcohol, a trade about 80% in Greek hands. Under 1,000 Greeks were left by the late 1980s and about 300 in 1996.",
   "today": "About 150 Greeks (2015 and again at the outbreak of the war in 2023). The Greek school and the Greek embassy closed in 2015; an honorary consulate works from the Acropole Hotel.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Sudan' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Sudan"
   ],
   "grade": "B"
  },
  {
   "city": "Port Sudan",
   "country": "Sudan",
   "lat": 19.62,
   "lon": 37.22,
   "start": "Community founded 1906 with the new port (a Greek consulate had existed at Suakin since 1871).",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "As Khartoum: Nimeiry's 1970 nationalizations and 1983 laws.",
   "today": "Not known.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Sudan' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Sudan"
   ],
   "grade": "B"
  },
  {
   "city": "Atbara",
   "country": "Sudan",
   "lat": 17.7,
   "lon": 33.99,
   "start": "Railway town; a branch community was founded shortly after 1902.",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "As Khartoum.",
   "today": "Not known.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Sudan' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Sudan"
   ],
   "grade": "C"
  },
  {
   "city": "Wad Medani",
   "country": "Sudan",
   "lat": 14.4,
   "lon": 33.52,
   "start": "Gezira cotton scheme; community founded 1919.",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "As Khartoum.",
   "today": "Not known.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Sudan' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Sudan"
   ],
   "grade": "B"
  },
  {
   "city": "Wau",
   "country": "South Sudan",
   "lat": 7.7,
   "lon": 27.99,
   "start": "Community founded 1939 (Bahr el-Ghazal trade).",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "In the 1960s Greek traders in the south were accused of helping the Anyanya rebels during the first civil war, and the community dwindled.",
   "today": "None known.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Sudan' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Sudan"
   ],
   "grade": "C"
  },
  {
   "city": "Addis Ababa",
   "country": "Ethiopia",
   "lat": 9.03,
   "lon": 38.74,
   "start": "Greek craftsmen and traders at the court of Menelik II and Haile Selassie; the community organisation was founded in 1918. The Patriarchate of Alexandria set up a Metropolis of Axum in 1908.",
   "peak": "c. 3,000 (whole country)",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "community estimate, post-war (year not given)",
   "decline": "After the revolution of 1974 the Derg (the military council that deposed Haile Selassie, led from 1977 by Mengistu Haile Mariam) nationalized banks, insurance and large firms (January-February 1975) and urban land and rented houses (July 1975), and was hostile to all foreign communities; most Greeks left.",
   "today": "About 500 Greeks.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Ethiopia' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Ethiopia"
   ],
   "grade": "B"
  },
  {
   "city": "Dire Dawa",
   "country": "Ethiopia",
   "lat": 9.59,
   "lon": 41.86,
   "start": "Railway town on the Djibouti-Addis Ababa line; Greek community organisation founded 1921.",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "As Addis Ababa (the Derg, 1974-1975).",
   "today": "Not known.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Ethiopia' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Ethiopia"
   ],
   "grade": "B"
  },
  {
   "city": "Asmara",
   "country": "Eritrea",
   "lat": 15.33,
   "lon": 38.93,
   "start": "Greek traders in Italian Eritrea.",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "",
   "today": "Not known.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'St. George Greek Orthodox Church, Asmara' (title seen only) - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._George_Greek_Orthodox_Church,_Asmara"
   ],
   "grade": "C"
  },
  {
   "city": "Elisabethville (Lubumbashi)",
   "country": "DR Congo",
   "lat": -11.66,
   "lon": 27.48,
   "start": "Greek traders and fishermen in Katanga and Luapula by the 1920s; Hellenic Community founded 1923.",
   "peak": "3,483 Greeks in the whole Belgian Congo",
   "peak_year": 1959,
   "peak_basis": "colonial count of non-Africans by nationality (country total)",
   "decline": "Violence and uncertainty after independence (1960) and the Katanga secession; then Mobutu Sese Seko's 'Zairianisation' decrees of 30 November 1973, which seized foreign-owned businesses in 1973-1974 (many were returned from 1976), and three decades of his rule.",
   "today": "About 200 Greeks around 2000.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in the Democratic Republic of the Congo' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo",
    "Wikipedia, 'White people in the Democratic Republic of the Congo', 1959 nationality table from 'Some Figures About Belgian Congo' (Memoires du Congo, 2018) - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_people_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo",
    "Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Embassy in Kinshasa, 'Cultural relations and Greek community' - https://www.mfa.gr/missionsabroad/congo/bilateral-relations/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html"
   ],
   "grade": "B"
  },
  {
   "city": "Leopoldville (Kinshasa)",
   "country": "DR Congo",
   "lat": -4.32,
   "lon": 15.31,
   "start": "Greek traders in the colonial capital; the 1950s influx came partly from Egypt.",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "As Lubumbashi: post-1960 violence and Mobutu's Zairianisation (1973-1974).",
   "today": "About 100 Greeks around 2000; seat of the Greek embassy.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in the Democratic Republic of the Congo' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo",
    "Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Embassy in Kinshasa, 'Cultural relations and Greek community' - https://www.mfa.gr/missionsabroad/congo/bilateral-relations/cultural-relations-and-greek-community.html"
   ],
   "grade": "B"
  },
  {
   "city": "Salisbury (Harare)",
   "country": "Zimbabwe",
   "lat": -17.83,
   "lon": 31.05,
   "start": "Few Greeks before 1950 because immigration policy favoured British settlers; the main waves came from Greece and Cyprus in the 1950s to early 1970s.",
   "peak": "13,000-15,000 (whole country, 1972); 'over 15,000' in the mid-1970s",
   "peak_year": 1972,
   "peak_basis": "community estimate (Greek Foreign Ministry; Mlambo 2013)",
   "decline": "The economic and political crisis of Zimbabwe; many left after independence (1980) and especially after Robert Mugabe's land seizures and the economic collapse from 2000, for Greece, Cyprus, the UK and South Africa.",
   "today": "About 3,000 people of Greek origin in Zimbabwe, over half from Cyprus; the 2012 census counted over 3,000 of Greek ethnicity.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Zimbabwe' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Zimbabwe"
   ],
   "grade": "B"
  },
  {
   "city": "Bulawayo",
   "country": "Zimbabwe",
   "lat": -20.15,
   "lon": 28.58,
   "start": "Part of the same post-war migration.",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "As Harare.",
   "today": "Small community.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Zimbabwe' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Zimbabwe"
   ],
   "grade": "B"
  },
  {
   "city": "Lusaka",
   "country": "Zambia",
   "lat": -15.42,
   "lon": 28.28,
   "start": "Greek traders and fishermen from Katanga and Luapula moved into Northern Rhodesia from the 1920s.",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "",
   "today": "Active, size not known.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in the Democratic Republic of the Congo' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo (Luapula and Katanga Greeks moving to Zambia)",
    "Chaldeos, The Greek Community in Zambia (Athens 2020), title only, not read - https://www.academia.edu/42142323/The_Greek_community_in_Zambia_Athens_2020",
    "Orthodox Times, 'Greek President pays tribute to Greek Community in Zambia during celebratory event' (headline seen only) - https://orthodoxtimes.com/greek-president-pays-tribute-to-greek-community-in-zambia-during-celebratory-event/"
   ],
   "grade": "C"
  },
  {
   "city": "Moshi",
   "country": "Tanzania",
   "lat": -3.35,
   "lon": 37.34,
   "start": "Greeks came to German East Africa from the 1880s (208 in 1913); a group of seven arrived in Moshi from Egypt in 1907. Greeks later became coffee planters on the slopes of Kilimanjaro.",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "",
   "today": "Not known.",
   "sources": [
    "Chaldeos, The Greek Community in Tanzania (Athens 2019), abstract only - https://www.academia.edu/39475212/The_Greek_community_in_Tanzania_Athens_2019",
    "UKEssays, 'Greek identity/community in East Africa' (student essay, 2015; weak) - https://www.ukessays.com/essays/history/greek-identity-community-in-east-africa.php"
   ],
   "grade": "C"
  },
  {
   "city": "Johannesburg",
   "country": "South Africa",
   "lat": -26.2,
   "lon": 28.05,
   "start": "Greeks since the gold rush of the 1880s-1890s; immigration peaked in the 1960s (10,790 in the decade, most in 1965), including Greeks leaving Egypt.",
   "peak": "an estimated 120,000 (whole country; unsourced estimate)",
   "peak_year": 1970,
   "peak_basis": "community estimate",
   "decline": "Immigration fell from the 1970s; after 1994 many returned to Greece or emigrated, citing the political change and crime. Not a forced exodus.",
   "today": "South Africa: about 50,000 Greeks (Greek Foreign Ministry), other estimates 35,000-40,000; Johannesburg is the main centre.",
   "sources": [
    "Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs, bilateral relations: South Africa - https://www.mfa.gr/en/bilateral-relations/south-africa",
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in South Africa' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_South_Africa"
   ],
   "grade": "B"
  },
  {
   "city": "Pretoria",
   "country": "South Africa",
   "lat": -25.75,
   "lon": 28.19,
   "start": "",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "As Johannesburg.",
   "today": "Third centre after Johannesburg and Cape Town (Greek Foreign Ministry).",
   "sources": [
    "Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs, bilateral relations: South Africa - https://www.mfa.gr/en/bilateral-relations/south-africa",
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in South Africa' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_South_Africa"
   ],
   "grade": "B"
  },
  {
   "city": "Cape Town",
   "country": "South Africa",
   "lat": -33.92,
   "lon": 18.42,
   "start": "",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "As Johannesburg.",
   "today": "Second centre of the Greeks in South Africa (Greek Foreign Ministry).",
   "sources": [
    "Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs, bilateral relations: South Africa - https://www.mfa.gr/en/bilateral-relations/south-africa",
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in South Africa' - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_South_Africa"
   ],
   "grade": "B"
  },
  {
   "city": "Durban",
   "country": "South Africa",
   "lat": -29.86,
   "lon": 31.03,
   "start": "",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "As Johannesburg.",
   "today": "Fourth centre (Greek Foreign Ministry).",
   "sources": [
    "Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs, bilateral relations: South Africa - https://www.mfa.gr/en/bilateral-relations/south-africa"
   ],
   "grade": "B"
  },
  {
   "city": "Port Elizabeth (Gqeberha)",
   "country": "South Africa",
   "lat": -33.96,
   "lon": 25.6,
   "start": "",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "As Johannesburg.",
   "today": "Not known.",
   "sources": [],
   "grade": "C"
  },
  {
   "city": "Tunis",
   "country": "Tunisia",
   "lat": 36.8,
   "lon": 10.18,
   "start": "A Greek Orthodox community is attested from the 16th-17th centuries; in the 19th century it grew with merchants and with sponge divers from the Dodecanese. Two Chiot boys enslaved in 1822, the Khaznadar brothers, rose high at the court of the beys: Mustapha Khaznadar (Georgios Kalkias Stravelakis) became prime minister.",
   "peak": "c. 8,000 (whole country; unsourced journalistic figure)",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "community estimate, late 19th century",
   "decline": "French naturalization policy of the 1920s (subject of a study, not read), then the departure of most Europeans after independence (1956, Habib Bourguiba).",
   "today": "Fewer than 100 (2012).",
   "sources": [
    "Neos Kosmos, 'The determined Greeks of Tunisia' (N. Dallas, 9 March 2012; journalism, no sources) - https://neoskosmos.com/en/2012/03/09/features/the-determined-greeks-of-tunisia/",
    "'The Greek Community in Tunis through 16th-17th Centuries' (academia.edu paper; title seen, text not read) - https://www.academia.edu/74663234/The_Greek_Community_in_Tunis_through_16th_17th_Centuries",
    "'The Greeks in Tunisia during the 19th century: social adaptability, commercial enterprise and political flexibility' (University of Johannesburg; title seen, text not read) - https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/54196901.pdf",
    "ResearchGate: 'The French colonial policy in Tunisia between 1920 and 1930 and its influence on the Greek community' (title seen only)"
   ],
   "grade": "C"
  },
  {
   "city": "Benghazi",
   "country": "Libya",
   "lat": 32.12,
   "lon": 20.07,
   "start": "Greek sponge fishers and traders from the Dodecanese and Crete are reported in Ottoman and Italian Cyrenaica. Separately, Greek-speaking Cretan Muslims settled in Benghazi and Derna after 1897; many local families keep Cretan surnames.",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "",
   "today": "Nearly 1,000 in early 2011, before the war; current size not known.",
   "sources": [
    "GreekReporter, 'Profile of Greeks in Libya' (7 April 2011; journalism) - https://greekreporter.com/2011/04/07/profile-of-greeks-in-libya/"
   ],
   "grade": "C"
  },
  {
   "city": "Tripoli",
   "country": "Libya",
   "lat": 32.89,
   "lon": 13.19,
   "start": "Orthodox church in the medina since 1664 (see 'between'); the modern community grew in the 19th-20th centuries.",
   "peak": "",
   "peak_year": null,
   "peak_basis": "",
   "decline": "",
   "today": "About 500 in early 2011.",
   "sources": [
    "GreekReporter, 'Profile of Greeks in Libya' (7 April 2011; journalism) - https://greekreporter.com/2011/04/07/profile-of-greeks-in-libya/"
   ],
   "grade": "C"
  }
 ],
 "greeks_in_egypt_census": [
  {
   "year": 1907,
   "greek_nationals": 62973,
   "source": "Dalachanis 2017, Table 1 (Egyptian censuses)"
  },
  {
   "year": 1917,
   "greek_nationals": 56731,
   "source": "Dalachanis 2017, Table 1 (Egyptian censuses)"
  },
  {
   "year": 1927,
   "greek_nationals": 76264,
   "source": "Dalachanis 2017, Table 1 (Egyptian censuses)"
  },
  {
   "year": 1937,
   "greek_nationals": 68559,
   "source": "Dalachanis 2017, Table 1 (Egyptian censuses)"
  },
  {
   "year": 1947,
   "greek_nationals": 57427,
   "source": "Dalachanis 2017, Table 1 (Egyptian censuses)"
  },
  {
   "year": 1960,
   "greek_nationals": 47673,
   "source": "Dalachanis 2017, Table 1 (Egyptian censuses)"
  },
  {
   "year": "today",
   "greek_nationals": 3800,
   "source": "Greek Foreign Ministry (estimate)"
  }
 ]
}