{
 "title": "Greek cities of the Black Sea",
 "scope": "Greek cities around the Black Sea in present-day Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Russia, Georgia, Armenia and Turkey: the coasts, the Bosporus and the Black Sea coast of Thrace, the Kuban and the Don, and inland Pontus, Paphlagonia, Bithynia and north-eastern Anatolia. Window A: the first colonies (7th century BC) to the Ottoman conquest (1453 the Bosporus and Bulgaria, 1461 Trebizond, 1475 the Crimea). Window B: towns that became Greek or bilingual after the conquest and before 1923. The 66 cities of Turkey's Black Sea region and the north-east come from the set Greek Cities in Turkey (column 'Previous ID', C-numbers); the Georgian ones from set 22's research.",
 "disputed_areas": "Disputed areas: the Crimea and Sevastopol are given as Ukraine, annexed by Russia in 2014 (the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members, UN General Assembly resolution 68/262); places in the parts of Kherson, Zaporizhzhia and Donetsk oblasts held by Russia since 2022 are given as Ukraine, under Russian occupation since 2022; Abkhazia is given as Georgia, outside the Georgian government's control since 1993, recognised as independent by Russia and a few states and regarded as part of Georgia by most states (column 'Disputed').",
 "n": 119,
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   99,
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   100,
   100,
   104,
   104,
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   104,
   106,
   106,
   106,
   106,
   106,
   106,
   106,
   106,
   106,
   106,
   106,
   106,
   106,
   106,
   106,
   107,
   107,
   107,
   107,
   107,
   107,
   107,
   107,
   107,
   107,
   107,
   107,
   107,
   107,
   107,
   107,
   107,
   107,
   107,
   107,
   108,
   108,
   108,
   108,
   108,
   108,
   108,
   108,
   108,
   108,
   108,
   108,
   108,
   108,
   108,
   108,
   108,
   108,
   108,
   109,
   109,
   109,
   111,
   111,
   111,
   111,
   111,
   111,
   111,
   112,
   112,
   112,
   112,
   112,
   112,
   112,
   112,
   112,
   112,
   112,
   112,
   112,
   112,
   112,
   112,
   112,
   112,
   112,
   114,
   115,
   115,
   115,
   115,
   117,
   118,
   118,
   119,
   119,
   119,
   119,
   119,
   119,
   119,
   119,
   119,
   119,
   119,
   119,
   119,
   119,
   119,
   119,
   119,
   119
  ]
 },
 "cities": [
  {
   "no": 1,
   "list_group": "The Bosporus and the coast of Thrace",
   "dates_shown": "685 BC – today",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b066",
   "id_prev": "C041",
   "latin": "Chalcedon",
   "greek": "Χαλκηδών",
   "other_names": "Kalchedon",
   "modern": "Kadıköy",
   "modern_native": "Kadıköy",
   "population": 462189,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, district total (via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Kadıköy (Kadıköy, İstanbul)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "İstanbul",
   "admin2": "Kadıköy",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Bithynia",
   "lat": 40.9834,
   "lon": 29.0258,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "520988",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -685,
   "greek_until": null,
   "phases": [
    [
     -685,
     null
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Megarian colony, 685/4 BC (Eusebius); 17 years before Byzantium (Hdt. 4.144)",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Administration: taken by the Ottomans under Orhan in the mid-14th c. Speech: the Greek Orthodox community of Kadıköy lived on (the metropolis of Chalcedon is still one of the senior sees of the Ecumenical Patriarchate (unchecked)); Kadıköy grew into a large suburb with a big Greek population in the 19th c. Its Greeks were exempted from the exchange as part of Istanbul and then shared the decline of 1955-1964; a small Greek-speaking community remains today (unchecked). Continuity through the 14th-18th c. is probable but not documented in detail.",
   "until_basis": "still spoken today",
   "until_precision": "",
   "until_range": null,
   "fade_evidence": "metropolis of Chalcedon (continuous); church of Ayia Efimia at Kadıköy built in 1694 with the metropolitan's permission and repaired in 1830 (Kure Ansiklopedisi, 'Kadıköy'); Istanbul Greek figures as for Constantinople",
   "ended_by": "Not ended. Decline as for Istanbul: the pogrom of 6-7 September 1955 and the expulsions after March 1964.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Megarians",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Megara",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Excavations in Kadıköy (Haydarpaşa, Altıyol) go back only to Classical/Hellenistic levels, and no pre-Greek level is reported on the city site. The Neolithic-Chalcolithic Fikirtepe mound lies c. 2 km east, across the Kurbağalıdere. There is no positive evidence of new ground either, so the 'no known' value is changed.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "yes: under the Ottomans (from the mid-14th c.) a Turkish-ruled place with a Greek community; Kadıköy was mixed (Greek, Armenian, Turkish) in the 19th-20th c. (unchecked)",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP (Chalkedon); ATL; coins Classical-Roman; Hierocles (Bithynia); metropolitan see; Council of Chalcedon 451",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The Neolithic Fikirtepe mound lies c. 2 km away in Kadıköy but not on the city site. The Ottomans took it in the mid-14th c. (Orhan). The modern community is small and part of the Istanbul Greek community; its exact size in Kadıköy was not checked. IACP number not checked.",
   "sources": [
    "IACP (Chalkedon)",
    "Hdt. 4.144",
    "Pleiades 520988",
    "TIB 13 (Belke 2020)",
    "Wikipedia: Greeks in Turkey"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 2,
   "list_group": "The Bosporus and the coast of Thrace",
   "dates_shown": "c. 667 BC – today",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b065",
   "id_prev": "C029",
   "latin": "Byzantium",
   "greek": "Βυζάντιον",
   "other_names": "Constantinople / Κωνσταντινούπολις, Nova Roma (Constantine 330); Antonina / Augusta Antonina (Septimius Severus, briefly); hē Polis",
   "modern": "İstanbul",
   "modern_native": "İstanbul",
   "population": 15701602,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS at 31 Dec 2024, province (via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Historic peninsula, Sarayburnu acropolis (Fatih, İstanbul)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "İstanbul",
   "admin2": "Fatih",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Thrace",
   "lat": 41.0059,
   "lon": 28.9739,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "520985",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -667,
   "greek_until": null,
   "phases": [
    [
     -667,
     null
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Megarian colony, c. 668-659 BC (Hdt. 4.144: 17 years after Chalcedon; Eusebius 659/8); Greek pottery from the 7th c. BC",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Administration: taken by Mehmed II on 29 May 1453. Speech: the Greek community lived on as one of the city's main communities: the Patriarchate was restored under Gennadios Scholarios (1454), and the Ottoman census of 1914 counted 205,375 Greek Orthodox in Istanbul. The Istanbul Greeks were exempted from the exchange of 1923. The community then shrank: the Wealth Tax of 1942, the pogrom of 6-7 September 1955, the expulsion of Greek nationals after March 1964, and emigration. Figures: more than 130,000 Greeks stayed in 1923 (with Imbros and Tenedos; Greek Foreign Ministry); c. 65,000-67,500 in 1955; 49,081 in 1960; about 80,000 before the 1964 expulsions and about 30,000 in 1965 (another count); about 7,000 by 1978; today estimates range from 2,000 (UN 2012) and 2,500 (Human Rights Watch 2006) to 3,000-4,000 (Turkish Foreign Ministry 2008), with higher counts by others. A small Greek-speaking community, continuous with the medieval city, still lives there: the end is open.",
   "until_basis": "still spoken today",
   "until_precision": "",
   "until_range": null,
   "fade_evidence": "Ottoman census 1914: 205,375 Greek Orthodox; 1923: over 130,000 stayed; 1955: 65,108; 1960: 49,081; 1965: c. 30,000; c. 7,000 in 1978; 2,000-3,500 today (estimates)",
   "ended_by": "Not ended. Decline: the anti-Greek pogrom of 6-7 September 1955 (over a dozen dead; 73 churches and 23 schools damaged or destroyed), organised with the involvement of the army's Tactical Mobilization Group according to the sources cited by Wikipedia; the expulsion of Greek citizens after the İnönü government denounced the 1930 Greek-Turkish convention of establishment on 16 March 1964 (more than 12,000 Greek citizens deported within two years, per the Greek Foreign Ministry; some 30,000-40,000 Turkish citizens of Greek origin left with them); the Wealth Tax (law 4305, 11 November 1942), which fell heavily on the Greeks and sent defaulters to labour camps at Aşkale.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Megarians (oikist Byzas, legend)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Megara",
   "refounded_by": "Byzantion → Antonina (Septimius Severus, briefly) → Constantinopolis / Nova Roma (Constantine I, 324-330)",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Pliny (NH 4.46) says the place was earlier called Lygos, a Thracian name known only from Latin, so not entered as a pre-Greek name. Neolithic-Chalcolithic remains exist within the later city (Yenikapı).",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "yes: after 1453 an Ottoman capital with a Turkish-speaking majority and large Greek, Armenian and Jewish communities; Greek one of its main languages into the 20th c.",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP (Propontic Thrace); ATL; coins from late 5th c. BC; Roman provincial coins; imperial capital 330-1453; patriarchate (councils 381, 553, 680-81)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "One entry for Byzantium and Constantinople (refoundation 330). Turkish İstanbul comes from Greek εἰς τὴν Πόλιν. The Ottomans took it in 1453. Justinian's 'city' of Sykai/Ioustinianai (later Galata) is treated as part of it. Greek speech here has never ended; the community is now very small. IACP number not checked.",
   "sources": [
    "IACP (Byzantion)",
    "Hdt. 4.144",
    "Pliny NH 4.46",
    "Pleiades 520985 / 520998",
    "Wikipedia: Greeks in Turkey (figures 1955-today)",
    "Wikipedia: Expulsion of Greeks from Istanbul",
    "Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Greek minority and its foundations in Istanbul, Imvros and Tenedos (https://www.mfa.gr/en/foreign-policy/foreign-policy-issues/issues-of-greek-turkish-relations/the-greek-minority-and-its-foundations-in-istanbul-gokceada-imvros-and-bozcaada-tenedos/)",
    "Minority Rights Group, Rum Orthodox Christians (2018)",
    "1914 Ottoman census (en.wikipedia)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 3,
   "list_group": "The Bosporus and the coast of Thrace",
   "dates_shown": "AD 787 – 1922",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b059",
   "id_prev": "C031",
   "latin": "Dercos",
   "greek": "Δέρκος",
   "other_names": "Delkos; Terkos (Ottoman)",
   "modern": "Durusu",
   "modern_native": "Durusu",
   "population": 746,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2022 (via the English Wikipedia article on the town)",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Durusu (Arnavutköy, İstanbul)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "İstanbul",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Thrace",
   "lat": 41.2999,
   "lon": 28.6784,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "511231",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 787,
   "greek_until": 1922,
   "phases": [
    [
     787,
     1922
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "first bishop at Nicaea II (787); later archbishopric/metropolis",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "A see of the metropolis of Derkoi; taken by the Ottomans while preparing the siege of Constantinople, in early 1453 or 1452. In Ottoman times Terkos was a small village (about 300 people); in the late 19th c. its Christians numbered 400, many of them Bulgarians, so the Greek share at the end is uncertain. The Christians left in the autumn of 1922 with the Greeks of Eastern Thrace (unchecked: Terkos itself). The metropolitan resided at Therapeia on the Bosporus from the 17th c.; the see still exists, but this does not continue Greek speech at Durusu.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "year",
   "until_range": [
    1922,
    1923
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "metropolis of Derkoi (Notitiae, Ottoman period); late 19th c.: 400 Christians, many Bulgarian (en.wikipedia Durusu); Çatalca sanjak 1914: 36,797 Greek Orthodox of 59,756",
   "ended_by": "The departure of the Greeks of Eastern Thrace: the evacuation of the Orthodox Christians of Eastern Thrace in October-November 1922, after the Mudanya armistice of 11 October 1922 handed the region to the Ankara government, followed by the Lausanne exchange convention of 30 January 1923.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "In antiquity a village (Delkos) in Byzantion's territory by the lagoon; no earlier settlement reported at Durusu.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "bishop 787; later archbishopric and metropolis of Derkos",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "It was a Roman station (Delkos); Durusu was called Terkos until the 20th c. The council seed point lies c. 9 km from Durusu; the Pleiades point is used here.",
   "sources": [
    "Pleiades 511231",
    "Council seed (Nicaea 787)",
    "TIB 12",
    "Wikipedia: Durusu",
    "Wikipedia: Metropolis of Derkoi",
    "1914 Ottoman census (en.wikipedia): Çatalca sanjak"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 4,
   "list_group": "The Bosporus and the coast of Thrace",
   "dates_shown": "c. AD 900 – 1922",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b056",
   "id_prev": "C032",
   "latin": "Medea",
   "greek": "Μήδεια",
   "other_names": "Salmydessos (Thracian coast and town); Midye (Ottoman)",
   "modern": "Kıyıköy",
   "modern_native": "Kıyıköy",
   "population": 2160,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2022 (via the English Wikipedia article on the town)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Kıyıköy (Vize, Kırklareli)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Kırklareli",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Thrace",
   "lat": 41.6348,
   "lon": 28.0957,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "511404",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 900,
   "greek_until": 1922,
   "phases": [
    [
     900,
     1922
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "walls built under Justinian; archbishopric (later metropolis) in the Notitiae from c. 900",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "It submitted to the Ottomans in 1453. Midye remained a Christian town: Russian occupation 1878; Bulgarian and Greek control after the Balkan wars and in 1920-1922. Under the exchange its 'mostly Greek and Bulgarian Christian residents' left and were replaced by Muslims from Thessaloniki. The town was renamed Kıyıköy in 1960.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "year",
   "until_range": [
    1922,
    1924
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Christian town to 1922 (en.wikipedia Kıyıköy); resettled by Muslims from Thessaloniki",
   "ended_by": "The departure of the Greeks of Eastern Thrace: the evacuation of the Orthodox Christians of Eastern Thrace in October-November 1922, after the Mudanya armistice of 11 October 1922 handed the region to the Ankara government, followed by the Lausanne exchange convention of 30 January 1923; Muslims from Thessaloniki were settled in their place.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Salmydessos was a coast and town of the Thracian Thynoi (Hdt. 4.93; Xen. Anab. 7.5); no native-script name.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "medieval Roman archbishopric, later metropolis; Catholic titular see Medea; Justinianic fortifications",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The medieval Roman name Medeia continues in Midye. The date of the first see is not exactly verified. It submitted to the Ottomans in 1453. Pleiades has Salmydessos as the coastal region; the town of Salmydessos is usually placed at Midye, so it is not entered separately.",
   "sources": [
    "Pleiades 511404",
    "TIB 12 (Külzer 2008)",
    "Wikipedia: Kıyıköy"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 5,
   "list_group": "The Bulgarian coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. 610 BC – c. 1925",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b012",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Apollonia Pontica, later Sozopolis",
   "greek": "Ἀπολλωνία (Ποντική); Σωζόπολις",
   "other_names": "Apollonia Magna (Pliny); Anthium/Antheia (Pliny NH 4.45, an earlier name) (unchecked); Sozopolis (from the 5th c. AD) (unchecked); Sizebolu/Süzebolu (Ottoman); Sozopol (Bulgarian)",
   "modern": "Sozopol",
   "modern_native": "Созопол",
   "population": 11984,
   "pop_year": 2021,
   "pop_source": "NSI Bulgaria, 2021 census, Burgas regional release",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "The old town on the peninsula and St Kirik and St Ivan islands, Sozopol",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "admin1": "Burgas Province",
   "admin2": "Sozopol Municipality",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Thrace",
   "lat": 42.4204,
   "lon": 27.6943,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "216706",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -610,
   "greek_until": 1925,
   "phases": [
    [
     -610,
     1925
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Milesian colony founded c. 610 BC, '50 years before Cyrus' (Ps.-Scymnus 728-731); the earliest Greek pottery is of the late 7th c. BC",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Greek was spoken without a known break from the foundation to the 20th century: Sozopolis was a see under Constantinople, passed to the Ottomans in 1453, and at the start of the 20th century was still 'almost entirely ethnically Greek' apart from a few dozen Bulgarian officials (V. Mitakov). After the anti-Greek riots of 1906 the Greek churches, school and library were closed and taken over. Most of the remaining Greeks left for Greece in the 1920s and settled in Chalkidiki, where they founded a new Sozopolis. Speech: the community ended with this emigration; the few who stayed were assimilated (unchecked).",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    1913,
    1930
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Statue of Apollo by Calamis carried off by M. Lucullus, 72 BC (Strabo 7.6.1; Pliny NH 34.39); Greek civic coins (anchor, ΑΠΟΛΛΩΝΙΑ / ΑΠΟ) from the 5th c. BC; see of Sozopolis under Constantinople; 1808 see united with Agathopolis; 1906 Greek institutions seized; 1920s emigration to Chalkidiki.",
   "ended_by": "The Greek churches and school seized by the Bulgarian authorities after the anti-Greek riots of summer 1906; the community then left under the Greek-Bulgarian convention on reciprocal and voluntary emigration, signed at Neuilly with the peace treaty on 27 November 1919 (art. 56 of the treaty) and carried out by a Mixed Commission set up in December 1920 (property was settled by the Politis-Kalfov agreement of 1924 and the Mollov-Kafantaris agreement of 1927); the Greeks of Bulgaria fell from 46,759 (census of 1920) to 10,564 (1926), and by 1925 the only Greek school and church still open in Bulgaria were in Sofia (D. Gyudurov).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Miletus",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Pliny (NH 4.45) says Apollonia was earlier called Anthium; the name looks Greek and is known only from Pliny, so it is not entered. A Bronze Age (Early Bronze) settlement lies under the harbour (unchecked).",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Bulgarian",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP (Apollonia, Black Sea area chapter) [number not seen]; Ps.-Scymnus 728-731; Strabo 7.6.1 ('a large part of its city on an island'); civic coins; see of Sozopolis",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "One entry for Apollonia and Sozopolis (same site). The Wikipedia account links the final departure to the exchanges after the Balkan wars; the 1919 convention and the 1920s emigration are the usual frame.",
   "sources": [
    "Ps.-Scymnus 728-731; Strabo 7.6.1",
    "IACP (Avram, Hind, Tsetskhladze 2004)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sozopol",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Bulgaria"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 6,
   "list_group": "The Bulgarian coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. 575 BC – c. 1940",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b009",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Odessos",
   "greek": "Ὀδησσός",
   "other_names": "Odessus (Latin); Varna (from the 7th c., Theophanes); Varna/Βάρνα under Constantinople and the Ottomans",
   "modern": "Varna",
   "modern_native": "Варна",
   "population": 318737,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "NSI Bulgaria, official estimate at 31 Dec 2024 (via Wikipedia 'List of cities and towns in Bulgaria')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "The old centre of Varna (Roman baths, Sea Garden)",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "admin1": "Varna Province",
   "admin2": "Varna Municipality",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Thrace (later Moesia Inferior / Moesia II)",
   "lat": 43.2062,
   "lon": 27.9135,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "216904",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -575,
   "greek_until": 1940,
   "phases": [
    [
     -575,
     1940
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Milesian colony founded 'when Astyages ruled the Medes', 585-550 BC (Ps.-Scymnus 748-750); archaeology of the second quarter of the 6th c. BC",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Odessos was a Greek city through antiquity (the main city of the coast under Rome, then of Moesia II). Varna changed hands between the Bulgarians (from 681), the emperors in Constantinople (from c. 975; Kaloyan took it in 1201) and the Ottomans (1389; ceded to Manuel II in 1413, finally Ottoman in 1444). The documentation of Greek speakers in the 7th-10th c. is thin, but the Greek metropolis of Varna and a Greek merchant community are attested in the later Middle Ages and the Ottoman period; local Greeks joined the Philiki Etaireia, and Greek schools opened from 1840. In 1881 Greek was the mother tongue of 5,367 people (21.85%), a minority. The pogrom of 1906 began their emigration; more left after the Balkan wars and under the 1919 convention, a last small group was expelled before the Second World War, and many who stayed were assimilated (A. Lyberatos). Speech: probably faded in the families who stayed by the mid-20th c. (estimate).",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    1925,
    1960
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Civic coins ΟΔΗΣΙΤΩΝ (from the 4th c. BC; the god Darzalas); Greek decrees (IGBulg I²); Roman baths of the late 2nd c.; Greek metropolis of Varna; first Greek secondary school 1840; Greek theatre active in the 1890s-1900s; pogrom 1906.",
   "ended_by": "The anti-Greek pogrom of 1906 in Varna (Bulgarian crowds; the Bulgarian state then took over the Greek churches and schools (unchecked)); emigration under the Greek-Bulgarian convention on reciprocal and voluntary emigration, signed at Neuilly with the peace treaty on 27 November 1919 (art. 56 of the treaty) and carried out by a Mixed Commission set up in December 1920 (property was settled by the Politis-Kalfov agreement of 1924 and the Mollov-Kafantaris agreement of 1927); the Greeks of Bulgaria fell from 46,759 (census of 1920) to 10,564 (1926), and by 1925 the only Greek school and church still open in Bulgaria were in Sofia (D. Gyudurov); a last small group expelled by the Bulgarian government before the Second World War (A. Lyberatos).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Miletus",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The name Odessos is probably not Greek (Thracian or Carian?); no non-Greek source gives an earlier name.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "yes: in the Ottoman period Greek was one language of a mixed town (Turkish, Bulgarian, Greek, Tatar); part of the Orthodox were Turkish-speaking Gagauz, some of whom took up Greek culture through the Greek schools. In the Bulgarian census of 1881 Greek was the mother tongue of 5,367 people (21.85%), after Turkish (36.25%) and Bulgarian (27.36%)",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP (Odessos) [number not seen]; Ps.-Scymnus 748-750; Strabo 7.6.1; civic coins; decrees",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Continuity of Greek speech through the 7th-10th c. is assumed, not documented. Varna is also a window B case: as a town of the 19th c. it would be a minority-only city after 1878.",
   "sources": [
    "Ps.-Scymnus 748-750; Strabo 7.6.1",
    "https://cities.blacksea.gr/en/varna/3-2-1-1/ (A. Lyberatos, 'Greek community')",
    "https://cities.blacksea.gr/en/varna/3-1-2-1/",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Bulgaria"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 7,
   "list_group": "The Bulgarian coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. 550 BC – c. AD 614",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b007",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Dionysopolis",
   "greek": "Διονυσόπολις (earlier Κρουνοί)",
   "other_names": "Krounoi ('the springs'); Matiopolis (Ps.-Scymnus, a name between the two) (unchecked); Karvuna (medieval Bulgarian name of the town, by some accounts); Balchik (Ottoman and Bulgarian)",
   "modern": "Balchik",
   "modern_native": "Балчик",
   "population": 9310,
   "pop_year": 2021,
   "pop_source": "NSI Bulgaria, 2021 census, Dobrich regional release (Census_2021-Dobrich.pdf)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Under the centre of Balchik (temple of Cybele, Hellenistic)",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "admin1": "Dobrich Province",
   "admin2": "Balchik Municipality",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Moesia/Scythia Minor (Dobruja)",
   "lat": 43.4178,
   "lon": 28.1629,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "216793",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -550,
   "greek_until": 614,
   "phases": [
    [
     -550,
     614
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek settlement Krounoi of the 6th c. BC (archaeology); renamed Dionysopolis after a statue of Dionysus was washed ashore (Ps.-Scymnus 751-757) (unchecked)",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Dionysopolis remained a Greek city under Rome (the decree for Akornion, envoy to Burebista c. 48 BC; Greek coins to the 3rd c. AD) and a see in late antiquity. It declined during the Avar and Slav invasions of the late 6th and early 7th c., and Greek urban life ended then (unchecked). Medieval Karvuna (a fortress under Constantinople, later the seat of the despots of Dobruja until Dobrotitsa moved to Kaliakra) and Ottoman Balchik, a town of Gagauz (Turkish-speaking Orthodox), Tatars and Turks, are not shown to have had Greek-speaking townspeople.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    586,
    700
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Decree for Akornion (IGBulg I² 13), c. 48 BC; civic coins ΔΙΟΝΥΣΟΠΟΛΕΙΤΩΝ; temple of Cybele with Greek inscriptions; late antique basilicas.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town was ruined during the Avar and Slav invasions of the late 6th and early 7th c.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Ionian colonists, probably from Miletus (unchecked)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus?",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "A Thracian settlement preceded the Ionian colony.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ps.-Scymnus 751-757; Strabo 7.5.12; IGBulg I² 13 (Akornion decree); civic coins",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Krounoi and Dionysopolis are one entry (same site). The mother city is not firmly known.",
   "sources": [
    "Ps.-Scymnus 751-757; Strabo 7.5.12",
    "IGBulg I² 13",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balchik",
    "Pleiades 216793"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Krounoi renamed Dionysopolis (same site)"
  },
  {
   "no": 8,
   "list_group": "The Bulgarian coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. 510 BC – c. 1925",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b010",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Mesembria",
   "greek": "Μεσημβρία (Doric Μεσαμβρία)",
   "other_names": "Mesambria (coins ΜΕΤΑ); Menebria (Strabo 7.6.1, earlier name); Mesembria under Constantinople; Misivri (Ottoman); Nesebar (Bulgarian)",
   "modern": "Nesebar",
   "modern_native": "Несебър",
   "population": 13600,
   "pop_year": 2019,
   "pop_source": "NSI Bulgaria, Dec 2019, rounded (via Wikipedia)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "The old town on the peninsula, Nesebar (UNESCO World Heritage site)",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "admin1": "Burgas Province",
   "admin2": "Nesebar Municipality",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Thrace",
   "lat": 42.6596,
   "lon": 27.7244,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "216882",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -510,
   "greek_until": 1925,
   "phases": [
    [
     -510,
     1925
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Dorian colony of Megarians with Chalcedonians (Ps.-Scymnus 738-742: at the time of Darius's Scythian campaign, c. 513 BC); Herodotus 6.33 has refugees from Byzantium and Chalcedon settle there in 493 BC; archaeology of the late 6th c. BC",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Greek lasted from the foundation into the 20th century. Mesembria was a fortress and see under Constantinople (with Bulgarian interludes), returned to the emperors by the Treaty of Gallipoli in 1403 and surrendered to the Ottomans in 1453. Around 1900 it was a small town of Greek fishermen and wine-growers: about 1,900 people, 89% Greek. The Greeks left for Greece in the 1920s (unchecked: the date); those who stayed were assimilated.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    1913,
    1930
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Civic coins ΜΕΤΑ / ΜΕΣΑΜΒΡΙΑΝΩΝ (5th c. BC to the 3rd c. AD); decrees in Doric Greek (IGBulg I²); churches of the 5th-14th c.; locals in the Philiki Etaireia and the war of 1821; c. 1900 89% Greek of c. 1,900.",
   "ended_by": "Emigration under the Greek-Bulgarian convention on reciprocal and voluntary emigration, signed at Neuilly with the peace treaty on 27 November 1919 (art. 56 of the treaty) and carried out by a Mixed Commission set up in December 1920 (property was settled by the Politis-Kalfov agreement of 1924 and the Mollov-Kafantaris agreement of 1927); the Greeks of Bulgaria fell from 46,759 (census of 1920) to 10,564 (1926), and by 1925 the only Greek school and church still open in Bulgaria were in Sofia (D. Gyudurov). No named act of violence against the town is recorded here.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Megarians and Chalcedonians (Ps.-Scymnus 738-742); refugees from Byzantium and Chalcedon (Hdt. 6.33)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Megara",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Strabo (7.6.1) says the city was once called Menebria, 'the city of Menas' (its founder), with Thracian -bria 'town'. The name is known only from Strabo, so it is not entered here; a Thracian settlement preceded the colony.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Bulgarian",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP (Mesambria) [number not seen]; Hdt. 4.93, 6.33; Ps.-Scymnus 738-742; civic coins; Doric decrees",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "",
   "sources": [
    "Hdt. 6.33; Ps.-Scymnus 738-742; Strabo 7.6.1",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nesebar",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Bulgaria"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 9,
   "list_group": "The Bulgarian coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. 450 BC – c. 1925",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b011",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Anchialos",
   "greek": "Ἀγχίαλος (Ἀγχιάλη)",
   "other_names": "Anchiale (Strabo); Ulpia Anchialos (Trajan); Ahyolu (Ottoman); Anhialo; Pomorie (from 1934)",
   "modern": "Pomorie",
   "modern_native": "Поморие",
   "population": 13926,
   "pop_year": 2020,
   "pop_source": "NSI Bulgaria, population by towns at 31 Dec 2020 (via Wikipedia)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "The peninsula of Pomorie",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "admin1": "Burgas Province",
   "admin2": "Pomorie Municipality",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Thrace",
   "lat": 42.5559,
   "lon": 27.6414,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "216702",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -450,
   "greek_until": 1925,
   "phases": [
    [
     -450,
     1925
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Founded by Apollonia as a 'small town of the Apolloniates' (Strabo 7.6.1); the date is not recorded, probably the 5th or 4th c. BC (unchecked)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "A Greek town from antiquity to 1906: a Roman city (Ulpia Anchialos, with Greek coins), then an archbishopric and fortress under Constantinople, submitting to the Ottomans in 1453. The Russians found it mainly Greek in 1829 (5,000-6,000 people); about 1900 it had about 6,000 inhabitants, 82% Greek. On 30 July 1906 the town was burnt in anti-Greek riots and more than half of its Greeks were driven out; many founded Nea Anchialos near Volos that year. The rest left in the following years and under the 1919 convention; after the First World War Bulgarian refugees from Eastern Thrace were settled in their place.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    1906,
    1930
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek civic coins of Anchialos (2nd-3rd c. AD); patriarchs Michael III of Anchialos (1170-1178) and Jeremias II Tranos (1572-1595) came from the town; bishop Eugenios executed by the Ottomans in 1821; 82% Greek c. 1900; burning of 30 July 1906; Nea Anchialos founded 1906.",
   "ended_by": "Burnt on 30 July 1906 by Bulgarian rioters, many of them from Burgas (Athens reports of August 1906) and many of them refugees from Macedonia, during the Greek-Bulgarian struggle over Macedonia; official reports from Sofia said more than half the town, with all its public buildings, schools and a mosque, had burned. European governments blamed the Bulgarian authorities for allowing it. The death toll is disputed: English Wikipedia says 'over 300 Greeks were murdered', a figure not confirmed here. The remaining Greeks left under the Greek-Bulgarian convention on reciprocal and voluntary emigration, signed at Neuilly with the peace treaty on 27 November 1919 (art. 56 of the treaty) and carried out by a Mixed Commission set up in December 1920 (property was settled by the Politis-Kalfov agreement of 1924 and the Mollov-Kafantaris agreement of 1927); the Greeks of Bulgaria fell from 46,759 (census of 1920) to 10,564 (1926), and by 1925 the only Greek school and church still open in Bulgaria were in Sofia (D. Gyudurov).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Apollonia Pontica",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Apollonia Pontica",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 7.6.1 (polichnion of the Apolloniates); Ovid Tristia 1.10.36; Roman civic coins ΟΥΛΠΙΑΝΩΝ ΑΓΧΙΑΛΕΩΝ; archbishopric under Constantinople",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Whether Anchialos was a polis in the Classical period is not certain; it was one under Rome. The size of the 1906 death toll needs a scholarly source.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 7.6.1 ('a small town belonging to the Apolloniatae'): https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/7F*.html",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomorie",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nea_Anchialos",
    "Gisborne Times, 16 August 1906: https://slbrartest.natlib.govt.nz/newspapers/GIST19060816.2.12",
    "A. Lyberatos, 'Confronting the Urban Crowd: Bulgarian Society and the 1906 anti-Greek Movement' (2013)",
    "https://www.mfa.gr/bulgaria/bg/the-embassy/news/uchastiie-na-poslanika-gh-n-alieksios-marios-libieropulos-sbitiiata-po-povod-120-ghodini-ot-opozhariavanieto-na-ankhialo-pomoriie.html"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Refounded as Ulpia Anchialos under Trajan (same site)"
  },
  {
   "no": 10,
   "list_group": "The Bulgarian coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. 400 BC – c. AD 600",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b006",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Bizone",
   "greek": "Βιζώνη",
   "other_names": "Byzone; Bizone (Mela, Pliny); Kavarna (Ottoman and Bulgarian)",
   "modern": "Kavarna",
   "modern_native": "Каварна",
   "population": 10507,
   "pop_year": 2021,
   "pop_source": "NSI Bulgaria, 2021 census, Dobrich regional release (Census_2021-Dobrich.pdf)",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Chirakman cape, east of Kavarna",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "admin1": "Dobrich Province",
   "admin2": "Kavarna Municipality",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Moesia/Scythia Minor (Dobruja)",
   "lat": 43.4339,
   "lon": 28.3381,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "216734",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -400,
   "greek_until": 600,
   "phases": [
    [
     -400,
     600
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "A Thracian settlement of the 9th-7th c. BC refounded by Greeks as a secondary colony of Mesembria, probably in the 5th or early 4th c. BC",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Strabo (7.6.1) says that most of Bizone was swallowed by an earthquake (1st c. BC); Mela and Pliny still name it. A late Roman and medieval fortress stood on the cape. When Greek civic life ended is not clear: after the earthquake, or with the fall of the late Roman towns c. 600 (unchecked).",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -50,
    700
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Strabo 7.6.1 ('a considerable part was engulfed by earthquakes'); Mela 2.22; Pliny NH 4.44 (unchecked); Greek inscriptions and finds from Chirakman (unchecked).",
   "ended_by": "No named act: an earthquake in the 1st c. BC destroyed much of the town (Strabo 7.6.1); the late Roman settlement ended in the invasions of c. 600 (unchecked).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Mesembria (a secondary colony)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Mesembria",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "A Thracian settlement of the 9th-7th c. BC preceded the Greek town.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "yes: Greeks and Thracians lived together in the town (mixed and Greek-Thracian communities reported by its excavators); the period is not dated",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP lists Bizone (unchecked; number not seen); Strabo 7.6.1 (named among the towns of the coast); Ps.-Scymnus 758-760 (unchecked)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The population was mixed (Greeks and Thracians, perhaps Scythians in the Hellenistic period); counted as a Greek city on its Mesembrian origin and Greek finds. The medieval and Ottoman town of Kavarna grew up beside the site.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 7.6.1; Mela 2.22; Pliny NH 4.44",
    "https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/7F*.html",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kavarna",
    "Pleiades 216734"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 11,
   "list_group": "The Bulgarian coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. AD 106 – c. AD 615",
   "period": "3 Rome (63 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "b008",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Marcianopolis",
   "greek": "Μαρκιανούπολις",
   "other_names": "Marcianopolis (Latin); Devina (medieval) (unchecked); Devnya",
   "modern": "Devnya",
   "modern_native": "Девня",
   "population": 8383,
   "pop_year": 2009,
   "pop_source": "NSI Bulgaria, town data at Dec 2009 (via Wikipedia)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Reka Devnya, Devnya (Museum of Mosaics)",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "admin1": "Varna Province",
   "admin2": "Devnya Municipality",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Moesia Inferior / Moesia II",
   "lat": 43.225,
   "lon": 27.585,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "216878",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 106,
   "greek_until": 615,
   "phases": [
    [
     106,
     615
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Founded by Trajan after the Dacian wars, c. 106, and named after his sister Marciana; a Greek-speaking civic community with Greek coins from the late 2nd c.",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "A Greek-speaking Roman city: its civic coins (Commodus to Philip) and most of its inscriptions are Greek, while Latin was used by the provincial administration and the army. A Gothic raid of 248-249 ended its Severan prosperity; it was Valens's base in the Gothic war (366-369), the capital of Moesia II and a metropolitan see. The Avars sacked it in 587, the emperor's troops soon retook it, and an Avar raid of 614-615 destroyed it; the Slavs later called the ruins Devina.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    587,
    650
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Civic coins ΜΑΡΚΙΑΝΟΠΟΛΙΤΩΝ (RPC); Greek inscriptions (IGBulg II) (unchecked); Valens's base in the Gothic war, 366-369; metropolitan see; Avar sack 587; destruction 614-615.",
   "ended_by": "Sacked by the Avars of the khagan Bayan in 587 (unchecked: the leader); destroyed in an Avar raid of 614-615 (no leader named in the sources used here).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Roman foundation",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Trajan",
   "founder_group": "Roman emperors to 330",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Thracian settlement near the Devnya springs (unchecked).",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ammianus 27.4.12 (named after Trajan's sister); Jordanes Get. 93; civic coins; metropolitan see of Moesia II",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Counted as Greek-speaking on its coins and inscriptions; Latin and Thracian were also spoken. It lies inland (about 25 km from Varna).",
   "sources": [
    "Ammianus 27.4.12; Jordanes Getica 93",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcianopolis",
    "https://rpc.ashmus.ox.ac.uk/coin/358143",
    "Pleiades 216878"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 12,
   "list_group": "The Bulgarian coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. AD 150 – c. AD 812",
   "period": "3 Rome (63 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "b013",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Deultum (Develtos)",
   "greek": "Δεβελτός (Δεουελτός)",
   "other_names": "Debelton/Develton (Thracian 'two marshes'?) ; Colonia Flavia Pacis Deultensium; Develtos/Debeltos under Constantinople; Debelt (Bulgarian)",
   "modern": "Debelt",
   "modern_native": "Дебелт",
   "population": 1965,
   "pop_year": 2013,
   "pop_source": "Wikipedia infobox (source not named)",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Debelt, on the Sredetska river west of the Burgas lakes",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "admin1": "Burgas Province",
   "admin2": "Sredets Municipality",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Thrace (Haemimontus)",
   "lat": 42.3878,
   "lon": 27.281,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "216788",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 150,
   "greek_until": 812,
   "phases": [
    [
     150,
     812
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "A trading post of Apollonia from the 7th c. BC (not a city); the veterans' colony of Vespasian (c. 70) was Latin; Greek-speaking residents are attested from the 2nd-3rd c.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Greek was the language of the town's church and, by late antiquity, of most of its people (estimate). In 812 the Bulgarian khan Krum took the town and moved its inhabitants north of the Haemus; he later resettled it with Bulgarians. Develtos changed hands until the 14th c. and still had Greek bishops (879, c. 1000), but a Greek-speaking town community after 812 is not shown. It declined in the 14th c. and the Ottomans took it in 1396.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    812,
    1350
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek sarcophagus inscription (2nd-3rd c.); bishops 431-879; Krum's deportation of 812 (Theophanes, Chronographia AM 6304) (unchecked: the source).",
   "ended_by": "The Bulgarian khan Krum took Develtos in June 812 and moved its inhabitants and their bishop into Bulgaria (Theophanes AM 6304) (unchecked: the source).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Roman veterans' colony",
   "founder": "Vespasian (veterans of legio VIII Augusta)",
   "founder_group": "Roman emperors to 330",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The name Debelton/Deultum is probably Thracian; it is known only through Greek and Latin forms.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Bulgarian (revival, 1934)",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Latin (and Thracian)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Latin colonial coins (Caracalla to Philip) and Latin official inscriptions; Greek funerary inscriptions of residents (a sarcophagus of the 2nd-3rd c. found in 2020) and a see of the Greek church (bishops at Ephesus 431, Chalcedon 451, Nicaea 787)",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Pliny NH 4.45 (colonia Deultum veteranorum); Latin colonial coins; bishops at the councils of 431, 451 and 787",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "A borderline case: a Latin colony in a Greek-speaking region. It is admitted on the Greek church and Greek inscriptions; Latin and Thracian were spoken beside Greek.",
   "sources": [
    "Pliny NH 4.45",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Develtos",
    "Pleiades 216788"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Apollonian trading post, then Colonia Flavia Pacis Deultensium (Vespasian), same site"
  },
  {
   "no": 13,
   "list_group": "The Bulgarian coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. AD 900 – c. 1924",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b015",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Agathopolis",
   "greek": "Ἀγαθόπολις",
   "other_names": "Aulaiouteichos (Arrian, Periplus 24.6, nearby; long identified with it); Ahtebolu (Ottoman); Ahtopol (Bulgarian)",
   "modern": "Ahtopol",
   "modern_native": "Ахтопол",
   "population": 1286,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "Wikipedia infobox (source not named)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "The peninsula of Ahtopol (town walls)",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "admin1": "Burgas Province",
   "admin2": "Tsarevo Municipality",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Thrace",
   "lat": 42.0994,
   "lon": 27.9395,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "216721",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 900,
   "greek_until": 1924,
   "phases": [
    [
     900,
     1924
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "The name Agathopolis is first found in a list of sees (Notitiae episcopatuum) of the early 10th c. (K. Rigsby 2005); the site was already an urban centre in antiquity, probably the Aulaiouteichos of Arrian's Periplus (24.6)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "A Greek town under Constantinople and then the Ottomans (taken in the late 14th c., returned in 1403 and finally Ottoman in 1453). The Ottoman tax register of 1498 lists 158 Christian households, most with Greek names; in 1898 the town had 300 Greek and 110 Bulgarian houses. It stayed Ottoman until 1913, when it passed to Bulgaria after the Balkan wars; the Greeks then left for Greece, gradually and under the 1919 convention, and were replaced by Bulgarian refugees from Eastern Thrace (150 families from Bunarhisar). A fire nearly destroyed the town in 1918.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    1913,
    1926
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "See of Agathopolis (from 1808 united with Sozopolis, with the metropolitan resident at Agathopolis); 1498 register; 1898 house count; church of the Ascension 1796.",
   "ended_by": "Cession of the area to Bulgaria by the Ottoman Empire in 1913 (Treaty of Constantinople, 29 September 1913 (unchecked)); the Greeks emigrated under the Greek-Bulgarian convention on reciprocal and voluntary emigration, signed at Neuilly with the peace treaty on 27 November 1919 (art. 56 of the treaty) and carried out by a Mixed Commission set up in December 1920 (property was settled by the Politis-Kalfov agreement of 1924 and the Mollov-Kafantaris agreement of 1927); the Greeks of Bulgaria fell from 46,759 (census of 1920) to 10,564 (1926), and by 1925 the only Greek school and church still open in Bulgaria were in Sofia (D. Gyudurov).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The claim of an Athenian colony of 440-430 BC found on some websites is not supported by ancient sources.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Turkish",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "See under Constantinople (Notitiae, early 10th c.); Ottoman register of 1498; town of the Ottoman kaza",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Agathopolis is not a known Classical polis: Rigsby shows that the name belongs to the Christian period and that the coins once given to an ancient Agathopolis are of Agathocleia. The entry rests on its medieval town and see; the ancient town on the site (Aulaiouteichos?) is not shown to have been a polis.",
   "sources": [
    "K. J. Rigsby, 'Agathopolis and Doulopolis', Epigraphica Anatolica 38 (2005): https://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/ifa/EpAnat/38 pdfs web/038109.pdf",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahtopol",
    "Pleiades 216721 (Barrington Atlas 22 E6)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 14,
   "list_group": "The Bulgarian coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. 1780 – c. 1924",
   "period": "5 The later Greek towns (1475-1923)",
   "id": "b014",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Vasiliko",
   "greek": "Βασιλικό(ν)",
   "other_names": "Vasiliko (al-Idrisi, 1154); Vasiliko (Ottoman); Michurin (1950-1991); Tsarevo (Bulgarian translation of Vasiliko, 'royal place')",
   "modern": "Tsarevo",
   "modern_native": "Царево",
   "population": 8329,
   "pop_year": 2021,
   "pop_source": "NSI Bulgaria, 2021 census, Burgas regional release",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Tsarevo (the old town on the peninsula)",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "admin1": "Burgas Province",
   "admin2": "Tsarevo Municipality",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Thrace (Strandzha coast)",
   "lat": 42.17,
   "lon": 27.853,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "B",
   "greek_from": 1780,
   "greek_until": 1924,
   "phases": [
    [
     1780,
     1924
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "A place Vasiliko is named by al-Idrisi in 1154; Evliya Çelebi calls it a town in 1662, and in 1787 it was 'a town of 200 houses and a lively port'. The date is that of the first description of a town whose people can reasonably be taken to be the Greek community counted in the 19th c.; that the town was Greek-speaking is first documented by the house counts of the 19th c.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "A Greek town of the Ottoman Strandzha coast: 434 houses and about 1,800 people in 1831; in 1898 300 Greek and 160 Bulgarian houses. It passed to Bulgaria in 1913; the Greeks then left for Greece and were replaced by Bulgarian refugees from Eastern Thrace. The Greek community is older than the first record of the town.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    1913,
    1926
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Al-Idrisi 1154; Ottoman port by the 1780s; 1831 count (1,800); 1898 house count (300 Greek, 160 Bulgarian).",
   "ended_by": "Cession of the area to Bulgaria by the Ottoman Empire in 1913; emigration under the Greek-Bulgarian convention on reciprocal and voluntary emigration, signed at Neuilly with the peace treaty on 27 November 1919 (art. 56 of the treaty) and carried out by a Mixed Commission set up in December 1920 (property was settled by the Politis-Kalfov agreement of 1924 and the Mollov-Kafantaris agreement of 1927); the Greeks of Bulgaria fell from 46,759 (census of 1920) to 10,564 (1926), and by 1925 the only Greek school and church still open in Bulgaria were in Sofia (D. Gyudurov).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "later Greek settlement",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Bulgarian",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Called a town with a square fortress by Evliya Çelebi (1662) and 'a town of 200 houses and a lively port' in 1787; seat of the kaza of Ahtopol (Ahtabolu) in the sanjak of Kırkkilise from 1878 to 1912; 19th-c. counts (1831: 434 houses, about 1,800 people; 1898: 300 Greek and 160 Bulgarian houses)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Vasiliko may already have been a Greek village under Constantinople; it is counted in window B because its town status is attested only in the Ottoman period (a town in 1662; a kaza seat 1878-1912). The 1898 and 1900 house counts (460 houses with 300 Greek; 240 houses, all Greek) disagree in size but both show a Greek majority.",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsarevo",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Bulgaria"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 15,
   "list_group": "The Bulgarian coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. 1829 – c. 1930",
   "period": "5 The later Greek towns (1475-1923)",
   "id": "b118",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Pyrgos (Burgas)",
   "greek": "Πύργος",
   "other_names": "Pyrgos (Greek; the name of the medieval tower, kept by the Greeks for the town); Burgaz (Ottoman Turkish); Burgas, Бургас (Bulgarian)",
   "modern": "Burgas",
   "modern_native": "Бургас",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "The old town of Burgas on the Gulf of Burgas (Burgas, Bulgaria)",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "admin1": "Burgas Province",
   "admin2": "Burgas",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Northern Thrace (the Bulgarian Black Sea coast; Eastern Rumelia 1878-1885)",
   "lat": 42.4975,
   "lon": 27.47,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "B",
   "greek_from": 1829,
   "greek_until": 1930,
   "phases": [
    [
     1829,
     1930
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Ottoman Burgaz was a kasaba (small town) of 1,100-1,200 homes in 1786 (W. von Brognard, cited on cities.blacksea.gr). Greeks from Anchialos, Sozopolis and Mesembria were among the first settlers of the growing port (Lyberatos); the first figure for them is the Russian count of 1828-29 (116 Greek Orthodox houses, about 40% of the town). The community is older than the count, but no earlier figure was found.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Administration: Ottoman to 1878, Eastern Rumelia 1878-1885, then Bulgaria. Speech: Greek was one of the town's two main languages from the early 19th c. to the early 20th, beside Turkish and then Bulgarian. The Greek schools were closed in 1906, during the anti-Greek movement of that year; the disturbances did not lead to a mass emigration from Burgas (unlike Anchialos), but the Greeks left gradually in the 1920s under the Greek-Bulgarian agreements on emigration; those who stayed were assimilated. No count of the Greek speakers who remained was found, hence the range.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    1924,
    1946
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "1828-29: 116 Greek Orthodox houses (c. 40%); town totals by the Bulgarian censuses: 5,749 (1887), 11,738 (1900), 14,897 (1910), 21,170 (1920), 36,230 (1934) (Wikipedia, Burgas; no breakdown by language seen); 1879-80: 250 pupils in the Greek schools; 1904: 8 Greek teachers; about 500 pupils before 1906; c. 1900: Greeks a quarter to a third of the town; 1906: the Greek schools closed; 1920s: gradual emigration under the voluntary exchange (Kotzageorgi (ed.) 1999, pp. 155-156, via cities.blacksea.gr).",
   "ended_by": "The Greek schools of Burgas were closed in 1906 in the anti-Greek movement in Bulgaria (A. Lyberatos, 'Confronting the Urban Crowd: Bulgarian Society and the 1906 anti-Greek Movement', 2013); the persons responsible in Burgas are not named in the sources seen. The community then left gradually under the Greek-Bulgarian convention on reciprocal and voluntary emigration signed at Neuilly on 27 November 1919 (unchecked: the date) and the Politis-Kalfov agreement of 1924 (Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Bulgaria').",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Ottoman port town (Muslim majority in 1828-29), a Bulgarian town after 1878",
   "founder": "No recorded founder: an Ottoman port town that grew near the medieval tower of Pyrgos; Greeks from the old towns of the gulf (Anchialos, Sozopolis, Mesembria) among its early settlers",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The medieval Pyrgos was a tower and fort on the gulf, not a town; the hot springs of Aquae Calidae nearby were a spa and road station.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Turkish",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Turkish (the majority in 1828-29), then Bulgarian (the majority by the late 19th c.)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "1828-29: 116 Greek Orthodox houses, about 40% of a Muslim-majority town (a Russian source, Enecholm 1830, cited by A. Lyberatos), a figure that does not separate Greek from Bulgarian speakers; late 19th and early 20th c.: the Greeks were 'between one fourth and one third' of a predominantly Bulgarian town (Lyberatos); the Greek schools had 250 pupils in 1879-80 and about 500 before 1906, with 8 teachers in 1904 (X. Kotzageorgi 1994).",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "A kasaba (town) in 1786 (Brognard); a Bulgarian town and district capital after 1878; a Greek community with its own schools (1879-1906) that made up a quarter to a third of the town c. 1900 (Lyberatos)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Admitted under the line for bilingual towns on one historian's estimate (Greeks a quarter to a third of the town c. 1900) and a count of houses for 1828-29 that does not separate Greek from Bulgarian speakers. No census of the town by mother tongue was found (the town had 11,738 people in 1900, so the estimate means roughly 2,900-3,900 Greeks; the Bulgarian censuses of 1887-1910 by mother tongue would settle it); if the Greek share was nearer a fifth, Burgas would fall below the line.",
   "sources": [
    "A. Lyberatos, 'Greek community' (Burgas): https://cities.blacksea.gr/en/burgas/3-2-1-1/",
    "X. Kotzageorgi, 'The Greek Community of Burgas. Education and Culture', Etudes Balkaniques 30.1 (1994), via https://cities.blacksea.gr/en/burgas/3-4-1-1-1",
    "Brognard 1786, via https://cities.blacksea.gr/en/burgas/1-2",
    "A. Lyberatos, 'Confronting the Urban Crowd: Bulgarian Society and the 1906 anti-Greek Movement' (Crete UP 2013), pp. 177-194: https://v2.ims.forth.gr/en/publication/view?id=545",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Bulgaria",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgas (census totals 1887-1934)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 16,
   "list_group": "The Dobruja and the Danube delta",
   "dates_shown": "657 BC – c. AD 620",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b003",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Histria (Istros)",
   "greek": "Ἴστρος (Ionic Ἰστρίη)",
   "other_names": "Istria, Istropolis, Histropolis; Ἰστριανῶν πόλις; Cetatea Histria",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "Histria",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Cetatea Histria on Lake Sinoe, Istria commune (the village was renamed after the ancient city)",
   "country": "Romania",
   "admin1": "Constanța County",
   "admin2": "Istria",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Moesia/Scythia Minor (Dobruja)",
   "lat": 44.5478,
   "lon": 28.7751,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "216839",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -657,
   "greek_until": 620,
   "phases": [
    [
     -657,
     620
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Milesian colony: Eusebius gives 657/656 BC (Ol. 33); Ps.-Scymnus 767-771 dates it to the Scythian pursuit of the Cimmerians into Asia (c. 630 BC); a temple of the mid-7th c. BC and city walls of the third quarter of the 6th c. BC",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Histria was a Greek city for some 1,300 years. It fought the Getae in the later 3rd c. BC (the Getic king Zoltes lifted a siege c. 200 BC for 5 talents), came under Burebista's Getic kingdom c. 55-44 BC and then under Rome; it was sacked in 238 (the 'Histriae excidium' of the Carpi and Goths, SHA Max. et Balb. 16.3), rebuilt, and survived as a late Roman town with basilicas and a bishop. Rich houses were still built in the 6th c.; the silting of the bay cut it off from the sea, and the town was destroyed and abandoned in the Avar and Slav invasions of the early 7th c.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    600,
    680
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Civic coins ΙΣΤΡΙΗ (from the 5th c. BC); decrees and Greek inscriptions (ISM I); Latin inscriptions under Rome beside Greek; late Roman basilicas; abandonment early 7th c.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town was abandoned during the Avar and Slav invasions of the late 6th and early 7th c., before the Bulgars took the land south of the Danube delta in 680-681; earlier the Carpi and Goths sacked it in 238 (SHA Max. et Balb. 16.3).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Miletus",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Native (Getic) settlements of the 7th-6th c. BC lie in the hinterland (Istria-Bent, Tariverde) (unchecked).",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP (Istros) [number not seen]; Hdt. 2.33 (Istrie, a Milesian colony); Strabo 7.6.1 ('a small town, Ister, founded by the Milesians'); Ps.-Scymnus 767-771; Eusebius; civic coins; ISM I",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "",
   "sources": [
    "Hdt. 2.33; Ps.-Scymnus 767-771; Eusebius Chron. 657/6",
    "Pleiades 216839",
    "ISM I (Pippidi 1983)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histriani"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 17,
   "list_group": "The Dobruja and the Danube delta",
   "dates_shown": "c. 650 BC – c. AD 650",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b002",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Orgame (Argamum)",
   "greek": "Ὀργάμη",
   "other_names": "Argamum (Roman); Cape Dolojman",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Cape Dolojman on Lake Razim, Jurilovca commune",
   "country": "Romania",
   "admin1": "Tulcea County",
   "admin2": "Jurilovca",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Moesia/Scythia Minor (Dobruja)",
   "lat": 44.7581,
   "lon": 28.9402,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "216710",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -650,
   "greek_until": 650,
   "phases": [
    [
     -650,
     650
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek colony of Ionians from Asia Minor (perhaps Miletus) of the mid-7th c. BC by its earliest pottery; Hecataeus named it a polis (via Stephanus of Byzantium)",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "A Greek city, burnt c. 520-490 BC and rebuilt; under Rome (Lucullus 71 BC, Crassus 29 BC) it became Argamum of Scythia Minor, with four large Christian basilicas of the 5th-6th c. It was abandoned in the 7th c., when the gulf silted up into Lake Razim and the Bulgars took the land.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    600,
    700
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Hecataeus (FGrH 1 F 172 via Steph. Byz.) (unchecked: the fragment number); archaic Ionian pottery; Greek inscriptions (unchecked); late Roman basilicas.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town was abandoned during the Avar and Slav invasions of the late 6th and early 7th c., before the Bulgars took the land south of the Danube delta in 680-681; the closing of the gulf ended its harbour.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Ionian colonists, perhaps Milesians",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus?",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Hecataeus via Steph. Byz. s.v. Orgame (polis); archaeology (M. Mănucu-Adameșteanu); Argamum in late Roman sources",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Orgame may be the oldest Greek foundation of the west coast; its mother city is not attested.",
   "sources": [
    "Steph. Byz. s.v. Ὀργάμη",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argamum",
    "Pleiades 216710"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 18,
   "list_group": "The Dobruja and the Danube delta",
   "dates_shown": "c. 600 BC – c. AD 650 +",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b004",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Tomis",
   "greek": "Τόμις (Τόμοι)",
   "other_names": "Tomi (Latin, Ovid); Constantia/Constantiana (late antique and medieval) (unchecked); Kustendje/Köstence (Ottoman); Constanța (Romanian)",
   "modern": "Constanța",
   "modern_native": "Constanța",
   "population": 263688,
   "pop_year": 2021,
   "pop_source": "INS Romania, 2021 census (via Wikipedia)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "The peninsula of old Constanța (the Roman mosaic building, Ovid Square)",
   "country": "Romania",
   "admin1": "Constanța County",
   "admin2": "Constanța",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Moesia/Scythia Minor (Dobruja)",
   "lat": 44.1729,
   "lon": 28.6497,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "217016",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -600,
   "greek_until": 2011,
   "phases": [
    [
     -600,
     650
    ],
    [
     1855,
     2011
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Milesian colony (Ps.-Scymnus 765); Greek pottery from the late 7th and 6th c. BC",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Ancient Greek Tomis lasted into the 7th c.: it was the 'metropolis' of the Pontic cities under Rome and the capital and see of Scythia Minor from Diocletian; it decayed during the Avar and Slav invasions and the Bulgar conquest of 680-681. Medieval Constantia was a small port; Greek speech there is not documented. A new Greek community grew after the Cernavoda-Kustendje railway of 1860: 1,543 Greeks of 5,203 people in 1880 (the second group after the Turks), 2,460 of 10,419 in 1894, 2,326 of 33,918 in 1916, a minority once the town became mainly Romanian in the late 1890s. It shrank in the 20th c. through emigration and assimilation; a small Greek community with a church and Greek classes still exists, but whether Greek is still a home language there is not established here.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    1990,
    2026
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Civic coins ΤΟΜΙΤΩΝ; Greek decrees (ISM II); Ovid's Tristia and Epistulae ex Ponto; bishops of Tomis (Bretanion, Theotimus, 4th-5th c.); Greek community figures 1880-1916 (C. Ardeleanu).",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town was abandoned during the Avar and Slav invasions of the late 6th and early 7th c., before the Bulgars took the land south of the Danube delta in 680-681. The modern Greek community declined through emigration and assimilation; no named act is recorded here.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Miletus",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The Greek name was explained by a legend of Medea cutting up Apsyrtus (Greek temnein, 'to cut'); a legend, not evidence.",
   "name_continues": "Latin name",
   "name_via": "Turkish",
   "bilingual_period": "yes: (1) under Rome: Ovid, exiled there AD 8/9-17, describes Getae and Sarmatians living in the town beside the Greeks and Greek 'overcome by Getic sound' (Tristia 5.7.51-52, 5.10.27-30); Latin was also widely used (administration, army, many Latin inscriptions). (2) The modern town, c. 1878-1895: Greek was one of the two main languages of Kustendje: in 1880 it had 1,543 Greeks of 5,203 people (30%), beside 2,214 Turks (43%) and only 279 Romanians; in 1894, 2,460 of 10,419 (24%), level with the Romanians and the Turks; from 1899 the Greeks were a small minority in a Romanian town (2,326 of 33,918 in 1916).",
   "other_language": "Getic and Latin (Roman period); Turkish, then Romanian (the modern town, c. 1878-1895)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP (Tomis) [number not seen]; Ps.-Scymnus 765; Strabo 7.6.1; Ovid; civic coins; metropolis of the Pontic koinon",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The second phase (from the 1850s) is a new community with no tie to the ancient one. Under the line for later towns it counts as a bilingual town for c. 1878-1895, when the Greeks were 30% (1880) and 24% (1894) of the town, the second group after the Turks and then level with Romanians and Turks; from the late 1890s they were a small minority in a Romanian town. The counts come from one historian's summary (C. Ardeleanu), and no count by language was seen, so this bilingual period is uncertain.",
   "sources": [
    "Ps.-Scymnus 765; Strabo 7.6.1; Ovid Tristia 5.7, 5.10",
    "https://cities.blacksea.gr/en/constantza/3-2-1-1/ (C. Ardeleanu, 'Greek community')",
    "Pleiades 217016"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 19,
   "list_group": "The Dobruja and the Danube delta",
   "dates_shown": "c. 540 BC – c. AD 620",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b005",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Callatis",
   "greek": "Κάλλατις (Καλλατίς)",
   "other_names": "Callatis/Kallatis; Cerbatis/Acerbatis (Pliny NH 4.44, an earlier name); Pangalia (medieval) (unchecked); Mangalia",
   "modern": "Mangalia",
   "modern_native": "Mangalia",
   "population": 31950,
   "pop_year": 2021,
   "pop_source": "INS Romania, 2021 census (via Wikipedia)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "The centre of Mangalia (walls, necropolis)",
   "country": "Romania",
   "admin1": "Constanța County",
   "admin2": "Mangalia",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Moesia/Scythia Minor (Dobruja)",
   "lat": 43.8172,
   "lon": 28.5828,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "216744",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -540,
   "greek_until": 620,
   "phases": [
    [
     -540,
     620
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Dorian colony of Heraclea Pontica founded, by Ps.-Scymnus (760-764), when Amyntas became king of Macedon (c. 540 BC) (unchecked); archaeology of the late 6th c. BC",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "A Doric Greek city: it rose against Lysimachus in 313 BC, made a treaty with Rome (Latin inscription of the early 1st c. BC), came under Burebista and then Rome (29-28 BC), and was a see in the late 6th c. It was deserted after the Avar and Slav raids of the late 6th and early 7th c.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    600,
    700
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Civic coins (late 4th c. BC to the mid-3rd c. AD) with Greek legends; Doric decrees; a 4th-c. BC Greek papyrus from a tomb (1959); bishopric in the late 6th c.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town was abandoned during the Avar and Slav invasions of the late 6th and early 7th c., before the Bulgars took the land south of the Danube delta in 680-681.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Heraclea Pontica",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Heraclea Pontica",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Pliny (NH 4.44) says the town was earlier called Cerbatis; the name is known only from Pliny and its language is unknown, so it is not entered.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP (Kallatis) [number not seen]; Ps.-Scymnus 760-764; Diod. 19.73 (revolt of 313 BC); civic coins",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "",
   "sources": [
    "Ps.-Scymnus 760-764; Diod. 19.73; Pliny NH 4.44",
    "https://samos-web.aegean.gr/mediawiki/index.php/Kallatis",
    "Pleiades 216744"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 20,
   "list_group": "The Dobruja and the Danube delta",
   "dates_shown": "c. 1856 – c. 1960",
   "period": "5 The later Greek towns (1475-1923)",
   "id": "b001",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Sulina",
   "greek": "Σουλινάς (Σουλίνα)",
   "other_names": "Sulina (Romanian); Sünne (Ottoman) (unchecked); 'Europolis' (the novel by Jean Bart, 1933)",
   "modern": "Sulina",
   "modern_native": "Sulina",
   "population": 3118,
   "pop_year": 2021,
   "pop_source": "INS Romania, 2021 census (via Wikipedia)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Sulina, at the mouth of the Sulina branch of the Danube",
   "country": "Romania",
   "admin1": "Tulcea County",
   "admin2": "Sulina",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Danube delta (Dobruja)",
   "lat": 45.156,
   "lon": 29.654,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "B",
   "greek_from": 1856,
   "greek_until": 1960,
   "phases": [
    [
     1829,
     1960
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek pilots and lightermen settled after the Treaty of Adrianople (1829); in 1853 the 1,000-1,200 inhabitants were all Ionians, Maltese or Greeks (Engelhardt 1862); Sulina became a town as the base of the works of the European Commission of the Danube (1856; its seat was at Galați)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "A Greek town in its first decades: in 1857 an Italian vice-consul called the Greeks 'the backbone of the city'; in 1879 Greeks were 1,653 of 2,875 residents (Sturdza 1880), and Greek was the language of everyday life (official business was in French or English). The Greek church of St Nicholas (1866-1867) and Greek boys' and girls' schools (from c. 1870) were paid for by the community. The Greeks stayed dominant in trade until the early 20th c., but became a minority (20.8% in 1930). The port declined after the Commission's work ended (1939) and the wars; the Greeks left or were assimilated in the communist period (unchecked: the timing); 1.8% of the people were Greek in 2011.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    1945,
    2011
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "1853 description (Engelhardt); 1879 count (1,653 Greeks of 2,875); Greek church 1866-1867; Greek schools c. 1870; census of 1930 (20.8%); census of 2011 (1.8%).",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the port lost its role after 1939 and the Greek community dwindled in the communist period (unchecked).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "later Greek settlement",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Greek pilots, lightermen and seamen, many from Cephalonia, Ithaca, Mykonos and Kasos",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "An Ottoman foundation document of 1745 mentions a lighthouse and fort at Sulina.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "yes: from about 1900 the town grew with Romanian and other settlers (5,612 people in 1900, 7,347 in 1912) and Greek became one of two main languages beside Romanian; Greeks were 20.8% of 6,399 people in 1930",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Seat of the European Commission of the Danube from 1856; free port 1870-1939; town under Romania from 1878; counts of 1853 and 1879",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "A window B town settled largely by Greeks; Greek was its main language in the 19th c. Karpat's estimate for 1878 (350 Greeks of about 800) is far lower than Sturdza's count of 1879 and is not used.",
   "sources": [
    "https://hrmars.com/papers_submitted/7792/ekistic-heritage-and-enhancement-the-case-of-sulina.pdf (citing Engelhardt 1862 and Sturdza 1880)",
    "https://www.icr.ro/pagini/sulina-in-history",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulina"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 21,
   "list_group": "The north coast and the Azov",
   "dates_shown": "647 BC – c. 400 BC",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b017",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Borysthenes (Berezan)",
   "greek": "Βορυσθένης",
   "other_names": "Berezan island (Березань); the settlement is often identified with the 'Borysthenes' founded in 647/6 BC in Eusebius' Chronicle",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "Березань",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Berezan island at the mouth of the Dnieper-Bug liman, near Ochakiv; in antiquity a peninsula; much of the settlement is lost to the sea",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Mykolaiv oblast",
   "admin2": "Mykolaiv raion",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "the north-west Pontic coast (Tyras, Olbia)",
   "lat": 46.5942,
   "lon": 31.4125,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "226545",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -647,
   "greek_until": -400,
   "phases": [
    [
     -647,
     -400
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Eusebius dates the foundation of Borysthenes to 647/6 BC; the earliest Greek pottery on Berezan dates from the third quarter of the 7th century BC (archaeology) (unchecked)",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Administration: the earliest Greek settlement on the north coast of the Black Sea, a sizeable town of the 7th-6th centuries BC; from the late 6th or early 5th century BC it lay in the territory of Olbia and lost its own standing. Speech: the settlement shrank in the 5th century BC and was largely abandoned by its end, its people having moved to Olbia; the island kept Olbian cult places (Achilles) (unchecked); later remains (Roman-period finds, the 11th-century runestone of Grani and Karl) are not a continuation of the town.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    -450,
    -350
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "The Berezan lead letter of Achillodoros, c. 500 BC (Ionic Greek) (unchecked); Greek graffiti and dedications of the 6th century BC; reduced occupation layers of the 5th-4th centuries BC (unchecked)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town lost its people to Olbia, which absorbed it.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Miletus",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "no known",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Eusebius, Chronicle (Borysthenes, 647/6 BC) (unchecked); a town of several hectares with temples and its own dedications (archaeology) (unchecked)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Scholars disagree whether Berezan was an independent early polis ('Borysthenes') or the first settlement of the Olbian community; its separate polis status is not proven, so it is included with low certainty. IACP number not seen.",
   "sources": [
    "Pleiades 226545 https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/226545",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berezan_Island",
    "Solovyov, Ancient Berezan (1999) (unchecked)",
    "Avram, Hind and Tsetskhladze, 'The Black Sea area', in Hansen and Nielsen, IACP (2004) (unchecked)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 22,
   "list_group": "The north coast and the Azov",
   "dates_shown": "c. 600 BC – c. AD 375",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b016",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Olbia (Olbia Pontica)",
   "greek": "Ὀλβία",
   "other_names": "Borysthenes (Βορυσθένης; the citizens called themselves Olbiopolitai, outsiders called them Borysthenitai: Herodotus 4.18, Dio Chrysostom 36); Olbiopolis (Ὀλβιόπολις, on its own coins and inscriptions); Parutyne/Parutino (the village)",
   "modern": "Parutyne (near)",
   "modern_native": "Парутине",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "On the right bank of the Southern Bug (Hypanis) liman by the village of Parutyne; the National Reserve 'Olbia'",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Mykolaiv oblast",
   "admin2": "Mykolaiv raion",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "the north-west Pontic coast (Tyras, Olbia)",
   "lat": 46.6924,
   "lon": 31.9059,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "226546",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -600,
   "greek_until": 375,
   "phases": [
    [
     -600,
     375
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "A Milesian colony; the city on the Bug liman was laid out in the first half of the 6th century BC, after the earlier settlement on Berezan (archaeology); Ps.-Scymnus 804-812 dates it to the time of the Median empire (unchecked)",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: a free Greek polis to the 1st century BC; sacked by the Getae c. 50 BC (Dio Chrysostom 36.4), resettled soon after, under Roman protection from the 2nd century AD (troops under Antoninus Pius) with a Roman garrison into the 3rd century. Speech: the Greek city was badly damaged in the Gothic raids of the mid-3rd century AD; it was burnt at least twice in the Gothic wars and abandoned in the 4th century AD; the last settlement is often put at the coming of the Huns in the 370s (unchecked).",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    300,
    400
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Dio Chrysostom's visit to Borysthenes, c. AD 95-100 (Or. 36) (unchecked); Greek civic decrees and dedications of the 2nd-early 3rd centuries AD (IOSPE I2) (unchecked); civic coins down to Severus Alexander (unchecked); late Roman occupation layers of the 4th century (unchecked)",
   "ended_by": "Sacked by the Getae c. 50 BC (Dio Chrysostom 36.4, who does not name their king; modern historians attribute the sack to Burebista) and later wrecked in the Gothic raids of the mid-3rd century AD; no named act ended the last 4th-century settlement (Hunnic invasion, 370s) (unchecked).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Miletus",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus",
   "refounded_by": "Resettled after the Getic sack of c. 50 BC (Dio Chrysostom 36.5) on a smaller area",
   "pre_settlement": "no known",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "yes: after the Getic sack of c. 50 BC the refounded city had many citizens with Iranian (Sarmatian and Scythian) names in its inscriptions of the 1st-3rd centuries AD, and Dio Chrysostom (36.9) says the Olbians no longer spoke Greek clearly because they lived among barbarians, yet knew Homer by heart; Greek remained the civic language",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Herodotus 4.17-18, 4.78-80 (the Borysthenitai; the Scythian king Skyles' house in the city); Ps.-Scymnus 804-812 (unchecked); Strabo 7.3.17; civic coins (the cast 'dolphins' and ΟΛΒΙΗ / ΟΛΒΙΟ); decrees of the boule and demos (IOSPE I2) (unchecked)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "IACP number not seen. The date of the final end (4th century AD) is from memory; some put the end of the Greek city at the Gothic raids of the 3rd century.",
   "sources": [
    "Pleiades 226546 https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/226546",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontic_Olbia",
    "Dio Chrysostom, Oration 36 (Borystheniticus)",
    "Avram, Hind and Tsetskhladze, 'The Black Sea area', in Hansen and Nielsen, IACP (2004) (unchecked)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 23,
   "list_group": "The north coast and the Azov",
   "dates_shown": "c. 550 BC – c. AD 270 +",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b018",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Tyras",
   "greek": "Τύρας",
   "other_names": "Ophioussa (Ὀφιοῦσσα: Pliny NH 4.82 says Tyras stood where Ophiusa had been; Ps.-Scylax 68 lists Ophioussa beside Nikonion as a separate polis); medieval Asprokastron (Ἀσπρόκαστρον, 'White Castle', Constantine Porphyrogenitus, De administrando imperio, 10th c.) and Maurokastron (Μαυρόκαστρον); Moncastro or Maurocastro (Genoese); Cetatea Albă (Romanian/Moldavian); Belgorod (Slavonic); Akkerman (Ottoman, 'White Fortress'); Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi (since 1944, Ukrainian)",
   "modern": "Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi",
   "modern_native": "Білгород-Дністровський",
   "population": 47727,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "Ukrstat estimate at 1 Jan 2022 (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Ukraine')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Under and beside the medieval fortress of Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi, on the right bank of the Dniester liman; part of the ancient town lies under the liman",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Odesa oblast",
   "admin2": "Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi raion",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "the north-west Pontic coast (Tyras, Olbia)",
   "lat": 46.2008,
   "lon": 30.3501,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "226800",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -550,
   "greek_until": 1484,
   "phases": [
    [
     -550,
     270
    ],
    [
     1300,
     1484
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "A Milesian colony (Ps.-Scymnus 798-803 (unchecked)); the earliest Greek finds on the site date from the second half of the 6th century BC (unchecked)",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Ancient city: Tyras was a Greek polis with its own coins from the 4th century BC, came under Roman control in AD 56/57 (the start of its local era) and was attached to Moesia Inferior; its civic life (archons, boule and demos) is attested to the early 3rd century AD. Speech: the Greek city was wrecked in the Gothic raids of the mid-3rd century and did not recover as a Greek town; later occupation belongs to the Chernyakhov culture (unchecked). Medieval town: in the 10th century Constantine Porphyrogenitus lists Asprokastron among the deserted forts between the Danube and the Dnieper (unchecked). From about 1290 the port of Maurocastro/Moncastro grew under the Mongols, the Genoese and, from 1359-1391, the princes of Moldavia, with a mixed population in which Greeks were one group; Maurokastron appears as an Orthodox see in the list of bishoprics of the Patriarchate of Constantinople under Andronikos II (1282-1328). That Greek community was a minority of merchants and townspeople; what became of it after the Ottoman conquest of 1484 is not documented.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    1484,
    1600
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Letter of Septimius Severus and Caracalla on the immunities of Tyras, AD 201 (IOSPE I2 4) (unchecked); civic coins of Tyras down to Severus Alexander (222-235) (unchecked); medieval: Genoese notarial acts of Kilia (1360-1361) record traders from Moncastro, among them Greeks (unchecked)",
   "ended_by": "Ancient city: the Gothic and allied raids of the mid-3rd century AD (no single dated act is recorded). Medieval town: conquered by the Ottoman sultan Bayezid II on 5 August 1484 (Kilia fell in July 1484); one account says most townspeople were killed despite a promise of safe passage, others that many were moved to Istanbul (unchecked); no act aimed at its Greek residents as such is recorded.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Miletus",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus",
   "refounded_by": "Rebuilt as a fortress (Asprokastron) and a medieval port town (Maurocastro/Akkerman) on the same site; the stone fortress was built by the princes of Moldavia in the 14th-15th centuries",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Ophioussa is a Greek name ('snake place'), not a pre-Greek one.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 68 and Ps.-Scymnus 798-803 (unchecked); Strabo 7.3.16; civic coins ΤΥΡΑΝΩΝ; decrees of the boule and demos (IOSPE I2 1-7) (unchecked)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The modern name ('White Town') translates the medieval Greek Asprokastron ('White Castle') but does not continue the name Tyras. IACP number not seen. Whether Ophioussa was the earlier name of Tyras (Pliny) or a separate neighbouring town (Ps.-Scylax) is disputed; it is treated here with Tyras. The medieval Greek phase (c. 1300-1484) is a minority phase; its start and end dates are approximate.",
   "sources": [
    "Pleiades 226800 https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/226800",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurocastrum",
    "Avram, Hind and Tsetskhladze, 'The Black Sea area', in Hansen and Nielsen, IACP (2004) (unchecked)",
    "Rafal Hryszko, 'Obraz Kilii...' (2000) https://ruj.uj.edu.pl/entities/publication/30e6862d-293c-489d-a498-d6a4470c1f3e"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 24,
   "list_group": "The north coast and the Azov",
   "dates_shown": "c. 525 BC – c. 250 BC",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b019",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Nikonion",
   "greek": "Νικώνιον",
   "other_names": "Nikonia (Νικωνία, the Athenian tribute list of 425/4 BC and Stephanus of Byzantium)",
   "modern": "Roksolany (near)",
   "modern_native": "Роксолани",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "The Roksolany hillfort on the left bank of the Dniester liman, opposite Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi; partly eroded by the liman",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Odesa oblast",
   "admin2": "Odesa raion",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "the north-west Pontic coast (Tyras, Olbia)",
   "lat": 46.1748,
   "lon": 30.4585,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "226697",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -525,
   "greek_until": -250,
   "phases": [
    [
     -525,
     -250
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Founded in the second half (probably the last quarter) of the 6th century BC, by Miletus or by Istros",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration and speech: the town flourished in the 5th-4th centuries BC and was destroyed in the late 4th or 3rd century BC (the date and the attacker are disputed). A settlement existed on the site again in the 1st-3rd centuries AD and was abandoned for good in the mid-3rd century AD with the Gothic invasions; whether it was again a Greek town is not established, so it is not counted as a phase.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    -330,
    -200
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Assessed for tribute by the Athenian league in 425/4 BC (IG I3 71) (unchecked); coins of Istros circulating in the 5th-4th centuries BC and possibly its own coins (some with the name of the Scythian king Skyles); destruction layer of the late 4th-3rd century BC (unchecked)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the destruction has been linked to Zopyrion, Alexander's general in Thrace (331 BC), or to Getic and Scythian attacks of the 3rd century BC; neither is proven.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Istros or Miletus",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Istros?",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 68 ('Nikonion polis') (unchecked); Athenian tribute assessment of 425/4 BC (unchecked); Stephanus of Byzantium s.v. Νικωνία (unchecked); coins of the town (unchecked)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "IACP number not seen. The mother city is disputed (Istros or Miletus).",
   "sources": [
    "Pleiades 226697 https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/226697",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikonion",
    "Avram, Hind and Tsetskhladze, 'The Black Sea area', in Hansen and Nielsen, IACP (2004) (unchecked)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 25,
   "list_group": "The north coast and the Azov",
   "dates_shown": "1780 – today",
   "period": "5 The later Greek towns (1475-1923)",
   "id": "b116",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Mariupol",
   "greek": "Μαριούπολη",
   "other_names": "Pavlovsk (the town laid out in 1778 beside the Zaporozhian Cossacks' Kalmius post); Marianopol (in Catherine II's charter of 21 May 1779, as given in some accounts); Mariupol (Μαριούπολις) from 24 March 1780; Zhdanov (1948-1989)",
   "modern": "Mariupol",
   "modern_native": "Маріуполь",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Mariupol, at the mouth of the Kalmius and Kalchyk rivers on the Sea of Azov, Donetsk oblast",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Donetsk oblast",
   "admin2": "Mariupol raion",
   "disputed": "under Russian occupation since 2022",
   "ancient_region": "New Russia (the Azov governorate, from 1802 the Yekaterinoslav governorate)",
   "lat": 47.0951,
   "lon": 37.5413,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "B",
   "greek_from": 1780,
   "greek_until": null,
   "phases": [
    [
     1780,
     null
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "The Christians of the Crimea were moved out by order of Catherine II in 1778 and Pavlovsk was laid out for them that year; the Greeks' charter of 21 May 1779 gave them land on the north coast of the Azov with their own court; the town was renamed Mariupol on 24 March 1780, the Greek court opened on 28 June 1780 and the settlers took their plots on 26 July 1780 (Balabanov and Hedo; Ponomaryova).",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Administration: a Greek town by privilege; the Greek court (magistracy) opened on 28 June 1780; the State Council opinion of 30 March 1859 allowed communities of other nationalities in the town; the court lost its role with the judicial reform of 1864 and was abolished under the rules of 13 April 1866 (Balabanov and Hedo; other accounts give 1869 (unchecked)); the Greek district was merged into the Mariupol zemstvo in 1873 (Ponomaryova) and the Greeks' separate status ended in 1875 (Balabanov and Hedo). People: Greeks were 84% of the town in 1823; after 1859 the port grew fast with Russian, Ukrainian and Jewish newcomers, and in 1897 Greek was the mother tongue of 1,590 of 31,116 people. Speech: most of the founders spoke Urum; Rumeic speakers came into the town from the villages; Rumeic was the language of the Greek press and theatre of the 1930s. In 2001 the city had 21,923 Greeks, but only 4.65% of them gave Greek as their mother tongue (93.7% Russian). The community lives on; since the siege and occupation of 2022 its size is unknown.",
   "until_basis": "still spoken today",
   "until_precision": "",
   "until_range": null,
   "fade_evidence": "1782 building plan: 596 households, 1,425 men and 1,300 women; 1823: 3,354 people, of whom 2,825 Greeks, 136 Russians and 393 soldiers and serfs; 1859: 5,258 in 850 households; 1867: 7,644, of whom 657 Jews; records of the Greek court written in Urum in Greek letters (1811, 1846, 1874) (all Ponomaryova); 1897: 31,116, mother tongue Russian 63%, Yiddish 15%, Ukrainian 10%, Greek 5% (1,590), Turkish 3% (922), Tatar 1% (Encyclopedia of Ukraine; Ponomaryova); 1926: 41,300, Greeks by nationality 10.1% (Encyclopedia of Ukraine); 1932-1937: the Greek theatre (in Greek only from 1935, in a koine meant for both Rumeic and Urum villages) and the newspaper Kolechtivistis (Demidko; Kostoprav); 2001: 21,923 Greeks (4.3%), 4.65% of them with Greek as mother tongue (Balabanov 2014); a survey of 90 Urum families in the city found 70 with no Urum at all (Ponomaryova 2014).",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended the Greek community. The Greek town's privileges were ended by the Russian government (State Council opinion of 30 March 1859; rules of 13 April 1866; the Greek district merged into the zemstvo in 1873). The Greek revival of the 1920s-30s was ended by the NKVD's 'Greek operation' under Yezhov's directive of 11 December 1937: the Mariupol Greek theatre was declared 'mediocre' in December 1937 and liquidated on 28 January 1938 (Demidko); the Rumeic poet and editor Georgis Kostoprav was arrested on the night of 23/24 December 1937 and shot in Mariupol on 14 February 1938; over 3,000 Greeks were shot in Donetsk oblast (figures given to Ukrinform, 2020; Demidko gives 3,470 Greeks shot in the operation). In February-May 2022 the city was besieged and taken by Russian forces; by 20 March 2022 the Greek foreign ministry counted at least 10 ethnic Greeks killed in the Mariupol area (Reuters).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "later Greek settlement",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "The Christians of the Crimea, mostly Turkic-speaking Greeks (Urums) from Bakhchisaray and Mairum, Kefe, Karasubazar, Kezlev and Balaklava, led by Metropolitan Ignatius, moved by order of Catherine II and organised by A. V. Suvorov (1778); charter of 21 May 1779",
   "founder_group": "Russian Empire",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "Pavlovsk (Russian, 1778); Kalmius (the Zaporozhian Cossack post)",
   "pre_greek_note": "The Zaporozhian Cossacks' Kalmius post stood at the river mouth until the Cossacks were removed after 1775; Pavlovsk was laid out there in 1778 (Ukrinform; Encyclopedia of Ukraine, which also names a Cossack fortress Domakha on the site, not checked further).",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Russian",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Urum (a Turkic language of the Crimean Christians, of the Oghuz type in Mariupol itself), the language of most of the town's founders; Russian as the main language of the town from the late 19th century",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Both Urum (Turkic-speaking) and Rumei (Greek-speaking) Greeks lived in the town, but no count shows Greek (Rumeic) as the language of about a quarter of the town at any date; in 1897 Greek was the mother tongue of 5.1% and Turkish of 3.0% of the townspeople.",
   "urum": true,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": [
    1780,
    1870
   ],
   "greek_town_text": "A town of Greeks from 1780 until non-Greek settlement opened in 1859; when the Greeks lost their majority is not recorded in the sources seen (between 1859 and 1897; 1870 is a placeholder).",
   "status_evidence": "District (uezd) town of the Azov and later the Yekaterinoslav governorate; the Mariupol Greek court (magistracy), opened on 28 June 1780 under the charter of 21 May 1779, headed first by Mikhail Khadzhi (Balabanov and Hedo); seat of the Mariupol Greek district (Ponomaryova).",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Included on the side of inclusion: a town founded by and for Greeks (84% of its people in 1823, and closed to other settlers until 1859), but most of its founders spoke Urum, a Turkic language, not Greek. Ponomaryova traces the townspeople to the Urum Christians of Bakhchisaray, Mairum, Kefe, Karasubazar, Kezlev and Balaklava, and the records of its Greek court are in Urum written in Greek letters; no count shows Greek as the language of even a quarter of the town at any date (5% in 1897), though Rumeic, the Greek of the villages around it, was the language of the city's Greek theatre and poets in the 1930s and is still spoken nearby.",
   "sources": [
    "I. Ponomaryova, 'I Mariupoli sta teli tou 18ou kai ton 19o aiona', in Oi Ellines tis Azofikis, 18os - arches 20ou aiona (Athens, Institute for Neohellenic Research (unchecked: eds. E. Sifneos and G. Harlaftis, 2015)), ch. 13 https://argolikivivliothiki.gr/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/ce97-ce9cceb1cf81ceb9cebfcf8dcf80cebfcebbceb7-cf83cf84ceb1-cf84ceadcebbceb7-cf84cebfcf85-18cebfcf85-cebaceb1ceb9-cf84cebfcebd-19cebf-ceb1ceb9cf8ecebdceb1.pdf",
    "I. Ponomaryova, 'The Urums of the North Azov Sea region', Visnyk Mariupolskoho derzhavnoho universytetu 10 (2014) 30-37 https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-urums-of-the-north-azov-sea-region",
    "K. Balabanov and A. Hedo, 'The Mariupol Greek Court: jurisdiction and activities', Central and Eastern European Legal Studies 1/2024 https://elibrary.kubg.edu.ua/id/eprint/50524/1/K_BALABANOV_A_HEDO_CEELS_1_2024_FSHN.pdf",
    "Encyclopedia of Ukraine, 'Mariupol' (1897 and 1926 figures) https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pages%5CM%5CA%5CMariupol.htm",
    "O. O. Demidko, 'Teatralne mystetstvo pivnichnopryazovskykh grekiv v istorychnii retrospektyvi', Visnyk Mariupolskoho derzhavnoho universytetu, ser. Filosofiia 8 (2014) https://repository.mu.edu.ua/jspui/bitstream/123456789/2877/1/teatralne_mystetstvo_grekiv.pdf",
    "Wikipedia, 'Georgis Kostoprav' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgis_Kostoprav",
    "K. V. Balabanov, 'Etnicheskii faktor v formirovanii polikulturnogo obshchestva: opyt Priazovya' (2014), pp. 268-271 (2001 census) https://repository.mu.edu.ua/jspui/bitstream/123456789/507/1/etnich_faktor.pdf",
    "Ukrinform, 'Hretska Atlantyda', 20 July 2020 https://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric-regions/3066092-grecka-atlantida.html",
    "Reuters, ''What I saw, I hope no one will ever see' says Greek diplomat returning from Mariupol', 20 March 2022 (via Arab News) https://www.arabnews.com/node/2046536/amp"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 26,
   "list_group": "The Crimea",
   "dates_shown": "c. 600 BC – c. 1475 +",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b021",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Panticapaeum",
   "greek": "Παντικάπαιον",
   "other_names": "Bosporos (Βόσπορος, from the late Roman period); Karcha (Khazar, 7th c.); Korchev (Rus', Tmutarakan principality); Vosporo, Cerco (Venetian and Genoese); Kerch (Ottoman and Russian)",
   "modern": "Kerch",
   "modern_native": "Керч",
   "population": 157007,
   "pop_year": 2001,
   "pop_source": "Ukrainian census 2001 (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Ukraine')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Mount Mithridates and the old town, Kerch",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Autonomous Republic of Crimea",
   "admin2": "Kerch",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "ancient_region": "the Bosporan kingdom (Kerch and Taman)",
   "lat": 45.351,
   "lon": 36.4686,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "854719",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -600,
   "greek_until": 1944,
   "phases": [
    [
     -600,
     1475
    ],
    [
     1775,
     1944
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Milesian colony (Strabo 7.4.4); archaeology dates the first settlement to c. 600-575 BC",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Administration: capital of the Bosporan kingdom (Archaeanactids, Spartocids, Mithridates, the Roman client kings to the 4th c. AD); then under Constantinople (a garrison and bishop of Bosporos in the 6th c.), the Khazars, the Rus' of Tmutarakan, the Golden Horde and the Genoese (Vosporo); Ottoman from 1475; Russian from 1774. Speech: Greek-speaking Christians and a bishop of Bosporos are attested through the middle ages; no Greek community is known in Ottoman Kerch (1475-1774) (unchecked); a new Greek community came with the Archipelago settlers of 1775 and lasted, as a minority (1,202 Greeks, 3.5% in 1926), until the deportation of 1944.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "year",
   "until_range": null,
   "fade_evidence": "Civic coins ΠΑΝ/ΠΑΝΤΙΚΑΠΑΙΤΩΝ (from the 6th-5th c. BC); CIRB inscriptions to the 4th c. AD; bishops of Bosporos (a Domnus at Nicaea 325 (unchecked)); the church of St John the Baptist (10th-14th c.); 1775: the empty town resettled with 1,236 military and civilian people, Greek settlers among them (Encyclopedia of Ukraine); 1801: the Greek community of Kerch and Yenikale numbered 605 people (G. L. Arsh 1969); 1839: 7,500 people in Kerch; 1926 census: 1,202 Greeks (3.5%)",
   "ended_by": "Medieval phase: taken by the Ottoman fleet of Gedik Ahmed Pasha in 1475; no Greek community is recorded after it (unchecked). Modern phase: the Greeks of Kerch were deported to Central Asia and the Urals by the NKVD on 27 June 1944 under State Defence Committee (GKO) decree no. 5984ss of 2 June 1944, proposed by L. P. Beria to Stalin on 29 May 1944 (the NKVD counted 14,300 Greeks of Soviet citizenship, besides 3,531 holders of expired Greek passports).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Miletus",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus",
   "refounded_by": "Russia (Kerch-Yenikale, 1774-1775)",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "possibly: from the 1st to the 4th c. AD many residents in the Greek inscriptions bear Iranian (Sarmatian) names, but Greek remained the language of the city's inscriptions (unchecked)",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 7.4.4 (Milesian polis, metropolis of the Bosporans); civic coins; CIRB; a Greek bishop's see of Bosporos",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The gap 1475-1775 reflects the lack of evidence for a Greek community in Ottoman Kerch, not a proven absence. Kerch and Yenikale passed to Russia at Kucuk Kaynarca (1774), so their people were not part of the 1778 removal. IACP number not seen.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 7.4.4",
    "https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pages%5CK%5CE%5CKerch.htm",
    "https://inslav.ru/sites/default/files/editions/2013_greki_balaklavy_i_sevastopolja.pdf",
    "https://zn.ua/HISTORY/o-malyh-narodah-zamolvite-slovo-_.html",
    "Pleiades 854719"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 27,
   "list_group": "The Crimea",
   "dates_shown": "c. 580 BC – c. AD 300",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b023",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Nymphaion",
   "greek": "Νύμφαιον",
   "other_names": "Nymphaeum (Latin)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "Німфей",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Near Heroivske (Eltigen), south of Kerch",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Autonomous Republic of Crimea",
   "admin2": "Kerch raion (Leninske area)",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "ancient_region": "the Bosporan kingdom (Kerch and Taman)",
   "lat": 45.2367,
   "lon": 36.4177,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "854715",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -580,
   "greek_until": 300,
   "phases": [
    [
     -580,
     300
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek settlement of the second quarter of the 6th c. BC (archaeology)",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: an independent polis (assessed for tribute by Athens in 425/4 BC (unchecked)) until Gylon handed it to the Bosporan rulers c. 405 BC (Aeschines 3.171); Bosporan thereafter. Speech: Greek until the town was abandoned in the 3rd-4th c. AD (unchecked).",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    250,
    400
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Own coins (late 5th c. BC) (unchecked); Greek inscriptions and the sanctuary finds; occupation thins out after the mid-3rd c. AD (unchecked)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the small Bosporan towns of the Kerch peninsula were abandoned or shrank in the 3rd-4th c. AD, the time of the Gothic raids and of the Huns (unchecked).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Ionian Greeks (Miletus?)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus?",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Aeschines 3.171; Strabo 7.4.4 (polis); the Athenian tribute assessment of 425/4 BC (unchecked); own coins",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The founding city is not recorded. IACP number not seen.",
   "sources": [
    "Aeschines 3.171",
    "Strabo 7.4.4",
    "Pleiades 854715"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 28,
   "list_group": "The Crimea",
   "dates_shown": "c. 560 BC – c. AD 300",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b020",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Myrmekion",
   "greek": "Μυρμήκιον",
   "other_names": "Myrmecium (Latin)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "Мірмекій",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Cape Karantinny, Kerch (north-east edge of the city)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Autonomous Republic of Crimea",
   "admin2": "Kerch",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "ancient_region": "the Bosporan kingdom (Kerch and Taman)",
   "lat": 45.3531,
   "lon": 36.5215,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "854710",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -560,
   "greek_until": 300,
   "phases": [
    [
     -560,
     300
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek settlement of the mid-6th c. BC (archaeology)",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: a small town, Bosporan from the 5th-4th c. BC. Speech: Greek until it was abandoned in the 3rd-4th c. AD (unchecked).",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    250,
    400
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Own coins with an ant (5th c. BC) (unchecked); Greek inscriptions; the town is deserted after the 3rd c. AD (unchecked)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the small Bosporan towns of the Kerch peninsula were abandoned or shrank in the 3rd-4th c. AD, the time of the Gothic raids and of the Huns (unchecked).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Ionian Greeks (Miletus? or Panticapaeum?)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus?",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 7.4.5 (a small town, polichnion); Ps.-Scylax; own coins (unchecked)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Strabo's polichnion and the town's own coins support a small polis. IACP number not seen.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 7.4.5",
    "Pleiades 854710"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 29,
   "list_group": "The Crimea",
   "dates_shown": "c. 550 BC – c. AD 375 +",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b027",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Theodosia",
   "greek": "Θευδοσίη / Θεοδοσία",
   "other_names": "Ardabda ('seven gods', called so in the Alan or Taurian language in the anonymous Periplus); Kaffa/Caffa (Genoese, c. 1266-1475); Kefe (Ottoman and Tatar, 1475-1783); Feodosiya (Russian, from 1784)",
   "modern": "Feodosia",
   "modern_native": "Феодосія",
   "population": 74669,
   "pop_year": 2001,
   "pop_source": "Ukrainian census 2001 (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Ukraine')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Feodosia, the quarantine hill and harbour (the Genoese citadel stands on the ancient town)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Autonomous Republic of Crimea",
   "admin2": "Feodosia",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "ancient_region": "the Bosporan kingdom (Kerch and Taman)",
   "lat": 45.0461,
   "lon": 35.3788,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "854743",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -550,
   "greek_until": 1944,
   "phases": [
    [
     -550,
     375
    ],
    [
     1266,
     1778
    ],
    [
     1784,
     1944
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Milesian colony of the mid-6th c. BC (archaeology: second half of the 6th c. BC); taken into the Bosporan kingdom by Leukon I c. 360s-355 BC",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Ancient phase: the town was destroyed by the Huns in the 4th c. AD and remained a minor village for some nine centuries (Wikipedia, Feodosia); by the time of the anonymous Periplus its name was Ardabda in Alan or Taurian. Kaffa phase: Greeks lived in Genoese Kaffa from its foundation and stayed under the Ottomans (1475) in the see of Gothia and Kefe. Their language after 1475 is not documented: the Rum of the Ottoman registers (about 2,760 people in 1520, 2,400 in 1547) are a religious community, and a study of the Urum states that after the south of the Crimea passed to the Ottomans most of its Orthodox spoke Turkic (Ponomaryova 2014); the 1,643 'Greeks' of Kafa who left in 1778 (Suvorov's returns) were among the town Greeks who founded Mariupol (unchecked), whose Greek court wrote its records in Urum (Turkic) in Greek letters (1811-1874). Greek speech in Kefe may therefore have ended in the 16th-17th c.; the phase is carried to 1778 as the end of the Orthodox community, not of proven Greek speech. Modern phase: Greek merchants and settlers formed a minority in Russian Feodosia (the town was mostly Orthodox in 1874, with Muslims 12.3%, Karaites 8.2%, Armenians 6.5%; Greeks are not counted separately in the source); deported in 1944.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "year",
   "until_range": null,
   "fade_evidence": "Bosporan-era Greek inscriptions; the Kaffa Greek notaries and churches (14th-15th c.); Ottoman registers: Rum about 2,760 (1520) and 2,400 (1547), a minority beside Armenians and Muslims; 1,643 Greeks of Kafa in the 1778 returns; a Greek minority in Feodosia in the 19th-20th c. (unchecked)",
   "ended_by": "Ancient: destroyed by the Huns in the 4th c. AD (no leader named). Kaffa: taken by the Ottoman fleet of Gedik Ahmed Pasha, 6 June 1475; 1,500 youths were taken for the Sultan's palace and on 8 July 1475 the Latin inhabitants were ordered to move to Istanbul (Wikipedia, Feodosia); the remaining Orthodox were moved to the north coast of the Sea of Azov by order of Catherine II (decree of 9 March 1778), planned with P. A. Rumyantsev and G. A. Potemkin at the request of Metropolitan Ignatius of Gothia and Kefe, and carried out by A. V. Suvorov, 26 July to 24 November 1778 (31,386 Christians in Suvorov's returns). Modern: the Greeks of Feodosia were deported to Central Asia and the Urals by the NKVD on 27 June 1944 under State Defence Committee (GKO) decree no. 5984ss of 2 June 1944, proposed by L. P. Beria to Stalin on 29 May 1944 (the NKVD counted 14,300 Greeks of Soviet citizenship, besides 3,531 holders of expired Greek passports).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Miletus",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus",
   "refounded_by": "The Genoese (Kaffa, c. 1266, by agreement with the khan of the Golden Horde (unchecked)); Russia (Feodosiya, 1784)",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Ardabda is a late-antique name in Alan or Taurian, not attested before the Greeks.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Russian (revival)",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Kaffa's curia kept a paid Greek secretary; a statute of 1449 recognised Greek notaries; a Greek loggia in the 1460s-70s; Greek churches and bishops (Cyberleninka article on the Greek population of the Genoese colonies)",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 7.4.4 (polis); Demosthenes 20.33; Ps.-Scymnus; Bosporan inscriptions; medieval: Greek clergy and notaries of Kaffa",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "One entry with three phases; the modern Greek community (from 1784) has no shown tie to the earlier one. Kaffa alone would be left out under the minority rule: Genoese Kaffa (c. 1266-1475) had Genoese, Greek, Armenian and Kipchak Tatar speakers, and in the Ottoman registers the Rum (Greeks) were a minority (1520: about 2,760 people against 7,360 Armenians and 5,650 Muslims; 1547: about 2,400 against 5,780 Armenians and 7,420 Muslims). The end of the second phase (1778) is that of the Orthodox community; whether its people still spoke Greek then is not known and unlikely for most of them. A stricter reading would end Greek speech at the last positive evidence, the Greek notaries and churches of Genoese Kaffa (before 1475). IACP number not seen.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 7.4.4",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feodosia",
    "https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/gretske-naselennya-genuezkih-koloniy-v-krimu",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eviction_of_Christians_from_the_Crimea_(1778)",
    "Pleiades 854743"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 30,
   "list_group": "The Crimea",
   "dates_shown": "c. 550 BC – c. AD 370",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b022",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Tyritake",
   "greek": "Τυριτάκη",
   "other_names": "Tiritake; Tyriktake (Ptolemy); Tyristake",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "Тірітака",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Arshyntseve (Kamysh-Burun), south of Kerch",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Autonomous Republic of Crimea",
   "admin2": "Kerch",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "ancient_region": "the Bosporan kingdom (Kerch and Taman)",
   "lat": 45.2773,
   "lon": 36.4072,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "854745",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -550,
   "greek_until": 370,
   "phases": [
    [
     -550,
     370
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek settlement of the mid-6th c. BC (archaeology)",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: a Bosporan town with large fish-salting works. Speech: Greek until the Hunnic period; a smaller settlement of the 5th-6th c. AD followed (unchecked).",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    300,
    550
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek inscriptions; Roman-era fish-salting cisterns; late-antique occupation to the 6th c. AD (unchecked)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the small Bosporan towns of the Kerch peninsula were abandoned or shrank in the 3rd-4th c. AD, the time of the Gothic raids and of the Huns (unchecked).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Ionian Greeks (Miletus?)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus?",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ptolemy 3.6.4 (Tyriktake); Pliny NH 4.86; the anonymous Periplus (unchecked)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "A walled town of the Bosporus; its civic status before the Bosporan state is not documented. IACP number not seen.",
   "sources": [
    "Ptolemy 3.6.4",
    "Pliny NH 4.86",
    "Pleiades 854745"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 31,
   "list_group": "The Crimea",
   "dates_shown": "c. 500 BC – c. AD 350",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b025",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Akra",
   "greek": "Ἄκρα",
   "other_names": "Acra (Pliny)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "Акра",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Near Naberezhne, south of Kerch; largely under the sea",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Autonomous Republic of Crimea",
   "admin2": "Kerch raion (Leninske area)",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "ancient_region": "the Bosporan kingdom (Kerch and Taman)",
   "lat": 45.1333,
   "lon": 36.4241,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "854663",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -500,
   "greek_until": 350,
   "phases": [
    [
     -500,
     350
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek town of the late 6th c. BC (archaeology, underwater surveys) (unchecked)",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: a small Bosporan town. Speech: Greek until it was abandoned in the 3rd-4th c. AD (unchecked).",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    250,
    400
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Walls and houses now under water; finds to the 3rd-4th c. AD (unchecked)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the small Bosporan towns of the Kerch peninsula were abandoned or shrank in the 3rd-4th c. AD, the time of the Gothic raids and of the Huns (unchecked).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Ionian Greeks",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Pliny NH 4.86 (oppidum Acra) (unchecked); a walled town in the archaeology",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "A small walled town; its civic status rests on Pliny (oppidum Acra) (unchecked) and the archaeology and is not certain. IACP number not seen. Kalos Limen, a walled dependency of Chersonesos with similar evidence, is now included on the same footing.",
   "sources": [
    "Pliny NH 4.86",
    "Pleiades 854663"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 32,
   "list_group": "The Crimea",
   "dates_shown": "c. 500 BC – c. 100 BC",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b024",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Kerkinitis",
   "greek": "Καρκινῖτις / Κερκινῖτις",
   "other_names": "Karkinitis (Hecataeus, Herodotus); medieval Gözleve (Tatar), Kezlev/Kozlov (Russian) on the same site; Eupatoria/Yevpatoria from 1784",
   "modern": "Yevpatoria",
   "modern_native": "Євпаторія",
   "population": 105915,
   "pop_year": 2001,
   "pop_source": "Ukrainian census 2001 (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Ukraine')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Yevpatoria, old town (the Karaite cemetery and Kerkinitida site by the sea)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Autonomous Republic of Crimea",
   "admin2": "Yevpatoria",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "ancient_region": "Taurica (the Crimea)",
   "lat": 45.2037,
   "lon": 33.3614,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "226658",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -500,
   "greek_until": -100,
   "phases": [
    [
     -500,
     -100
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek settlement of the late 6th c. BC (archaeology); Hecataeus (FGrHist 1 F184) calls it a Scythian polis and Herodotus (4.55, 4.99) a polis",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: independent, then a dependency of Chersonesos from the late 4th c. BC; taken by the Late Scythians in the 2nd c. BC. Speech: a Greek community is attested to the 3rd-2nd c. BC; the later settlement was mainly Scythian (unchecked).",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    -180,
    100
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Own coins (5th-4th c. BC) (unchecked); the Chersonesite oath names Kerkinitis among the city's walled places (IOSPE I2 401); Late Scythian finds from the 2nd c. BC (unchecked)",
   "ended_by": "Taken by the Scythians of the Crimean steppe in the 2nd c. BC (the time of Skilouros) (unchecked); no named act ends Greek speech.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Ionian Greeks (Miletus? or Heraclea Pontica?)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus?",
   "refounded_by": "Chersonesos (dependency from the late 4th c. BC)",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Russian",
   "bilingual_period": "yes: from the 2nd c. BC the town was held by the Late Scythians and its people were mixed (unchecked)",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Hecataeus FGrHist 1 F184 (polis); Herodotus 4.55, 4.99 (polis); own coins (unchecked)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The mother city is not recorded; Ionian (Milesian?) origin is inferred from the finds. The later town of Gözleve/Yevpatoria (a Tatar, Karaite and Russian town) is a separate close call. IACP number not seen.",
   "sources": [
    "Herodotus 4.55, 4.99",
    "Hecataeus FGrHist 1 F184",
    "Pleiades 226658"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 33,
   "list_group": "The Crimea",
   "dates_shown": "c. 500 BC – c. AD 400",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b026",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Kytaia",
   "greek": "Κύταια / Κυταῖον",
   "other_names": "Kytai, Kyta (Stephanus of Byzantium); Kytaion (Ptolemy); Cytae (Pliny)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "Кітей",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Near Zavitne, on the Black Sea coast of the Kerch peninsula",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Autonomous Republic of Crimea",
   "admin2": "Kerch raion (Leninske area)",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "ancient_region": "the Bosporan kingdom (Kerch and Taman)",
   "lat": 45.1,
   "lon": 36.4,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "854703",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -500,
   "greek_until": 400,
   "phases": [
    [
     -500,
     400
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek town of the late 6th-5th c. BC (archaeology) (unchecked)",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: a Bosporan town. Speech: Greek until the town was abandoned in late antiquity (unchecked).",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    300,
    550
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek inscriptions and a late-antique basilica (unchecked)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the small Bosporan towns of the Kerch peninsula were abandoned or shrank in the 3rd-4th c. AD, the time of the Gothic raids and of the Huns (unchecked).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Ionian Greeks",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 68 (unchecked); Stephanus of Byzantium s.v. Kytai (polis) (unchecked); Pliny NH 4.86",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Pleiades gives only a rough location; the coordinates are approximate. IACP number not seen.",
   "sources": [
    "Pliny NH 4.86",
    "Pleiades 854703"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 34,
   "list_group": "The Crimea",
   "dates_shown": "c. 450 BC – c. AD 250",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b028",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Kimmerikon",
   "greek": "Κιμμερικόν",
   "other_names": "Cimmerium (Latin); Kimmeris",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "Кіммерик",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Mount Opuk, on the Black Sea coast of the Kerch peninsula",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Autonomous Republic of Crimea",
   "admin2": "Kerch raion (Leninske area)",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "ancient_region": "the Bosporan kingdom (Kerch and Taman)",
   "lat": 45.0423,
   "lon": 36.2246,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "854696",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -450,
   "greek_until": 250,
   "phases": [
    [
     -450,
     250
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Founded by Milesian colonists in the 5th c. BC (Pleiades, after the excavations)",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: a Bosporan town. Speech: Greek; Strabo already calls it a former city, and a Roman-era fortress stood on Opuk to the 3rd c. AD (unchecked).",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    100,
    400
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Strabo 11.2.5 ('formerly a city'); finds to the 3rd c. AD (unchecked)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the small Bosporan towns of the Kerch peninsula were abandoned or shrank in the 3rd-4th c. AD, the time of the Gothic raids and of the Huns (unchecked).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Miletus (Pleiades)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus?",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 11.2.5 (formerly a polis); Ps.-Scymnus (unchecked)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Strabo calls it a city of the past; the date of its decline is uncertain. IACP number not seen.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 11.2.5",
    "Pleiades 854696"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 35,
   "list_group": "The Crimea",
   "dates_shown": "422 BC – c. 1400 +",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b030",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Chersonesos (Tauric Chersonese)",
   "greek": "Χερσόνησος",
   "other_names": "Chersonesus Taurica, Heraclea Chersonesus (Pliny); Cherson (Χερσών, late antique and medieval); Korsun (Rus'); Sary-Kermen (Tatar) (unchecked)",
   "modern": "Sevastopol (ruins in the city)",
   "modern_native": "Херсонес",
   "population": 342451,
   "pop_year": 2001,
   "pop_source": "Ukrainian census 2001, city proper (via Wikipedia)",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Quarantine Bay, Sevastopol (the Tauric Chersonese reserve)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Sevastopol",
   "admin2": "Haharinskyi district",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "ancient_region": "Taurica (the Crimea)",
   "lat": 44.6111,
   "lon": 33.4923,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "226564",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -422,
   "greek_until": 1944,
   "phases": [
    [
     -422,
     1400
    ],
    [
     1783,
     1944
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Founded 422/421 BC by Heraclea Pontica (Ps.-Scymnus 822-827: Heracleotes with Delians); finds of the late 6th-5th c. BC suggest an earlier Ionian or Heracleote settlement on the site",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Administration: the city was a free polis, then under Rome and the emperors in Constantinople (the theme of Cherson from the 830s/840s), briefly taken by Vladimir of Kiev (988/989), later under the Golden Horde, the Genoese and Theodoro. Speech: Greek was the city's language throughout; the town shrank after the Tatar sack of c. 1299 and was ruined by 1399; silver coins of the 14th c. found in the city centre show that it was still lived in during the second half of the 14th c. (Tauric Chersonese reserve excavations, 2007), but by the 15th c. only a few inhabitants remained, and Broniovius (1578) describes ruins (unchecked). Second phase: the Greeks of Sevastopol, from its founding in 1783 (Greek officers and sailors of the fleet), a minority (2.3% in 1921); deported on 27 June 1944.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    1399,
    1475
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Civic coins (ΧΕΡ) from the 4th c. BC to the 3rd c. AD; the citizens' oath (IOSPE I2 401); Greek inscriptions of residents to the 10th-14th c.; bishops of Cherson from the 4th c. (unchecked); archaeology shows the town burned in the late 13th c. and largely deserted in the 14th-15th c. (unchecked)",
   "ended_by": "Sacked by the Tatars of the Golden Horde under Nogai, c. 1299 (unchecked); burned by the army of the emir Edigu, 1399 (unchecked). No named act removed the last Greek residents.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Heraclea Pontica, with Delians (Ps.-Scymnus 822-827)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Heraclea Pontica",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Russian",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ps.-Scymnus 822-827; Strabo 7.4.2; Pliny NH 4.85; civic coins; the citizens' oath with demos, boule and damiorgoi (IOSPE I2 401); a Greek bishop's see",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "One entry for Chersonesos and medieval Cherson (same site). The IACP number was not seen. The modern city of Sevastopol (1783) lies around the site and is a separate close call. Second phase: a later community with no tie to the ancient one.",
   "sources": [
    "Ps.-Scymnus 822-827",
    "Strabo 7.4.2",
    "IOSPE I2 401 (the oath)",
    "https://www.unian.net/society/408365-hersones-suschestvoval-uje-vo-vtoroy-polovine-xiv-veka.html",
    "Pleiades 226564"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 36,
   "list_group": "The Crimea",
   "dates_shown": "c. 350 BC – c. 100 BC",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b121",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Kalos Limen",
   "greek": "Καλὸς Λιμήν",
   "other_names": "Kalos Limen ('Fair Harbour'); Ak-Mechet (the Crimean Tatar village on the site); Chornomorske/Chernomorskoe (modern)",
   "modern": "Chornomorske",
   "modern_native": "Чорноморське",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "The walled town on the shore of Chornomorske bay, Tarkhankut peninsula (north-west Crimea)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Autonomous Republic of Crimea",
   "admin2": "Chornomorske raion (Yevpatoria raion under Ukraine's 2020 reform) (unchecked)",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "ancient_region": "Taurica (the Crimea)",
   "lat": 45.5172,
   "lon": 32.7141,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "226646",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -350,
   "greek_until": -100,
   "phases": [
    [
     -350,
     -100
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Founded in the 4th c. BC (archaeology; 'Ionian settlers' in Wikipedia); by the end of that century it belonged to Chersonesos.",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: a walled place of Chersonesos from the late 4th c. BC; taken by the Scythians in the 2nd c. BC, recovered for a time (by Diophantos, the general of Mithridates VI, c. 110 BC (unchecked)) and lost to them again; abandoned in the 1st c. BC. Speech: Greek while it was a Chersonesite town; the end is the Scythian capture or the abandonment.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    -150,
    -50
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Walls and towers of the 4th-2nd c. BC; named among the walled places in the Chersonesite citizens' oath (IOSPE I2 401); Late Scythian occupation of the 2nd-1st c. BC.",
   "ended_by": "Taken by the Scythians of the Late Scythian kingdom of the Crimea in the 2nd c. BC (the kings are not named for this town in the sources seen); no named act for the final abandonment.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Greek settlers (Ionians according to Wikipedia; a Chersonesite foundation is also proposed (unchecked))",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "A walled town of about 4 ha (archaeology); one of the walled places named in the Chersonesite citizens' oath (IOSPE I2 401); a harbour in the anonymous Periplus; IACP entry not seen",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "A dependency of Chersonesos without known coins or decrees of its own; included as a small walled Greek town on the same footing as Akra, with the doubt that it may have been only a fortified settlement of Chersonesos' territory. Whether IACP gives it an entry was not checked.",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalos_Limen",
    "Pleiades 226646 (Kalos Limen?)",
    "IOSPE I2 401 (the Chersonesite oath)",
    "Anonymous Periplus Ponti Euxini"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 37,
   "list_group": "The Crimea",
   "dates_shown": "c. AD 750 – c. 1503",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b031",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Doros (Theodoro)",
   "greek": "Δόρος / Θεοδωρώ",
   "other_names": "Dory (Procopius, the land of the Goths); Doros/Doras (Life of St John of Gothia); Theodoro (14th-15th c.); Mangup (Tatar and Ottoman)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "Мангуп",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Mangup plateau, above Khodzha-Sala, Bakhchysarai raion",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Autonomous Republic of Crimea",
   "admin2": "Bakhchysarai raion",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "ancient_region": "Taurica (the Crimea)",
   "lat": 44.5928,
   "lon": 33.8009,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "228868",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 750,
   "greek_until": 1503,
   "phases": [
    [
     750,
     1503
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "The Goths' stronghold Doros is named in the Life of St John of Gothia (Khazar seizure, 780s), the seat of the Orthodox bishops of Gothia; the plateau was fortified in the 6th c. (unchecked)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: a Gothic stronghold under Constantinople and the Khazars; capital of the principality of Theodoro (14th c. to 1475); Ottoman from December 1475. Speech: Greek inscriptions continue to 1503; the town later declined into an Ottoman fortress with Karaite and Jewish residents and was abandoned by the end of the 18th c. (unchecked); the Orthodox of the district left in 1778.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    1503,
    1778
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek inscriptions of c. 1361/62, of the 1420s (unchecked) and of 1503; Barbaro 1436-37 and Busbecq (1560s) on Gothic",
   "ended_by": "Besieged by the Ottoman army from September 1475; surrendered at the end of December 1475; Prince Alexander was beheaded in Constantinople and the city's chiefs executed (Asikpasazade, as cited in Wikipedia, Principality of Theodoro). The remaining Orthodox of the area were moved to the north coast of the Sea of Azov by order of Catherine II (decree of 9 March 1778), planned with P. A. Rumyantsev and G. A. Potemkin at the request of Metropolitan Ignatius of Gothia and Kefe, and carried out by A. V. Suvorov, 26 July to 24 November 1778 (31,386 Christians in Suvorov's returns).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Gothic (Crimean Gothic) fortress town of Gothia",
   "founder": "Crimean Goths (Doros); the princes of Theodoro (14th-15th c.)",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "The princes of Theodoro (14th c.)",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Crimean Gothic",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Greek was the official language of Theodoro (Greek building inscriptions of its princes, from c. 1361/62; a Greek inscription of 1503 under the Ottomans); Gothic graffiti on Mangup, later overwritten by Greek ones; Barbaro (1436-37): 'the Goths speak German'; Busbecq's Crimean Gothic word list (1560s) (Wikipedia, Crimean Goths; Principality of Theodoro)",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Capital of the principality of Theodoro ('lord of the city of Theodoro' in Greek inscriptions (unchecked)); seat of the bishops and metropolitans of Gothia",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The Greek and Gothic share of the population is not known; many Goths were themselves Greek speakers by the 15th c. The town's urban character before the 14th c. is uncertain.",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Theodoro",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimean_Goths",
    "Pleiades 228868"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 38,
   "list_group": "The Crimea",
   "dates_shown": "AD 787 – c. 1778",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b029",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Sougdaia",
   "greek": "Σουγδαία",
   "other_names": "Sugdaia, Sougdaia (Greek); Soldaia (Italian); Surozh (Rus'); Sudak (Tatar, Ottoman, Russian)",
   "modern": "Sudak",
   "modern_native": "Судак",
   "population": 14495,
   "pop_year": 2001,
   "pop_source": "Ukrainian census 2001 (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Ukraine')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "The fortress hill of Sudak",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Autonomous Republic of Crimea",
   "admin2": "Feodosia raion (Sudak)",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "ancient_region": "Taurica (the Crimea)",
   "lat": 44.8417,
   "lon": 34.9583,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 787,
   "greek_until": 1778,
   "phases": [
    [
     787,
     1778
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "The town is first named in the Ravenna Cosmography (7th c.); its bishop (St Stephen of Sougdaia) is first attested at the Second Council of Nicaea, 787; the town was probably founded by the Alans (local tradition: AD 212)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Administration: under Constantinople and the Khazars, then a Cuman trading town, sacked by the Mongols (1223), under the Golden Horde, Venice's and then Genoa's trading posts (Genoese 1365-1475), Ottoman from 1475. Speech: Greek-speaking townspeople are attested to the 15th c.; the Orthodox of Sudak and its villages stayed under the Ottomans and left in 1778; how many still spoke Greek then is not known (unchecked). In 1805 Sudak had only 33 inhabitants (Wikipedia, Sudak).",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    1475,
    1778
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Bishop of Sougdaia at Nicaea 787; archbishopric (10th c.), united with Phoullai (Sougdophoullai, late 11th c.), metropolis (1275/82); the Synaxarion notes (12th-15th c.) (unchecked); a Greek dipinto in the fortress tower of 1385 (IOSPE V 246, 1385-1475); the 1778 removal; 33 inhabitants in 1805",
   "ended_by": "Taken by the Ottomans in 1475 (Gedik Ahmed Pasha's campaign); the remaining Christians were moved to the north coast of the Sea of Azov by order of Catherine II (decree of 9 March 1778), planned with P. A. Rumyantsev and G. A. Potemkin at the request of Metropolitan Ignatius of Gothia and Kefe, and carried out by A. V. Suvorov, 26 July to 24 November 1778 (31,386 Christians in Suvorov's returns).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Hellenized native town",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Alans? (local tradition gives AD 212)",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "The Genoese (fortress walls, 1371-1469)",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Roman-era finds on the site. Pleiades lists the harbour Athenaion/Skythotauron Limen at the site; that identification is uncertain.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Turkish",
   "bilingual_period": "yes: in the 13th-15th c. a trading town with Cumans and Tatars, Armenians, Rus' merchants and (from 1365) a Genoese consulate beside its Greek townspeople",
   "other_language": "Kipchak (Cuman/Tatar), Armenian, Italian (13th-15th c.)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "The Greek marginal notes of the Synaxarion of Sougdaia (12th-15th c.) record the births and deaths of Greek townspeople (unchecked); Rus' sources call it Surozh and its merchants 'Surozhane' (unchecked)",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "A Greek bishop's see (archbishopric, later metropolis of Sougdaia); the Life of St Stephen; Greek townspeople in the Synaxarion of Sougdaia",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Probably an Alan town that became the seat of a Greek-speaking church and a Greek-speaking trading town; the share of Alans and Greeks in the early town is not known. The date 212 comes from a late local tradition.",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudak",
    "https://iospe.kcl.ac.uk/5.246.html",
    "https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/gretske-naselennya-genuezkih-koloniy-v-krimu",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eviction_of_Christians_from_the_Crimea_(1778)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 39,
   "list_group": "The Crimea",
   "dates_shown": "1784 – 1944",
   "period": "5 The later Greek towns (1475-1923)",
   "id": "b032",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Balaklava",
   "greek": "Μπαλακλάβα",
   "other_names": "Symbolon Limen (Strabo 7.4.2, the ancient harbour); Cembalo (Genoese, 1357-1475); Balıklava (Ottoman)",
   "modern": "Balaklava",
   "modern_native": "Балаклава",
   "population": 18649,
   "pop_year": 2014,
   "pop_source": "The census held by Russia in the Crimea in 2014 (not recognised by Ukraine) (via Wikipedia)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Balaklava bay, Sevastopol",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Sevastopol",
   "admin2": "Balaklava district",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "ancient_region": "New Russia (the Taurida governorate)",
   "lat": 44.4995,
   "lon": 33.5995,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "B",
   "greek_from": 1784,
   "greek_until": 1944,
   "phases": [
    [
     1784,
     1944
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Settled by the Greek battalion (Archipelago Greeks who had served Russia in the war of 1768-1774) by the decree of 18 February 1784; the unit had been stationed at Kerch and Yenikale since 1775/1779",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Administration: a military Greek settlement under the battalion's officers until the battalion was disbanded in 1859; then a small town of the Sevastopol city government. Speech: the Greeks remained the majority of the town into the 20th c. (1904: Greeks by nationality 76.2% of the 2,240 people of Balaklava with Kadykovka), but how many still spoke Greek at home is not recorded in the sources seen; Greek schools in the Crimea were closed in the mid-1930s; the community was deported in 1944.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "year",
   "until_range": [
    1859,
    1944
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "1802: about 1,700 Greeks; 1801: the battalion numbered 1,194 people; 1897: 1,215 people in the town (census total; no count by mother tongue for the town was found); 1904: 76.2% Greeks by nationality of 2,240 (Balaklava with Kadykovka; the Inslav volume takes this figure from Wikipedia); 1911: 2,895 people in Balaklava with Kadykovka; 1921: Greeks 2.3% of the Sevastopol city area; Greek could be studied in Crimean schools until the mid-1930s.",
   "ended_by": "The battalion was disbanded in 1859; the Greeks of Balaklava were deported to Central Asia and the Urals by the NKVD on 27 June 1944 under State Defence Committee (GKO) decree no. 5984ss of 2 June 1944, proposed by L. P. Beria to Stalin on 29 May 1944 (the NKVD counted 14,300 Greeks of Soviet citizenship, besides 3,531 holders of expired Greek passports).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "later Greek settlement",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "The Greek (Balaklava) battalion of Archipelago Greeks and Albanians, by decree of Catherine II (1784)",
   "founder_group": "Russian Empire",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The Taurian harbour Symbolon Limen; the Genoese fortress Cembalo (1357-1475), with Orthodox inhabitants; 82 Greeks of Balaklava were among the Christians removed in 1778.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Turkish",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "A town (gorod) of the Taurida governorate with a Greek majority (1904 figures in the Inslav volume on the Greeks of Balaklava and Sevastopol)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Window B town, admitted on the Greek battalion settlement (1784-1859), when it was a Greek-speaking military town. Whether the Greeks still spoke Greek at home in 1897 or 1926 is not known: no count by mother tongue for the town was found, and the Greek majority of 1904 (76.2%) is by nationality. The medieval Cembalo had Greek Orthodox inhabitants, but no evidence was found that Greek was a main language of the Genoese town; the 1778 community (82 'Greeks') has no shown tie to the battalion settlers.",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Battalion_of_Balaklava",
    "https://inslav.ru/sites/default/files/editions/2013_greki_balaklavy_i_sevastopolja.pdf",
    "https://eo.iea.ras.ru/wp-content/uploads/1948/02/eoarchive_1948_2_156_derzhavin.pdf",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eviction_of_Christians_from_the_Crimea_(1778)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 40,
   "list_group": "Taman, the Kuban and the Don",
   "dates_shown": "c. 580 BC – c. AD 550",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b035",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Kepoi",
   "greek": "Κῆποι",
   "other_names": "Cepoe Milesiorum (Pliny NH 6.18) (unchecked); Cepi",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "Кепы",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "On Taman Bay east of Sennoy, Temryuksky District; much of the town is under water",
   "country": "Russia",
   "admin1": "Krasnodar Krai",
   "admin2": "Temryuksky District",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "the Bosporan kingdom (Kerch and Taman)",
   "lat": 45.2994,
   "lon": 36.9973,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "854695",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -580,
   "greek_until": 550,
   "phases": [
    [
     -580,
     550
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "A Milesian colony of the 6th c. BC (archaeology: first half of the century, c. 580-570 BC (unchecked)).",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Speech: a Greek town through Bosporan and Roman times; its end is set by Procopius, who says that Kepoi and Phanagoria had been subject to the Romans down to his day but were 'not long ago captured by some of the neighbouring barbarians and razed to the ground' (Wars 8.5.28, c. 551-554). The town may have shrunk earlier, after the 4th-c. troubles. Administration: Bosporan.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    370,
    554
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Peak in the first centuries AD; decline in the 4th c. (the Huns and Goths, in the usual account); Procopius, Wars 8.5.28 (mid-6th c.) still counts it a Roman town until shortly before he wrote.",
   "ended_by": "Captured and razed by 'some of the neighbouring barbarians' shortly before c. 551-554 (Procopius, Wars 8.5.28); Procopius does not name them (modern accounts: Huns).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Miletus",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 72 (among the Hellenic cities of the Sindoi); Strabo 11.2.10 (among the cities); Pliny NH 6.18 'Cepoe Milesiorum' (unchecked).",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "IACP number not seen.",
   "sources": [
    "Procopius, Wars 8.5.28 (LacusCurtius), https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Procopius/Wars/8A*.html",
    "Ps.-Skylax 72, tr. Shipley, https://www.ancientportsantiques.com/wp-content/uploads/Documents/AUTHORS/Scylax-GB2002.pdf",
    "Strabo 11.2.10 (LacusCurtius)",
    "Pleiades 854695"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 41,
   "list_group": "Taman, the Kuban and the Don",
   "dates_shown": "c. 575 BC – c. AD 550 +",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b037",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Hermonassa (later Tamatarcha, Tmutarakan, Matrega)",
   "greek": "Ἑρμώνασσα",
   "other_names": "Tamatarcha, Matarcha, Matracha (Greek sources, 8th-12th c.); Tamantarkhan (Khazar, Turkic); Tmutarakan (Rus'); Matrega, Matriga (Genoese, 14th-15th c.); Taman (Ottoman, from 1475-1482)",
   "modern": "Taman",
   "modern_native": "Тамань",
   "population": 10027,
   "pop_year": 2010,
   "pop_source": "Rosstat, 2010 census (via Wikipedia)",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "The stanitsa of Taman on Taman Bay, Temryuksky District; the city site (about 35 ha, cultural layer 12-14 m) is partly under the village and partly washed away",
   "country": "Russia",
   "admin1": "Krasnodar Krai",
   "admin2": "Temryuksky District",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "the Bosporan kingdom (Kerch and Taman)",
   "lat": 45.2191,
   "lon": 36.7141,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "854687",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -575,
   "greek_until": 1400,
   "phases": [
    [
     -575,
     550
    ],
    [
     700,
     1400
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Founded in the first half or the middle of the 6th c. BC by Mytilene, perhaps with Cretans and others taking part; the tradition names Semandros of Mytilene as founder (unchecked), and the earliest finds are of the second quarter of the 6th c. BC (unchecked).",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Speech: Hermonassa was a Bosporan Greek city into late Roman times; its fate in the 6th c. is not clear and a break is assumed by analogy with Phanagoria and Kepoi. The Khazar fortress-town of Tamatarcha (late 7th c.) had a Greek Christian community: the see of Zichia was moved to Tamatarcha in the mid-9th c., became a metropolis in the third quarter of the 13th c., and its last known metropolitan, Joseph, is recorded in 1396; by 1439 there was a Catholic archbishop at Matrega instead. A Greek-speaking community is not attested after the late 14th c. Administration: Khazar (7th-10th c.); Rus' principality of Tmutarakan (by 988 to 1094); then Constantinople (12th c.); Genoese Matrega under the Ghisolfi with Circassian princes (14th-15th c.); the Ottomans took Matrega in 1475 by one account, but Zaccaria (Zacharias) de Ghisolfi and his people were only forced out by the Ottomans in 1482, when they withdrew to the island of Matrice; Ottoman Taman thereafter.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    1396,
    1475
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Bosporan-period Greek inscriptions; Notitiae and the patriarchal register for the see of Tamatarcha/Matracha (mid-9th c. to 1396); Greek-legend seal of the Rus' prince Oleg-Michael as 'archon of Matracha, Zichia and all Khazaria' (late 11th c.) (unchecked); a Catholic archbishop of Matrega in 1439.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech: the Orthodox metropolis lapsed after 1396 and the town was Genoese and Circassian. The town itself fell to the Ottomans: attacked in 1475 (the year of Gedik Ahmed Pasha's Crimean expedition), it was finally given up in 1482, when Zaccaria de Ghisolfi and his subjects were compelled to retire to the island of Matrice.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Mytilene (Lesbos), by tradition under Semandros (unchecked); Cretans and others may have joined",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Mytilene",
   "refounded_by": "Khazar fortress of Tamatarcha built in the late 7th c.; Rus' principality of Tmutarakan (by 988); Genoese Matrega (14th c.); Ottoman Taman (from 1475-1482)",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "The medieval town (late 7th to 15th c.) was many-tongued: Zichians (Circassians), Greeks, Alans, Khazars, Slavs and Armenians are named as residents; Greek was one of its languages (the see of Tamatarcha, Greek seals), probably not the only main one.",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "A polis of the Asian Bosporus (Strabo 11.2.10 lists it with Phanagoria and Kepoi among the cities); Bosporan civic life; medieval see of Tamatarcha (an archbishopric, later a metropolis).",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "One entry for one site: Hermonassa, Tamatarcha, Tmutarakan and Matrega all lie under Taman. IACP number not seen. The second phase (700-1400) rests on the see and on general statements that Greeks lived in the town; Greek may have been a minority language by the Genoese period.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia (ru), Тмутаракань, https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Тмутаракань",
    "Wikipedia, Tmutarakan, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tmutarakan",
    "Wikipedia, Hermonassa, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermonassa",
    "Wikipedia, Ghisolfi, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghisolfi",
    "Strabo 11.2.10 (LacusCurtius)",
    "Pleiades 854687"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 42,
   "list_group": "Taman, the Kuban and the Don",
   "dates_shown": "c. 550 BC – c. AD 100",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b034",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Patraeus (Patrasys)",
   "greek": "Πάτρασυς",
   "other_names": "Patraeus (Strabo 11.2.8); Patraios; Patrasys (Hecataeus via Stephanus of Byzantium) (unchecked)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "Патрей",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "On Taman Bay about 1 km west of Garkusha, Temryuksky District; the lower city is under water",
   "country": "Russia",
   "admin1": "Krasnodar Krai",
   "admin2": "Temryuksky District",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "the Bosporan kingdom (Kerch and Taman)",
   "lat": 45.3114,
   "lon": 36.8501,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "854723",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -550,
   "greek_until": 100,
   "phases": [
    [
     -550,
     100
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek settlement from c. 550 BC (archaeology; said to be Milesian).",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Speech: the town was ravaged in the middle of the 1st c. AD and its fortress destroyed some fifty years later; there was a small settlement on the ruins in the 5th-7th c. and a rural village again from c. 1200 into the 18th c., none of them shown to be Greek-speaking. Administration: Bosporan.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    50,
    400
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "A Greek lead letter of the second half of the 5th c. BC from the submerged lower city; the town reached at least 50 ha; destruction layers of the mid-1st c. AD and c. AD 100.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: destruction of the mid-1st c. AD (perhaps in the Bosporan wars of the 40s AD (unchecked)) and of the fortress c. AD 100.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Miletus? (not stated in ancient sources)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus?",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Hecataeus, cited by Stephanus of Byzantium s.v. Patrasys (unchecked); perhaps the 'Patous' of Ps.-Scylax 72, one of the Hellenic cities of the Sindoi (if not Bata); Strabo 11.2.8 calls it a village (kome) in his day; size and finds of a town (at least 50 ha, Greek letter on lead).",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Strabo calls Patraeus a village; its status as a polis rests on Hecataeus/Stephanus and on its size. Some scholars equate it with 'Patous', listed among the Hellenic cities of the Sindoi by Ps.-Scylax 72, which others put at Bata (Novorossiysk). IACP number not seen.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, Patraeus (city), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patraeus_(city)",
    "Strabo 11.2.8 (LacusCurtius)",
    "Pleiades 854723"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 43,
   "list_group": "Taman, the Kuban and the Don",
   "dates_shown": "c. 550 BC – c. 300 BC +",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b039",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Torikos",
   "greek": "Τορικός",
   "other_names": "Pagrae (Roman sources, 64 BC); Pagras Limen, Heptalou Limen (later periploi) (unchecked); Mavrolaco (Genoese) (unchecked)",
   "modern": "Gelendzhik",
   "modern_native": "Геленджик",
   "population": 80204,
   "pop_year": 2021,
   "pop_source": "Rosstat, 2021 census (via Wikipedia)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Gelendzhik bay; the excavated archaic Greek settlement is at Tonky Mys in Gelendzhik",
   "country": "Russia",
   "admin1": "Krasnodar Krai",
   "admin2": "Gelendzhik urban okrug",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Zichia (the coast of the Kerketai and Toretai)",
   "lat": 44.5682,
   "lon": 38.0237,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "825407",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -550,
   "greek_until": 1949,
   "phases": [
    [
     -550,
     -300
    ],
    [
     1865,
     1949
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "A small Greek settlement of the archaic period (6th c. BC), identified by some with Torikos (Onaiko 1980) (unchecked).",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Speech: the archaic and classical settlement is small and its end is not dated in the sources seen; the place is unknown to Hellenistic writers and reappears as Pagrae, a Bosporan frontier point, in 64 BC. Administration: independent, later on the Bosporan frontier. Second phase: the Pontic Greek community of Gelendzhik and the villages of the coast from the 1860s, a minority (the Greeks were 10.4% of the Black Sea governorate by mother tongue in 1897); deported in 1942-1949; communities remain.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -400,
    -63
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Archaic Greek settlement at Tonky Mys (Onaiko, Arkhaicheskiy Torik, 1980) (unchecked); silence of Hellenistic sources.",
   "ended_by": "No named act.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Unknown (perhaps Ionian settlers)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 74: after the Kerketai, the Toretai 'and a Hellenic city, Torikos, with a harbour'; small excavated Greek settlement.",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Admitted on Ps.-Scylax's wording ('a Hellenic city', 4th c. BC); the excavated site is tiny and some call it a trading post. The identification of the excavated site with Torikos is not certain. IACP number not seen. Second phase: a later community with no tie to the ancient one.",
   "sources": [
    "Ps.-Skylax 74, tr. Shipley (interim), https://www.ancientportsantiques.com/wp-content/uploads/Documents/AUTHORS/Scylax-GB2002.pdf",
    "Wikipedia, Gelendzhik, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelendzhik",
    "Pleiades 825407"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 44,
   "list_group": "Taman, the Kuban and the Don",
   "dates_shown": "c. 543 BC – c. AD 550 +",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b036",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Phanagoria",
   "greek": "Φαναγόρεια",
   "other_names": "Phanagoreion, Phanagorou polis (Ps.-Scylax); Agrippia (renamed in honour of M. Agrippa, late 1st c. BC); Phanagouris (Procopius)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "Фанагория",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "On the shore of Taman Bay by the village of Sennoy, Temryuksky District; part of the lower city is under water",
   "country": "Russia",
   "admin1": "Krasnodar Krai",
   "admin2": "Temryuksky District",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "the Bosporan kingdom (Kerch and Taman)",
   "lat": 45.2763,
   "lon": 36.9597,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "854724",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -543,
   "greek_until": 900,
   "phases": [
    [
     -543,
     550
    ],
    [
     670,
     900
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Founded c. 543 BC by citizens of Teos who left Ionia after the Persian conquest; the archaeological date is the 540s BC.",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Speech: the Greek city lived on after the Huns of the 370s and through the 5th and early 6th c. (the 'Roman period' of the excavators) and was then taken and burnt between 545 and 554; the site lay waste for over a hundred years. It was resettled in the last third of the 7th c. under the Khazars, and that town perished in an enemy attack around the turn of the 9th and 10th c. (press reports of the excavators say c. 1000); its people moved, or had already moved, to Tamatarcha (Taman). Whether Greek was still a main language of the second town is not shown directly; a Greek-speaking Christian element is probable (Justinian II lived here in exile in 704 under the Khazar tudun) (unchecked). Administration: Bosporan until the 6th c.; then nominally under Constantinople with a Khazar governor (tudun).",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    880,
    1000
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Synagogue in use from the 1st c. BC/AD, burnt in the 6th-c. fire; layers of the 5th to 9th c.; Procopius (Wars 8.5.28): subject to the Romans 'even to my day'; destruction 545-554 (Procopius and coin evidence); gap of over a century; Khazar-period town from the last third of the 7th c. to c. 900.",
   "ended_by": "Phase 1: 'not long ago captured by some of the neighbouring barbarians and razed to the ground' (Procopius, Wars 8.5.28, written c. 551-554); Procopius does not name them (modern accounts: Huns, perhaps Utigurs); the excavators date the fire to 545-554. Phase 2: no named act: the town perished in an enemy attack around the turn of the 9th and 10th c.; the attacker is not named in the sources (a Rus' attack has been suggested from the Cairo Geniza 'Schechter letter', which is not proof).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Teos (the Teians led by Phanagoras, who gave his name to the city)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Teos",
   "refounded_by": "Renamed Agrippia in honour of M. Agrippa (late 1st c. BC); resettled under the Khazars in the last third of the 7th c.",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "Possibly in the Khazar period (late 7th to late 9th c.), when the resettled town was mixed (Bulgar, Khazar and Greek elements in the material culture); the share of Greek speakers then is not known (unchecked).",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 72 ('Phanagoras's city' among the Hellenic cities of the Sindoi); Strabo 11.2.10 ('a noteworthy city', 'the metropolis of the Asiatic Bosporians'); civic coins of the 5th-4th c. BC and of the Mithridatic period with Greek legends (ΦΑΝΑ, ΦΑΝΑΓΟΡΙΤΩΝ) (unchecked); the 'eastern capital' of the Bosporan kingdom; a Christian see from about AD 500.",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "IACP number not seen. One Wikipedia article puts Genoese Matrega on the ruins of Phanagoria; the usual identification places Matrega at Taman (Tmutarakan), so it is entered there.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 11.2.10 (Loeb, LacusCurtius: https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/11B*.html)",
    "Medieval Phanagoria: new discoveries (abstract), https://vestnik-pp.samgtu.ru/0321-0391/article/view/648619",
    "The Moscow Times, 29 July 2026, https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2026/07/29/in-russias-south-the-remains-of-a-greek-city-hint-at-cosmopolitan-past",
    "Wikipedia, Phanagoria, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phanagoria",
    "Procopius, Wars 8.5.28 (LacusCurtius), https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Procopius/Wars/8A*.html",
    "Ps.-Skylax 72, tr. Shipley, https://www.ancientportsantiques.com/wp-content/uploads/Documents/AUTHORS/Scylax-GB2002.pdf",
    "Pleiades 854724"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 45,
   "list_group": "Taman, the Kuban and the Don",
   "dates_shown": "c. 525 BC – c. AD 240 +",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b038",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Gorgippia (Sindikos Limen)",
   "greek": "Γοργιππία",
   "other_names": "Sindikos Limen, 'the Sindic harbour and city' (Ps.-Scylax 72; Strabo 11.2.14) [identification usual, not certain]; Gorgipia (Strabo 11.2.10); Mapa (Genoese, 14th-15th c.); Anapa (Ottoman fortress from 1781-82, Russian from 1828)",
   "modern": "Anapa",
   "modern_native": "Анапа",
   "population": 81863,
   "pop_year": 2021,
   "pop_source": "Rosstat, 2021 census (via Wikipedia)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "The centre of Anapa on the shore of the bay; the open-air museum 'Gorgippia' shows part of the town",
   "country": "Russia",
   "admin1": "Krasnodar Krai",
   "admin2": "Anapa urban okrug",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Sindike (the Bosporan kingdom)",
   "lat": 44.8941,
   "lon": 37.31,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "825265",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -525,
   "greek_until": 1949,
   "phases": [
    [
     -525,
     240
    ],
    [
     1870,
     1949
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Ionian and Aeolian Greek colonists settled on Anapa bay no later than the last quarter of the 6th c. BC (archaeology); after a fire in the first quarter of the 4th c. BC the town was rebuilt at twice its size, received Bosporan settlers as citizens and was named Gorgippia after Gorgippus, son of Satyros I and governor of Sindike (honoured at Athens by 344 BC for grain supplies).",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Speech: the city burnt in the mid-3rd c. AD (the latest coins found in it are of AD 238/240) and was not rebuilt; only makeshift huts stood among the ruins, coin hoards of AD 285-342 show some life nearby, and the Hun invasion of the 370s ended it. Under Genoa a trading station, Mapa, stood here (14th-15th c.), without a known Greek community; the Ottoman fortress of Anapa followed. Administration: Bosporan until the 3rd c. Second phase: the Pontic Greek community of Anapa from about 1870 (unchecked start), a minority (5.7% in 1926); deported in 1942-1949; a community remains.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    238,
    375
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek inscriptions of the 1st-3rd c. AD (e.g. CIRB 1134 on the shipowners' union under royal protection); latest coins AD 238/240; fire layer of the mid-3rd c.; hoards of AD 285-342 near Anapa.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the mid-3rd-c. fire is linked by the excavators either to the first westward moves of Gothic tribes or to attacks by neighbouring peoples to the east; no ancient source names them. The remnant was destroyed in the Hun invasion of the 370s.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Ionian and Aeolian Greek colonists (late 6th c. BC); enlarged with Bosporan Greek settlers and named Gorgippia after Gorgippus, son of Satyros I (early 4th c. BC)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Gorgippus (Spartocid), early 4th c. BC: renamed Gorgippia",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Strabo 11.2.10 calls Gorgipia 'the royal residence of the Sindi'; Pleiades says it was founded on the site of 'Sinda', but that name is known only from Greek writers, so it is not given as a pre-Greek name.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "Possibly in Roman times: the 1st-3rd c. AD inscriptions of Gorgippia carry many Iranian (Sarmatian) and local Sindo-Maeotian names beside Greek ones, a sign of a mixed population; Greek stayed the language of record and of the city (unchecked).",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 72 ('Sindikos, a harbour' among the Hellenic cities of the Sindoi); Strabo 11.2.14 ('the Sindic harbour and city'); Greek civic inscriptions of the Roman period; coins with Greek legends ΓΟΡΓΙΠΠΕΩΝ (Mithridatic period) and the Sindian coinage ΣΙΝΔΩΝ (c. 400 BC), the latter perhaps struck here (unchecked).",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Sindikos Limen and Gorgippia are taken as one place, as in Pleiades; some scholars place Sindikos Limen elsewhere in Sindike. The Roman-period mixture of names is not proof of a second main language. The mother city of the first settlers is not known. IACP number not seen. Second phase: a later community with no tie to the ancient one.",
   "sources": [
    "E. M. Alekseeva et al., Gorgippia, Expedition (Penn Museum), https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/gorgippia",
    "Strabo 11.2.10, 11.2.14 (LacusCurtius)",
    "Wikipedia, Gorgippia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorgippia",
    "Pleiades 825265"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 46,
   "list_group": "Taman, the Kuban and the Don",
   "dates_shown": "c. 280 BC – c. AD 250",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b033",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Tanais",
   "greek": "Τάναϊς",
   "other_names": "",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "Танаис",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "By the khutor of Nedvigovka on the right bank of the Mertvy Donets (a Don delta channel), Myasnikovsky District; archaeological museum-reserve",
   "country": "Russia",
   "admin1": "Rostov Oblast",
   "admin2": "Myasnikovsky District",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "the Maeotis and the Tanais",
   "lat": 47.2687,
   "lon": 39.3357,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "825397",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -280,
   "greek_until": 250,
   "phases": [
    [
     -280,
     250
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Founded by the Bosporan Greeks (Strabo 11.2.3) in the first half of the 3rd c. BC (archaeology).",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Speech: the town was sacked by Polemon I about 15-8 BC and rebuilt in the 1st c. AD; it was destroyed in the mid-3rd c. AD. A smaller settlement lived on into the second half of the 5th c., but no Greek inscriptions of it are known, so the Greek-speaking community is not attested after the 3rd c. Administration: Bosporan.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    240,
    450
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Bosporan royal and civic Greek inscriptions of the 2nd-3rd c. AD (Tanais tablet B is dated AD 220; a few later ones to the 240s (unchecked)); destruction layer of the mid-3rd c.; occupation to the second half of the 5th c.",
   "ended_by": "Sacked by King Polemon I because it would not obey him (Strabo 11.2.3), late 1st c. BC; the mid-3rd-c. destruction has no named author in the sources (modern accounts: Goths or Boranoi) (unchecked).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Greek foundation",
   "founder": "Bosporan Greeks ('the Greeks who held the Bosporus', Strabo 11.2.3)",
   "founder_group": "rulers",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Rebuilt in the 1st c. AD after Polemon's sack",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Sarmatian (Iranian) and Maeotian",
   "bilingual_evidence": "The town had two communities with their own officers: a hellenarch for the Greeks and an archon of the Tanaites, both named in the Greek building inscriptions known as the Tanais tablets (AD 175-211 and AD 220: 'Basilides son of Theoneikos, the hellenarch'; Horoathos son of Sandarz, 'archon of the Tanaites'); many of the names are Iranian (Sarmatian). Other inscriptions speak of 'the Hellenes and the Tanaites' (unchecked).",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 11.2.3 ('an inhabited city ... founded by the Greeks who held the Bosporus', 'a common emporium'); civic Greek inscriptions with hellenarchs and archons of the Tanaites; Bosporan royal inscriptions.",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Not to be confused with the Venetian and Genoese Tana of the 14th-15th c., which stood at Azov, about 18 km to the south-east. Strabo also calls it an emporium, but it had its own civic bodies.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 11.2.3 (LacusCurtius)",
    "Wikipedia, Tanais Tablets, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanais_Tablets",
    "Wikipedia, Tanais, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanais",
    "Pleiades 825397"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 47,
   "list_group": "Colchis and the Caucasus",
   "dates_shown": "c. 550 BC – c. AD 542 +",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b041",
   "id_prev": "w173",
   "latin": "Dioskourias",
   "greek": "Διοσκουριάς",
   "other_names": "Dioscurias (Latin); Sebastopolis (Roman, from Augustus or later); Tskhumi (medieval Georgian); Sukhum (Russian)",
   "modern": "Sukhumi",
   "modern_native": "სოხუმი / Аҟәа",
   "population": 62914,
   "pop_year": 2011,
   "pop_source": "census held by the de facto Abkhaz authorities, 2011 (via Wikipedia)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Sukhumi bay, Sukhumi; much of the Greek town lies under the sea, the Roman fort of Sebastopolis is on the shore in the city centre",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "admin1": "Abkhazia",
   "admin2": "Sukhumi",
   "disputed": "outside the Georgian government's control since 1993; recognised as independent by Russia and a few states; regarded as part of Georgia by most states",
   "ancient_region": "Colchis/Lazica",
   "lat": 42.9983,
   "lon": 41.0112,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "857107",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -550,
   "greek_until": 1993,
   "phases": [
    [
     -550,
     542
    ],
    [
     1867,
     1993
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Milesian colony; no ancient date (Pliny 6.15 gives only the legend of the Dioskouroi). The earliest Greek pottery dates the foundation to the mid-6th c. BC (c. 540 BC in Pleiades)",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman fort of Sebastopolis from the early Empire; evacuated and demolished by its own garrison in 541/542; restored under Justinian; sacked by the Arabs in 736. Speech: the civic community is clear in the Hellenistic period (bronze city coins, c. 100 BC; Strabo's emporion of the Caucasus peoples). Pliny (77) calls the place deserted; under Rome it was a garrison fort with a Christian community by the 4th c. and later an archbishopric, but no Greek-speaking townspeople are attested after the 1st c. AD. The end date is therefore uncertain between Pliny and the Arab sack. After 736 the town (Georgian Tskhumi) belonged to the kingdom of Abkhazia and then to Georgia; the archbishopric of Sebastopolis still appears in the lists of sees of Constantinople, but the church of Abkhazia passed to Georgian use by the 10th c. (unchecked). In the 14th c. the Genoese had a consul at 'Savastopoli' (unchecked); no Greek-speaking community is attested there in the Middle Ages. The Pontic Greek community of Sukhum from the 1860s is a new community with no tie to the ancient one and is recorded as a presence point, not as a phase of this city Second phase: the Pontic Greek community of Sukhum (Sukhumi) from 1867, a minority (1,143 or 14.3% in 1897, 2,298 or 10.7% in 1926, 4,990 or 11.3% in 1939); repressed in 1937-1938, deported in June 1949, evacuated in 1993 during the war in Abkhazia; a few hundred remain (645 in 2011).",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    77,
    736
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "City coins c. 100 BC (Mithridates VI's reign); Strabo 11.2.16 (emporion); Pliny 6.15 'nunc deserta' (77); Arrian, Periplus 10 (131/132: Sebastopolis a fort); Procopius, Wars 8.4.4-6 (garrison razed the fort, 541/542); autocephalous archbishopric of Sebastopolis in Notitia 1 (7th c.); sack by Marwan, 736 (Juansher)",
   "ended_by": "No named act for the end of Greek speech. Pliny reports the town deserted by 77; the Roman garrison razed Sebastopolis before Khosrow I's invasion, 541/542 (Procopius, Wars 8.4.4-6); Marwan ibn Muhammad sacked the town in 736 (Juansher)",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Milesian colonists",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus",
   "refounded_by": "Roman fort Sebastopolis (early Empire; garrison under Hadrian, Arrian); restored under Justinian after 542",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Colchian settlements of the 2nd and early 1st millennium BC on and around the site; no native name is attested",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP (Kolchis chapter, polis); a 4th-c. BC Greek decree or agreement on bronze from the largest building at Eshera, perhaps a civic centre of Dioskourias; city coins with the legend ΔΙΟΣΚΟΥΡΙΑΔΟΣ (c. 100 BC); Strabo 11.2.16; Pliny 6.15; archbishopric of Sebastopolis (Notitia 1)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The Greek town is largely under water; finds include an Attic-style marble grave stele of the 5th c. BC. The second phase as Roman Sebastopolis was mainly a fort. Rechecked for this set (window to 1475): no medieval Greek-speaking community found, so the phase is unchanged; the modern Greek community of Sukhumi (1867-1993) is a separate presence point. Second phase: a later community with no tie to the ancient one.",
   "sources": [
    "IACP (Tsetskhladze, Kolchis)",
    "Braund, Georgia in Antiquity (1994)",
    "Strabo 11.2.16; Pliny 6.15",
    "Arrian, Periplus 10",
    "Pleiades 857107"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 48,
   "list_group": "Colchis and the Caucasus",
   "dates_shown": "c. 550 BC – c. AD 700",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b043",
   "id_prev": "w172",
   "latin": "Phasis",
   "greek": "Φᾶσις",
   "other_names": "Phasis (Greek and Latin); Poti (Georgian, in Georgian sources from the 8th c.); Fasso (medieval Italian)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Poti (area), Lower Rioni (ancient Phasis river) near Poti, probably on the south side of the river towards Lake Paliastomi; the exact site is not found, and the late Roman fort at Najikhuri was destroyed in 1959-1960",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "admin1": "Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti",
   "admin2": "Poti (and Khobi municipality)",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Colchis/Lazica",
   "lat": 42.1359,
   "lon": 41.6923,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "857275",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -550,
   "greek_until": 700,
   "phases": [
    [
     -550,
     700
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Milesian colony led by Themistagoras (Pomponius Mela 1.108); no ancient date. Greek pottery in the lower Rioni goes back to the early 6th c. BC, and the foundation is usually put in the mid-6th c. BC",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: Roman rule ended when Lazica went over to the Arabs in 697/698. Speech: a Greek-speaking community is attested in the Roman period (Arrian found retired soldiers and traders living beside the fort in 131/132) and in the 6th-7th c. (a Greek see, the metropolis of Lazica, whose bishop Cyrus became patriarch of Alexandria in 631). After c. 700 Phasis drops out of the record; any Greek speakers left must have been absorbed into the Laz and Georgian population of the region, but no source dates this. After 700 no Greek-speaking community is attested at Phasis/Poti down to the Ottoman period: the Rioni mouth was a Georgian (Mingrelian) harbour, called Fasso by the Genoese, who traded there in the 13th-15th c. (unchecked); Greek there after the Arab conquest was at most the language of visiting merchants and clergy",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    650,
    800
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Arrian, Periplus 9 (131/132): fort with 400 soldiers, and veterans and traders settled beside it; Agathias 3.19-28: Roman defence of Phasis against the Persians, 555/556; Notitia 1 (7th c.): Phasis metropolis of Lazica with four suffragans; Cyrus of Phasis, patriarch of Alexandria from 631; later only medieval Poti, a Georgian town",
   "ended_by": "No named act: Lazica's patrikios Sergios went over to the Arabs in 697/698 (Theophanes AM 6190), and Marwan ibn Muhammad's campaign of 736/737 struck western Georgia; no source records the end of the Greek community at Phasis",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Milesian colonists under Themistagoras",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus",
   "refounded_by": "Roman fort and garrison from the 1st c. AD (Arrian); held against the Persians 555/556",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Colchian settlements of the Colchian culture lie around the lower Rioni; no native name of the town is attested (Phasis is the river's name, already in Hesiod, Theogony 340)",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "yes",
   "other_language": "Colchian (later Laz): the town had a native population beside the Greeks from the start, and in late antiquity it lay in the Christian kingdom of the Lazi",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Hippocrates (Airs, Waters, Places 15) describes the native Phasians; late antique Phasis was a town of Lazica with a Roman garrison and a Greek-speaking church",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP (Kolchis chapter, polis); 'Phasis, a Greek polis' in Ps.-Scylax 81; Mela 1.108; see of Phasis, metropolis of Lazica (Notitia 1)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The town has never been found: it lies under the alluvium of the Rioni delta, Poti or Lake Paliastomi. Hippocrates calls it an emporion, Ps.-Scylax a Greek polis. The name Poti is usually linked to Phasis, but the etymology is disputed. Rechecked for this set (window to 1475): no evidence of a Greek-speaking town community after c. 700, so the phase and end are unchanged.",
   "sources": [
    "IACP (Tsetskhladze, Kolchis)",
    "Lordkipanidze, Phasis: The River and City in Colchis (2000)",
    "Braund, Georgia in Antiquity (1994)",
    "Arrian, Periplus 9",
    "Pleiades 857275"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 49,
   "list_group": "Colchis and the Caucasus",
   "dates_shown": "c. 500 BC – c. 50 BC",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b042",
   "id_prev": "w174",
   "latin": "Gyenos",
   "greek": "Γυηνός",
   "other_names": "Cygnus (Pliny 6.14, probably the same place)",
   "modern": "Ochamchire",
   "modern_native": "ოჩამჩირე / Очамчыра",
   "population": 5280,
   "pop_year": 2011,
   "pop_source": "census held by the de facto Abkhaz authorities, 2011 (via Wikipedia)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Ochamchire, Ochamchire district: coastal settlement mound in and near the town",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "admin1": "Abkhazia",
   "admin2": "Ochamchire district",
   "disputed": "outside the Georgian government's control since 1993; recognised as independent by Russia and a few states; regarded as part of Georgia by most states",
   "ancient_region": "Colchis/Lazica",
   "lat": 42.717,
   "lon": 41.467,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "857143",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -500,
   "greek_until": -50,
   "phases": [
    [
     -500,
     -50
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Greek pottery and building remains on an older Colchian settlement mound from the late 6th-5th c. BC; named a polis by Ps.-Scylax 81 (c. 340 BC)",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "No source records its end. Gyenos is missing from Strabo and Arrian; Pliny's 'Cygnus' may be the last mention, and the Classical-Hellenistic Greek town seems to have shrunk or ended in the late Hellenistic period. The site was occupied again in late antiquity: a limestone column with a Greek inscription, provisionally dated to the 6th c. AD, was found there in 2024 (not yet published). Whether a Greek-speaking community lived there then is unknown, so the end date is an estimate with a wide range",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -200,
    600
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 81 (polis, 4th c. BC); Greek imports to the Hellenistic period at Ochamchire; absent from Strabo (c. AD 20) and Arrian (131/132); in late antiquity a church and a lead sarcophagus of the 5th-6th c. AD in the same settlement (2017 excavation reports), and a limestone column with a Greek inscription, dated provisionally to c. the 6th c. AD by the excavator A. Dzhopua, found in July 2024 and not yet published",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town drops out of the sources after Ps.-Scylax (and perhaps Pliny); no destruction is recorded",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Greek colonists, probably Milesian",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus?",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Colchian settlement mound from the Bronze Age; no native name attested",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "yes",
   "other_language": "Colchian (native settlement on the same mound)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP, Kolchis chapter (p. 953); Ps.-Scylax 81 (polis)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Whether Gyenos was a Greek polis or a Colchian settlement with Greek residents is disputed: Tsetskhladze treats it as a Milesian foundation, Braund sees Greek influence that need not mean Greek settlement, and IACP doubts the identification with the Ochamchire site, which is poorly preserved. Rechecked for this set: nothing found for a Greek-speaking community after late antiquity.",
   "sources": [
    "IACP (Tsetskhladze, Kolchis)",
    "Ps.-Scylax 81",
    "Braund, Georgia in Antiquity (1994), 105",
    "Kohl and Tsetskhladze 1995",
    "Pleiades 857143"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 50,
   "list_group": "Colchis and the Caucasus",
   "dates_shown": "c. 100 BC – c. AD 542",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b040",
   "id_prev": "w175",
   "latin": "Pityus",
   "greek": "Πιτυοῦς",
   "other_names": "Pityous 'the Great' (Strabo, after Artemidorus); Pityus, Pityunt (Latin, Georgian); Bichvinta (Georgian); Pezonda (medieval Italian)",
   "modern": "Pitsunda",
   "modern_native": "ბიჭვინთა / Пиҵунда",
   "population": 4198,
   "pop_year": 2011,
   "pop_source": "census held by the de facto Abkhaz authorities, 2011 (via Wikipedia)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Pitsunda, Gagra district: Roman fort, late antique churches and baths in the town",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "admin1": "Abkhazia",
   "admin2": "Gagra district",
   "disputed": "outside the Georgian government's control since 1993; recognised as independent by Russia and a few states; regarded as part of Georgia by most states",
   "ancient_region": "Abasgia",
   "lat": 43.1616,
   "lon": 40.3333,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "857283",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -100,
   "greek_until": 542,
   "phases": [
    [
     -100,
     542
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "'Great Pityus' as a city in Artemidorus (c. 100 BC), cited by Strabo 11.2.14; Pliny 6.16 calls it a very rich town ('oppidum opulentissimum'). A Greek foundation in the 5th c. BC is sometimes claimed, but the Hellenistic layers are little explored",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: sacked by the Heniochi before 77 (Pliny); Roman fort from the 2nd c. AD; taken by the Goths (Borani) in 256 (Zosimus 1.32-33); evacuated and razed by its Roman garrison in 541/542; later under the Abasgian rulers. Speech: a Christian community with a bishop (Stratophilos at Nicaea, 325), three 4th-c. churches and a bath with mosaics show a town beside the fort. No Greek-speaking community is attested after the evacuation of 541/542. Later: In the 10th-11th c. the emperors in Constantinople held a frontier command here: the De administrando imperio (mid-10th c.) puts Soterioupolis on the border of Abasgia, and 11th-c. seals name a 'strategos of Soterioupolis and Anakopia' (Seibt and Jordanov 2006, who identify this Soterioupolis with Pitsunda; Kazhdan rejects the identification). This was a garrison and officials, not a Greek-speaking town community. In the 11th-14th c. Bichvinta was a seat of the Catholicos of Abkhazia (Georgian church), with a 10th-c. cathedral, and in the 14th c. the Genoese trading post of Pezonda (unchecked). None of this shows Greek-speaking townspeople after 542",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    256,
    700
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Pliny 6.16 (sacked by the Heniochi); Zosimus 1.32-33 (Gothic attacks 255-256); bishop Stratophilos, Nicaea 325; exile of John Chrysostom ordered to Pityus, 407; Justinian's Novel 28 (535) calls it a fort; Procopius, Wars 8.4.4-6 (razed by the garrison, 541/542); De administrando imperio 42 (mid-10th c., Soterioupolis on the border of Abasgia); seals of the strategos of Soterioupolis and Anakopia (11th c.; Seibt and Jordanov 2006)",
   "ended_by": "Razed and evacuated by its own Roman garrison before Khosrow I's invasion of Lazica, 541/542 (Procopius, Wars 8.4.4-6); earlier sacked by the Heniochi (before 77) and taken by the Goths (Borani), 256 (Zosimus 1.33)",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "unknown Greek settlers",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Roman fort, first half of the 2nd c. AD; second wall, mid-3rd c.",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Colchian remains from the 2nd millennium BC; the Georgian name Bichvinta, like the Greek, means 'pine', but no pre-Greek native name is attested",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 11.2.14 (Artemidorus); Pliny 6.16 (oppidum); bishop at Nicaea 325",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Its Greek origin rests on the Greek name and Strabo's 'Great Pityus'; the mother city is unknown. From the 2nd c. AD the site was mainly a Roman frontier fort. Rechecked for this set (window to 1475): the 10th-11th c. imperial command of Soterioupolis, if it was Pitsunda, was a garrison, so the end of Greek speech stays at 542 with a wide range.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 11.2.14; Pliny 6.16",
    "Braund, Georgia in Antiquity (1994), 176",
    "Zosimus 1.32-33",
    "Procopius, Wars 8.4",
    "Pleiades 857283",
    "Wikipedia: Soterioupolis (Kazhdan, ODB 1930; Seibt and Jordanov 2006), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soterioupolis"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 51,
   "list_group": "Colchis and the Caucasus",
   "dates_shown": "c. AD 535 – c. AD 698",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b044",
   "id_prev": "w176",
   "latin": "Petra (Lazica)",
   "greek": "Πέτρα",
   "other_names": "Petra Pia Iustiniana (Justinian, Novel 28)",
   "modern": "Tsikhisdziri",
   "modern_native": "ციხისძირი",
   "population": 2472,
   "pop_year": 2014,
   "pop_source": "Geostat, 2014 census (via Wikipedia)",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Cape Tsikhisdziri, Kobuleti municipality: walls, a 6th-c. three-aisled basilica with mosaic floor, baths and cisterns",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "admin1": "Adjara",
   "admin2": "Kobuleti municipality",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Colchis/Lazica",
   "lat": 41.7506,
   "lon": 41.7454,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "857362",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 535,
   "greek_until": 698,
   "phases": [
    [
     535,
     698
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Named Petra Pia Iustiniana in Justinian's Novel 28 (18 July 535); Procopius (Wars 2.15.10) credits the general John Tzibus with building a city there, probably by enlarging a small Roman fort",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Administration: taken by Khosrow I in 541; held by the Persians until Bessas stormed it after a long siege in 551 and razed its walls; the walls were later repaired and the see of Petra is still listed in the 7th c.; Roman rule ended when Lazica went over to the Arabs in 697/698. Speech: the Greek-speaking element was the Roman garrison, officials and traders; how long a civilian Greek community survived after 551 is unknown",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    551,
    750
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Procopius, Wars 2.15, 2.17, 8.11-12 (sieges 541, 548-549, 550-551); bishop of Petra under the metropolis of Phasis in Notitia 1 (7th c.); 6th-7th c. church and burials at the site",
   "ended_by": "Taken by Khosrow I, 541; stormed by Bessas, who razed its walls, 551 (Procopius, Wars 8.12); Roman rule ended when Lazica went over to the Arabs, 697/698 (Theophanes AM 6190)",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Greek foundation",
   "founder": "Justinian (built by John Tzibus)",
   "founder_group": "emperors in Constantinople 330–1453",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "walls repaired after 551",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Late Bronze Age, Classical and Hellenistic layers at Tsikhisdziri; no ancient native name attested",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Laz (Colchian), the language of the surrounding population",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Imperial town of the 530s with a garrison, officials and Roman traders (John Tzibus' trade monopoly, Procopius, Wars 2.15.10-12) in the land of the Lazi; a bishop's basilica",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Novel 28 (535); Procopius, Wars 2.15.10 ('a city'); see of Petra, suffragan of Phasis (Notitia 1)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "A frontier town built for control of Lazica; the evidence for Greek-speaking civilians beyond the garrison and the traders of the monopoly is thin. Rechecked for this set: Petra is not attested as a town after the Arab conquest of Lazica (697/698), so the end is unchanged.",
   "sources": [
    "Procopius, Wars 2.15, 2.17, 8.11-12",
    "Justinian, Novel 28",
    "Braund, Georgia in Antiquity (1994)",
    "Wikipedia: Petra, Lazica",
    "Pleiades 857362"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 52,
   "list_group": "Colchis and the Caucasus",
   "dates_shown": "1830 – today",
   "period": "5 The later Greek towns (1475-1923)",
   "id": "b117",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Tsalka",
   "greek": "Τσάλκα",
   "other_names": "Barmaksyz (Barmaqsız, the village's Turkic name, used by its Greeks; renamed Tsalka in 1932)",
   "modern": "Tsalka",
   "modern_native": "ცალკა",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Tsalka, on the Tsalka plateau (Trialeti) by the Tsalka reservoir, Kvemo Kartli",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "admin1": "Kvemo Kartli",
   "admin2": "Tsalka municipality",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Transcaucasia (the Tiflis governorate; Soviet Georgia)",
   "lat": 41.5947,
   "lon": 44.0886,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "B",
   "greek_from": 1830,
   "greek_until": null,
   "phases": [
    [
     1830,
     null
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Settled in 1829-1831 by Orthodox Greeks who left with the Russian army after the war of 1828-1829: from Gümüşhane and Maden (May 1830), from Başköy in the Erzurum vilayet (July 1830) and from other sancaks of Erzurum (later in 1830); by the end of 1831 they lived in 18 villages with 642 families on the Tsalka plateau (Eloeva 2002, via Wikipedia); Janova and Kukchishvili give '7,000 Greeks from Turkey' who founded 18 villages in Trialeti in 1830. Barmaksyz, one of their Turkish-speaking villages, was renamed Tsalka in 1932 and became the district centre (unchecked: Tsalka district formed c. 1930).",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Administration: no Greek self-government; a village of the Tiflis governorate, then the centre of Tsalka district in Soviet Georgia and of Tsalka municipality today. People: a Greek town by nationality through the Soviet period (96% Greek in 1979; Greeks 30,800 or 62.5% of the district's 49,300 people). Speech: the town's Greeks spoke Turkish (Urum): in Aklaev's survey 87.9% and 83.0% of white- and blue-collar respondents in the town spoke Turkish freely, but only 10.0% and 6.6% Greek, against 93.5% and 80.6% Greek in the Pontic-speaking villages. After 1989 most Greeks emigrated to Greece (above all Thessaloniki and Greek Macedonia) and to southern Russia; Georgians from Svaneti and Adjara hit by landslides were settled on the plateau in 1997-2006. A small, mostly elderly Greek community remains; the phase is left open for it.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": null,
   "fade_evidence": "1830-1831: 18 villages, 642 families on the plateau (Eloeva 2002), or about 7,000 people (Janova and Kukchishvili 2017); town population 1923: 1,650; 1939: 4,875; 1959: 7,065; 1970: 5,819; 1979: 6,245 (96% Greek, Aklaev); 1989: 8,043; 2002: 1,741; 2014: 2,326; 2021: 3,136 (Wikipedia, Tsalka Municipality). District/municipality: 1979: 49,300, of whom 30,800 Greeks (Aklaev); 1989: 44,438 (citypopulation); 2002: 20,888, of whom 4,589 Greeks (Akopyan and Ermakov); 2014: 18,849, Greeks about 7%; 2021: Greeks 6.9% of 19,679.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the Greek town was emptied by emigration to Greece and southern Russia after 1989 (unchecked: amid the economic collapse and ethnic tension of the early 1990s). The Georgian state then settled Georgian eco-migrants from Svaneti and Adjara in the district (1997-2006). Earlier, Georgia's national Greek schools and theatre were closed in the late 1930s (Aklaev).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "later Greek settlement",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Orthodox Greeks from Gümüşhane, Maden, Başköy and other places in the Erzurum vilayet, settled by the Russian authorities after the war of 1828-1829",
   "founder_group": "Russian Empire",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Tsalka is an old Georgian name of the district; whether the village of Barmaksyz was inhabited before the Greeks came in 1829-1831 was not established.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "Georgian",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Urum (Turkish): the town's Greeks spoke an Anatolian Turkish dialect (the 'Tsalka language', 'bizim dili'); Pontic Greek only in some villages of the plateau; Russian as second language, Armenian and Georgian neighbours",
   "bilingual_evidence": "In a survey of the 1980s 83-88% of the townspeople spoke Turkish freely and only 7-10% Greek (Aklaev); no other count by language for the town was found.",
   "urum": true,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": [
    1830,
    2002
   ],
   "greek_town_text": "A town of Greeks by nationality until emigration after 1989; by the census of 2002 the town had shrunk from 8,043 people (1989) to 1,741 and the Greeks of the whole municipality to 4,589.",
   "status_evidence": "District centre of Tsalka district (Soviet Georgia) and of Tsalka municipality; called a town (g. Tsalka) by Aklaev 1988; 96% Greek in 1979.",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Included on the side of inclusion: a town of Greeks from the settlement of 1829-1831 to the emigration of the 1990s (96% Greek in 1979), but its Greeks spoke Urum, an Anatolian Turkish dialect, not Greek: in a survey of the 1980s only 7-10% of the townspeople spoke Greek freely, against over 80% in the Pontic villages of Santa and Neon Kharaba. Wikipedia's article on the Tsalka language (after Sideri and Eloeva) says many first settlers spoke Pontic at home and later generations shifted to Turkish; no 19th-century count for the town was found, so whether Greek was ever a main language of Tsalka itself is not shown.",
   "sources": [
    "A. R. Aklaev, survey of the Greeks of Tsalka district, Sovetskaya etnografiya 1988/5, 60-71 (pp. 61-65) https://eo.iea.ras.ru/wp-content/uploads/1988/05/eoarchive_1988_5_060_aklaev.pdf",
    "Wikipedia, 'Tsalka language' (after Eloeva 2002, Popov 2016, Sideri 2017) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsalka_language",
    "G. Janova and M. Kukchishvili, 'Greeks in South Georgia and their dialect', in Les langues et leurs territoires: entre conflit et cohabitation (Human Sciences Monograph Series 19, 2017), 494-511 https://www.erudit.org/fr/livres/serie-monographique-en-sciences-humaines/les-langues-et-leurs-territoires-entre-conflit-et-cohabitation/5420co.pdf",
    "Wikipedia, 'Tsalka Municipality' (census figures for the town and municipality, 1923-2021) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsalka_Municipality",
    "citypopulation.de, Tsalka municipality (Geostat censuses 1989, 2002, 2014) https://www.citypopulation.de/en/georgia/admin/kvemo_kartli/1007__tsalka",
    "V. Z. Akopyan and V. P. Ermakov, 'Rol pravoslavnoi tserkvi v etnogeneze subetnicheskoi gruppy grekov-urumov', Pyatigorsk State University (2002 census: 4,589 Greeks in Tsalka district) https://roii.ru/dialogue/66/roii-dialogue-66_21.pdf",
    "Wikipedia, 'List of renamed cities in Georgia' (Barmaqsiz renamed Tsalka, 1932) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_renamed_cities_in_Georgia",
    "Wikipedia, 'Tsalka' (eco-migrants 1997-2006; 2014 ethnic shares) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsalka"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 53,
   "list_group": "The Pontic coast",
   "dates_shown": "756 BC – 1923",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b087",
   "id_prev": "C536",
   "latin": "Trapezus (Trebizond)",
   "greek": "Τραπεζοῦς",
   "other_names": "Trapezounta; Trebizond (medieval)",
   "modern": "Trabzon",
   "modern_native": "Trabzon",
   "population": 330836,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, district total (via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Trabzon (Ortahisar, Trabzon)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Trabzon",
   "admin2": "Ortahisar",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 41.0043,
   "lon": 39.7233,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "857359",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -756,
   "greek_until": 1923,
   "phases": [
    [
     -756,
     1923
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "756 BC (Eusebius); 'Greek city, colonists of Sinope' (Xen. Anab. 4.8.22); no Archaic finds, and modern scholars mostly prefer the late 7th or 6th c. BC, after Sinope's (re)foundation c. 631",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Administration: capital of the Empire of Trebizond until Mehmed II took it in August or September 1461. Speech: the city stayed mainly Christian and Greek-speaking for about a century (Rum 65% and Muslims 19% in 1486; Muslims 14% in 1523); Muslims were 47% in 1553 and 54% in 1583, but most townspeople were still Greek-speaking then (Lowry's registers, via Bryer), many Muslims being converts. The Orthodox remained a large Greek-speaking minority (Pontic Greek) until 1923. The end came with the flight of 1918, the labour battalions of 1921-22, the expulsion of January 1923 and the exchange.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "year",
   "until_range": [
    1923,
    1924
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Ottoman registers (TDV, after Lowry): 1486, 1,385 taxpaying households (c. 6,700 people): Rum 65.16%, Armenians 12.49%, Latins 3.13%, Muslim settlers 19.22%; 1523: Muslims 14.32%; 1553: Muslims 47%, Rum 42%; 1583: Muslims 53.62%, Rum and Armenians 38.34%; per Bryer, still 77% Greek-speaking in 1583; the Phrontisterion (school) founded 1682; 1834: 1,586 Rum adult males; 1847: 1,000 Rum houses of 5,000; 1881 salname: 1,799 Rum of 10,383 adult males; church survey 1913-14: 2,500 families, 13 churches; 1914 Ottoman census (kaza): 23,806 Greek Orthodox, 64,726 Muslims, 14,846 Armenians.",
   "ended_by": "1461: by the terms of surrender Mehmed II shipped Emperor David Komnenos, his family, the officials, nobles and rich to Istanbul, and took about 1,500 young men and women of the city and its district, about 800 of the men for the janissaries; by 1486 he had settled 201 Muslim households deported from about twenty Anatolian towns (TDV, after Lowry). The long change that followed came from conversion and Muslim settlement. 1918: about 8,000 townspeople left with the Russian army. 1921-22: men aged 15-50 sent to labour battalions by the Ankara government. January 1923: most remaining Orthodox families ordered out; the rest left under the Greek-Turkish convention on the exchange of populations, signed at Lausanne on 30 January 1923 (Topalidis 2015).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Sinope (ultimately Miletus)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Sinope",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "yes: after 1461 Greek beside Turkish (and Armenian); Muslims were a majority by 1583, but the register suggests that most townspeople still spoke Greek then (Lowry, via Bryer), many Muslims being converts; Greek a large minority to 1923.",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP (Pontos); Xenophon; Ps.-Scylax 85 'Hellenic city'; coins; Roman free city and fleet base; Hierocles; bishops 325–; metropolis; capital of the Empire of Trebizond 1204–1461",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The ancient date of 756 depends on the tradition of a pre-Cimmerian Sinope; archaeology gives nothing earlier than Classical. Fell to Mehmed II in 1461. Romeyka-speaking Muslims from the valleys who live in Trabzon today are newcomers and do not extend the phase.",
   "sources": [
    "IACP (Pontos), Trapezous",
    "Xen. Anab. 4.8.22",
    "Eusebius, Chronicle",
    "Bryer & Winfield 1985",
    "Pleiades 857359",
    "H. Lowry, The Islamization and Turkification of the City of Trabzon (Trebizond), 1461-1583 (Isis 2009), via TDV and Bryer",
    "TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, 'Trabzon': https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/trabzon",
    "S. Topalidis, 'Crypto-Christians of the Trabzon Region': https://trapezounta.com/?p=501",
    "Chrysanthos, 'I Ekklisia Trapezountos', Archeion Pontou 4-5 (1933): church survey of 1913-14 (via Topalidis, pontosworld.com)",
    "Ottoman census of 1914 by kaza (Karpat 1985), as tabulated in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trebizond_vilayet"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 54,
   "list_group": "The Pontic coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. 564 BC – 1923",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b075",
   "id_prev": "C527",
   "latin": "Amisus",
   "greek": "Ἀμισός",
   "other_names": "Peiraieus (Athenian refoundation, c. 437 BC); Eupatoria (adjoining foundation of Mithridates VI); Samsoun (medieval)",
   "modern": "Samsun",
   "modern_native": "Samsun",
   "population": 325775,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, district total (via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Baruthane / Toraman Tepe headland NW of the modern centre (İlkadım, Samsun)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Samsun",
   "admin2": "İlkadım",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 41.2927,
   "lon": 36.3313,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "857024",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -564,
   "greek_until": 1923,
   "phases": [
    [
     -564,
     1923
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Phocaean foundation four years before Herakleia, i.e. c. 564 BC (Ps.-Scymnus/Anon. Periplus); Theopompus: first founded by Milesians; earliest Greek pottery 6th c. BC; Athenian refoundation as Peiraieus c. 437 BC",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Administration: Turkish from 1398 (Bayezid I), finally from c. 1420 (Biçeroğlu Hamza Bey for Mehmed I). Speech: a Greek community lived on, but shrank to a remnant: 81 adult Rum males in 1485, 22 Rum individuals in 1576, and in 1642 the town proper had no non-Muslim community (two zimmis), with about 94 non-Muslims at nearby Kadıköy. It grew again with the 19th-century trade (150 Rum families 1838; 240 Rum households of 800 in 1847) to 8,618 Greek Orthodox in 1911, Greek-speaking. It ended with the deportations of 1916-17 and 1921 and the exchange of 1923.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "year",
   "until_range": [
    1922,
    1924
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "1485 register: 81 adult Rum males, 84 Armenians, 6 Genoese; 1576: 22 Rum; 1642: two zimmis in the town, c. 94 non-Muslims at Kadıköy (TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, 'Samsun'); 1838: 450 Turkish and 150 Rum families; 1847: 500 Turkish, 240 Rum, 60 Armenian households; 1881 salname (kaza): 12,753 Rum of 19,399 males; 1911 Greek consular census: 8,618 Greek Orthodox in the town, Greek-speaking; 1914 Ottoman census (Canik kaza): 54,709 Greek Orthodox, 44,992 Muslims, 4,791 Armenians.",
   "ended_by": "Dec 1916-Jan 1917: the Greeks of Samsun were rounded up and marched inland by the Ottoman authorities (Refet Pasha [Bele], commanding at Samsun, reported 13,406 Rums sent inland: BOA DH.ŞFR 548/1, 12 Mar 1917, via Biber). June 1921: the Ankara government's Central Army under Nureddin Pasha (unchecked) deported the Greek men of the coast inland, and Topal Osman's bands entered the district (Morris & Ze'evi 2019). The rest left under the Greek-Turkish convention on the exchange of populations, signed at Lausanne on 30 January 1923.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Milesians (Theopompus) or Phocaeans (Ps.-Scymnus); Athenian settlers under Athenokles c. 437 BC",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus (or Phocaea); Athens (refoundation)",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Bronze Age and Hittite-period mounds (Dündartepe, Tekkeköy) lie nearby, but not on the Greek city site; no pre-Greek name is attested.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "yes: under Turkish rule (from 1398, finally c. 1420) the Greeks lived beside the Muslim town and the Genoese Simisso, then as a small minority (16th-18th c.); in the late 19th c. they were again about half of the town or more (Samsun kaza 1881: 12,753 Rum of 19,399 males; early 1890s: about 11,000 people, about a third Muslim).",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP (Pontos); coins from 5th c. BC (as Peiraieus) to 3rd c. AD; free city under Rome; Hierocles; bishops 451–879; medieval Roman metropolis",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The mother city is disputed: Milesian (Theopompus in Strabo 12.3.14) or Phocaean (Ps.-Scymnus); Sinopean involvement is also suggested. Ottoman from 1420. The low point of 1642 is treated as a shrinking, not a break, because a non-Muslim community lived on at Kadıköy, now part of Samsun; the 19th-century community was much enlarged by newcomers.",
   "sources": [
    "IACP (Pontos), Amisos",
    "Strabo 12.3.14",
    "Anon. Periplus Ponti Euxini (Ps.-Scymnus fragment)",
    "Pleiades 857024",
    "Wikipedia: Amisos",
    "TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, 'Samsun': https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/samsun",
    "Greek consular census of 1911 (Samsun), in Kitromilides & Alexandris, Deltio Kentrou Mikrasiatikon Spoudon 5 (1984), table VI",
    "Ottoman census of 1914 by kaza (Karpat 1985), as tabulated in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trebizond_vilayet"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Amisos → Peiraieus (Athenians, c. 437 BC) → Amisos again; Eupatoria founded beside it by Mithridates VI and later merged"
  },
  {
   "no": 55,
   "list_group": "The Pontic coast",
   "dates_shown": "400 BC – c. 180 BC",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b083",
   "id_prev": "C535",
   "latin": "Cerasus (Xenophon's)",
   "greek": "Κερασοῦς",
   "other_names": "Kerasous II (Barrington)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Kerasus Dere, near Vakfıkebir/Çarşıbaşı (Trabzon)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Trabzon",
   "admin2": "Vakfıkebir",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 41.0581,
   "lon": 39.319,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "857183",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -400,
   "greek_until": -180,
   "phases": [
    [
     -400,
     -180
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "'Greek city by the sea, colonists of Sinope' where the Ten Thousand stayed in 400 BC (Xen. Anab. 5.3.2); founding date unknown",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Xenophon found a Greek city, a colony of Sinope, here in 400 BC (Anab. 5.3.2); it is not recorded again as a town at this site. Arrian (AD 131) writes that 'Pharnacea was formerly called Cerasus, and was a colony from Sinope', so by his time no separate Kerasous was known. If the site given here is right, the town most likely lost its people when Pharnakes I gathered the towns of this coast into Pharnakeia, c. 183 BC (Strabo 12.3.17 names Kotyora; that Kerasous was also moved is an inference). The end is an estimate.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -400,
    131
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Xen. Anab. 5.3.2 (400 BC); later 'Kerasous' references belong to Giresun or are uncertain.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: no record of its end.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Sinope",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Sinope",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP (Pontos); Xen. Anab. 5.3.2",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The site is disputed. Barrington, following Bryer & Winfield, places Xenophon's Kerasous here, three days' march west of Trapezous; others put it at Giresun (merge with Pharnakeia if so). Ps.-Scylax 89 also lists a 'Kerasous' between Sinope and Armene, probably a textual displacement.",
   "sources": [
    "Xen. Anab. 5.3.2",
    "Bryer & Winfield 1985",
    "Barrington 87 E3",
    "Pleiades 857183"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 56,
   "list_group": "The Pontic coast",
   "dates_shown": "400 BC – c. AD 131 +",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b089",
   "id_prev": "C533",
   "latin": "Cotyora",
   "greek": "Κοτύωρα",
   "other_names": "",
   "modern": "Ordu",
   "modern_native": "Ordu",
   "population": 234628,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, district total (via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Bozukkale, Ordu (Altınordu, Ordu)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Ordu",
   "admin2": "Altınordu",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 40.9984,
   "lon": 37.8704,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "857200",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -400,
   "greek_until": 1923,
   "phases": [
    [
     -400,
     131
    ],
    [
     1800,
     1923
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "'Greek city, colonists of Sinope', paying tribute to it, where the Ten Thousand stayed in 400 BC (Xen. Anab. 5.5.3–10); founding date unknown (probably 5th c. BC)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "First phase: Pharnakes I moved its people to Pharnakeia c. 183 BC; Arrian (AD 131) found 'a village, and not a large one', the last record of the ancient place. Second phase: the Ottoman centre of the district was inland at Eskipazar; the landing of Bucak on the coast is attested from 1594-95 and the new town grew there at the end of the 18th c. (municipality 1868, named Ordu 1869). Its Greeks (old residents of the district and migrants from Chaldia) were a minority. They were deported in 1916-17, again in 1921, and the rest left under the exchange.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    1917,
    1924
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Xen. Anab. 5.5 (400 BC); Strabo 12.3.17 (synoecism into Pharnakeia); Arrian, Periplus (AD 131: a village); 1455 register: 526 Christian Rum families in the Ordu district; 1878 salname: 2,626 Rum in the kaza centre; 1895 (kaza): 10,443 Rum; 1914 Ottoman census (kaza): 18,505 Greek Orthodox, 111,421 Muslims, 12,349 Armenians.",
   "ended_by": "The first phase ended with the transfer of the people to Pharnakeia by Pharnakes I of Pontus, c. 183 BC (Strabo 12.3.17). The second: Greek notables deported Dec 1916; order of 20 July 1917 to remove the men aged 16-50; after the Russian bombardment of August 1917 about 2,500 left with the Russians and the rest were expelled inland to Sivas and Kastamonu (pontosworld, after the Encyclopedia of Pontic Hellenism; New York Times 7 Apr 1918); a second deportation followed in 1921; the remnant left under the Greek-Turkish convention on the exchange of populations, signed at Lausanne on 30 January 1923.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Sinope",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Sinope",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "yes: the 19th-century town of Ordu was Turkish-majority, with Greek and Armenian minorities (1878: 9,111 Muslims, 2,626 Rum, 1,991 Armenians in the kaza centre).",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP (Pontos); Xen. Anab. 5.5",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Its people were moved to Pharnakeia c. 183 BC; Arrian (AD 131) calls it 'a village, and not a large one'. Harbour remains have been noted near Bozukkale/Kirazlimanı. The gap rests on the transfer of 183 BC, Arrian's village and the late growth of the modern town (TDV).",
   "sources": [
    "Xen. Anab. 5.5.3–10",
    "Strabo 12.3.17",
    "Arrian, Periplus",
    "Pleiades 857200",
    "TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, 'Ordu (şehir)': https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ordu--sehir",
    "pontosworld.com, 'Kotyora - Ordu'",
    "Ottoman census of 1914 by kaza (Karpat 1985), as tabulated in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trebizond_vilayet"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Population moved to Pharnakeia c. 183 BC"
  },
  {
   "no": 57,
   "list_group": "The Pontic coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. 340 BC – c. 200 BC",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b082",
   "id_prev": "C602",
   "latin": "Becheirias",
   "greek": "Βεχειριάς",
   "other_names": "Becheirikos limen",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "unlocated, on the coast of Rize province (land of the Becheires)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Rize",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 41.06,
   "lon": 40.62,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -340,
   "greek_until": -200,
   "phases": [
    [
     -340,
     -200
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "c. 340 BC: a \"Hellenic city\" (πόλις Ἑλληνίς) in Ps.-Scylax 84",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Known only from Ps.-Scylax (c. 340 BC). Arrian (AD 131) lists the rivers and anchorages of the coast between Trapezous and the Apsaros and names no Greek town there, so the town had probably gone by then. The end is an estimate between the two writers.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -340,
    131
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 84 only.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: no record after Ps.-Scylax.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "unknown Greek settlers (perhaps from Sinope or Trapezus)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "unknown",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 84 (\"Hellenic city\")",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Ps.-Scylax lists the peoples west of the Apsaros in order (Byzeres, Ekecheirieis, Becheires), so the town lay on the Turkish side of the border, like Stameneia further west.",
   "sources": [
    "Ps.-Scylax 81-89 (Shipley 2011/2019) (unchecked)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzeres"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 58,
   "list_group": "The Pontic coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. 340 BC – c. AD 77",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b076",
   "id_prev": "C528",
   "latin": "Lycastus",
   "greek": "Λύκαστος",
   "other_names": "Lykaston",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "unlocated, near the Mert Irmağı east of Samsun (Samsun)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Samsun",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 41.27,
   "lon": 36.4,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -340,
   "greek_until": 77,
   "phases": [
    [
     -340,
     77
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "'Hellenic city' on the river Lykastos in Ps.-Scylax 89 (c. 340 BC); founding date unknown",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Known as a Greek city only from Ps.-Scylax; Mela and Pliny still name it, perhaps from older sources. It was probably absorbed by Amisos; there is no later record.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -340,
    100
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 89 (c. 340 BC); Mela 1.19; Pliny NH 6.3 (AD 77); nothing later.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: probably absorbed by Amisos; no record of its end.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "unknown Greek settlers (perhaps from Amisos or Sinope)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "unknown",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 89 'Hellenic city'; Mela 1.19; Pliny 6.3",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "It lay about 20 stadia beyond Amisos on the river of the same name (probably the Mert Irmağı); the town site is unlocated and was probably absorbed by Amisos.",
   "sources": [
    "Ps.-Scylax 89",
    "Pliny NH 6.3",
    "Wikipedia: Lycastus (Pontus)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 59,
   "list_group": "The Pontic coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. 340 BC – c. 200 BC",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b077",
   "id_prev": "C603",
   "latin": "Odeinios",
   "greek": "Ὀδείνιος",
   "other_names": "",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "unlocated, on the coast of Rize/Artvin (land of the Ekecheirieis)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Artvin",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 41.25,
   "lon": 41.05,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -340,
   "greek_until": -200,
   "phases": [
    [
     -340,
     -200
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "c. 340 BC: a \"Hellenic city\" in Ps.-Scylax 83",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Known only from Ps.-Scylax (c. 340 BC), in the land of the Ekecheirieis. Arrian (AD 131) lists the rivers and anchorages of the coast between Trapezous and the Apsaros and names no Greek town there, so the town had probably gone by then. The end is an estimate between the two writers.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -340,
    131
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 83 only.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: no record after Ps.-Scylax.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "unknown Greek settlers",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "unknown",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 83 (\"Hellenic city\")",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Known only from Ps.-Scylax, in the land of the Ekecheirieis west of the Byzeres; see Becheirias.",
   "sources": [
    "Ps.-Scylax 81-89 (Shipley 2011/2019) (unchecked)",
    "Arrian, Periplus Ponti Euxini (unchecked)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzeres"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 60,
   "list_group": "The Pontic coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. 340 BC – 1923",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b091",
   "id_prev": "C534",
   "latin": "Pharnacia (Cerasus)",
   "greek": "Φαρνάκεια",
   "other_names": "Choirades? (Ps.-Scylax 86); Kerasous/Kerasunt (Κερασοῦς, Roman–Trapezuntine name)",
   "modern": "Giresun",
   "modern_native": "Giresun",
   "population": 144158,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, district total (via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Giresun (Merkez, Giresun)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Giresun",
   "admin2": "Merkez",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 40.9191,
   "lon": 38.3979,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "857185",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -340,
   "greek_until": 1923,
   "phases": [
    [
     -340,
     1923
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "c. 340 BC: probably the \"Hellenic city\" Choirades of Ps.-Scylax 86, between Zephyrion and the island of Ares; refounded as Pharnakeia by Pharnakes I c. 183 BC with settlers from Kotyora; later Kerasous",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Trapezuntine (briefly taken in 1397 by Süleyman Bey, son of Hacı Emir), Ottoman probably from 1461. Speech: the town stayed overwhelmingly Christian through the 16th c. (Ottoman registers), became mixed in the 17th c. and was about half Greek in the 19th c.; its Greeks spoke Pontic Greek (unchecked). It ended with the deportations and the bands of 1916-22 and the exchange of 1923.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "year",
   "until_range": [
    1921,
    1924
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "c. 1486 register: 114 Christian men and 22 widows, 4 Muslim civilians and c. 30 garrison soldiers; c. 1515: 26 Muslim households, about 221 Christian households (three groups, one resettled from the Trabzon area) and 40 widows; 1554: 33 Muslim, 214 Christian households; 1682: 116 Muslim taxpayers in five Muslim quarters, 65 in the Christian quarters; 1847: 750 houses, half Christian; 1869-70 salname: 2,866 Greeks of 9,900; c. 1890 (Cuinet): 4,906 Rum; 1914 Ottoman census (kaza): 24,138 Greek Orthodox, 92,301 Muslims, 2,275 Armenians.",
   "ended_by": "1916: Topal Osman (Osman Ağa) extorted money from Greeks of Giresun and arrested men accused of trying to flee by sea (the merchant Ioannis Deligiorgis died in custody); the coast villages were deported inland in 1916-17; from 1919, as mayor of Giresun, Topal Osman led bands against the Greeks of the district (1919-22) (via en.wikipedia 'Topal Osman', after Sigalas; Black Book 1922). The rest left under the Greek-Turkish convention on the exchange of populations, signed at Lausanne on 30 January 1923 (TDV).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "unknown (Choirades); refounded by Pharnakes I of Pontus c. 183 BC",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "yes: Greek beside Turkish from the 17th c.: in 1682 Muslims were the larger part; in 1847 the town was half Muslim, half Christian; c. 1890 (Cuinet) 4,388 Muslims, 4,906 Rum and 936 Armenians of 10,230.",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 12.3.17; Cohen; Pontic and Roman coins; Hierocles (Kerasous); bishops 431–879; later metropolis; second city of the Empire of Trebizond",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Many identify Giresun with Xenophon's Sinopean colony Kerasous; if so, its Greek date is c. 400 BC. The Barrington Atlas puts that Kerasous further east (the entry for Xenophon's Cerasus), and Ps.-Scylax's 'Hellenic city' Choirades near Ares Island may have stood here, which gives the date of c. 340 BC; if that identification is wrong, the date is c. 183 BC. Held out briefly after Trebizond fell in 1461.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 12.3.17",
    "Cohen 1995",
    "Bryer & Winfield 1985",
    "Pleiades 857185",
    "Wikipedia: Giresun",
    "TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, 'Giresun': https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/giresun",
    "https://cities.blacksea.gr/ru/giresun/5-1/ (Trabzon salnames 1869-81)",
    "Ottoman census of 1914 by kaza (Karpat 1985), as tabulated in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trebizond_vilayet"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Choirades? (c. 340 BC) → Pharnakeia (Pharnakes I, c. 183 BC) → Kerasous (Roman/medieval)"
  },
  {
   "no": 61,
   "list_group": "The Pontic coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. 340 BC – c. 200 BC",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b081",
   "id_prev": "C532",
   "latin": "Stameneia",
   "greek": "Σταμένεια",
   "other_names": "Stamene; Ameneia? (Barrington)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "unlocated, coast between Fatsa and Ordu (Ordu)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Ordu",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 41.1128,
   "lon": 37.7042,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "857333",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -340,
   "greek_until": -200,
   "phases": [
    [
     -340,
     -200
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "'Hellenic city' among the Chalybes in Ps.-Scylax 88 (c. 340 BC); founding date unknown",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Known only from Ps.-Scylax (c. 340 BC), between the Genetes harbour and Cape Iasonion. Arrian (AD 131), who lists the anchorages of this coast in detail, does not name it, so the town had probably gone by then. The end is an estimate between the two writers.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -340,
    131
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 88 only.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: no record after Ps.-Scylax.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "unknown Greek settlers (perhaps from Sinope)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "unknown",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 88 'Hellenic city' only",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Known only from Ps.-Scylax. It lay between the Genetes harbour and Cape Iasonion; Barrington tentatively places 'Stamene/Ameneia?' near Perşembe.",
   "sources": [
    "Ps.-Scylax 88 (Shipley 2019)",
    "Barrington 87 C3",
    "Pleiades 857333"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 62,
   "list_group": "The Pontic coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. 340 BC – c. 71 BC",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b078",
   "id_prev": "C529",
   "latin": "Themiscyra",
   "greek": "Θεμίσκυρα",
   "other_names": "",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "near Terme (Terme, Samsun)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Samsun",
   "admin2": "Terme",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 41.2152,
   "lon": 36.9677,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "857350",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -340,
   "greek_until": -71,
   "phases": [
    [
     -340,
     -71
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Herodotus 4.86 names Themiskyra on the Thermodon (c. 430 BC); first called a 'Hellenic city' by Ps.-Scylax 89 (c. 340 BC); a walled town besieged by Lucullus in 71 BC (Appian, Mith. 78)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "The last record of the town is the siege by Lucullus in 71 BC; afterwards only the plain bears the name. The Orthodox of the Terme district in 1911 spoke Turkish.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -71,
    400
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 89 (c. 340 BC); Appian, Mith. 78 (71 BC); later authors name only the plain; 1911 Greek consular census: the 277 Orthodox of Terme were Turkish-speaking.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: besieged by L. Licinius Lucullus in 71 BC (Appian, Mith. 78); no destruction is recorded.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "unknown Greek settlers (perhaps from Amisos or Sinope)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "unknown",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The legendary city of the Amazons; there is no historical pre-Greek attestation.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Herodotus 4.86; Ps.-Scylax 89 'Hellenic city'; Appian, Mith. 78",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The city site is not identified on the Terme plain. The Turkish name Terme comes from the river Thermodon, not from Themiskyra.",
   "sources": [
    "Ps.-Scylax 89",
    "Herodotus 4.86",
    "Appian, Mith. 78",
    "Pleiades 857350",
    "Greek consular census of 1911 (Samsun), in Kitromilides & Alexandris, Deltio Kentrou Mikrasiatikon Spoudon 5 (1984), table VI"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 63,
   "list_group": "The Pontic coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. AD 50 – c. 1400 +",
   "period": "3 Rome (63 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "b084",
   "id_prev": "C531",
   "latin": "Polemonium",
   "greek": "Πολεμώνιον",
   "other_names": "Side (Σίδη), the earlier fort of the Sidene district; Pouleman (medieval)",
   "modern": "Fatsa",
   "modern_native": "Fatsa",
   "population": 128359,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, district total (via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Fatsa/Bolaman area (Fatsa, Ordu)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Ordu",
   "admin2": "Fatsa",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 41.0309,
   "lon": 37.5002,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "857285",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 50,
   "greek_until": 1923,
   "phases": [
    [
     50,
     1400
    ],
    [
     1860,
     1923
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "founded at Side by a Polemonid king of Pontus; Strabo (c. AD 20) names only Side as a fort, so probably Polemon II (AD 38–64); some credit Polemon I (37–8 BC)",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "First phase: Polemonium was a Greek city and a see (bishops 451-787), later the Trapezuntine castle-town of Pouleman (Bolaman); it passed to the Turkmen in the 14th c. (unchecked: the date), and no Greek community is recorded there for the next four centuries, so the end of the first phase is an estimate. Second phase: the 19th-century Greek community of Fatsa was small and made up largely of settlers from Gümüşhane, Sürmene, Ünye and Ordu (first counted in 1869: 284 Greek Orthodox); with no known tie to the medieval town it is a new phase, and its start is an estimate. It ended with the bands of 1921 and the exchange of 1923.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "year",
   "until_range": [
    1921,
    1924
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Bishops 451-787; 1869 Ottoman figure: 284 Greek Orthodox at Fatsa; 1914 Ottoman census (kaza): 3,026 Greek Orthodox, 35,678 Muslims, 1,250 Armenians; c. 300 people awaiting passage in March 1923.",
   "ended_by": "A family deported south from Fatsa in spring 1920 (Halo 2000); c. 1921 the kaza was raided by Topal Osman's bands with 'the same atrocities' as at Tirebolu and Bulancak (Black Book 1922, pp. 20-21); the remnant left under the Greek-Turkish convention on the exchange of populations, signed at Lausanne on 30 January 1923.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Polemon II (or Polemon I) of Pontus",
   "founder_group": "rulers",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Pliny 6.11; Ptolemy; gave its name to the province Pontus Polemoniacus; Hierocles; bishops 451–787",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The Polemonids were Roman client kings of Pontus, not Mithridatids. The name survives in nearby Bolaman; Barrington places the site at Fatsa (Phadisane). The continuity of Greek speech between the 14th and the 19th c. is not documented.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 12.3.16",
    "Pliny NH 6.11",
    "Pleiades 857285",
    "Wikipedia: Polemonium",
    "pontosworld.com, 'Fatsa' (CAMS list)",
    "Virtual Genocide Memorial, 'Kaza Fatsa'",
    "Ottoman census of 1914 by kaza (Karpat 1985), as tabulated in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trebizond_vilayet"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Side → Polemonion"
  },
  {
   "no": 64,
   "list_group": "The Pontic coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. AD 460 – c. 1100",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b074",
   "id_prev": "C526",
   "latin": "Leontopolis (Zaliches)",
   "greek": "Λεοντόπολις",
   "other_names": "Zaliches/Zalichos (Ζάλιχος); Saltus Zalichenus, an imperial estate (Hierocles: Σάλτον Ζαλίχην)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "near Alaçam (Alaçam, Samsun)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Samsun",
   "admin2": "Alaçam",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 41.6153,
   "lon": 35.5931,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "857381",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 460,
   "greek_until": 1100,
   "phases": [
    [
     460,
     1100
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "an imperial estate (saltus) made a city and renamed Leontopolis, presumably by Leo I (457–474); listed by Hierocles (c. 527); later a see under Amaseia ('Leontopolis or Zaliches')",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Administration: a city and see of the eastern empire from the 5th c. Speech: no record of the town after the bishops of the 6th-9th c.; the coast west of Amisos passed to the Turks after Manzikert (the Danishmendids, late 11th c. (unchecked)) and was settled by Turkmen. The date is an estimate. When the Orthodox of the district reappear in the records, they spoke Turkish (Alaçam, 1911).",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    879,
    1400
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Bishops 'of Leontopolis or Zaliches' 6th-9th c. (councils; Notitiae); no later record of the town. 1911: the 1,516 Orthodox of Alaçam were Turkish-speaking (Greek consular census of 1911).",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town is not heard of after the Notitiae; the Turkish conquest of the coast (late 11th c. (unchecked)) and Turkmen settlement followed.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Roman foundation",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Leo I (presumably)",
   "founder_group": "emperors in Constantinople 330–1453",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Hierocles; Notitiae (Leontopolis/Zaliches, suffragan of Amaseia); bishops 6th–9th c.",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The site is not securely located; Barrington places it near Alaçam. The name points to Leo I, but no text names him as founder.",
   "sources": [
    "Hierocles, Synekdemos",
    "Barrington Atlas 87 A3",
    "Pleiades 857381",
    "Greek consular census of 1911 (Samsun), in Kitromilides & Alexandris, Deltio Kentrou Mikrasiatikon Spoudon 5 (1984), table VI"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Saltus Zalichenus → Leontopolis (5th c.)"
  },
  {
   "no": 65,
   "list_group": "The Pontic coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. AD 650 – 1918",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b085",
   "id_prev": "C537",
   "latin": "Rhizaeum",
   "greek": "Ῥιζαῖον",
   "other_names": "Rhizous; Rizaion",
   "modern": "Rize",
   "modern_native": "Rize",
   "population": 151617,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, district total (via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Rize (Merkez, Rize)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Rize",
   "admin2": "Merkez",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 41.0278,
   "lon": 40.5033,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "857297",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 650,
   "greek_until": 1918,
   "phases": [
    [
     650,
     1918
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Roman harbour and fort (Arrian names the river Rhizios); walled by Justinian (Procopius); a see under Neocaesarea in the earliest Notitiae (7th c.); bishop at Nicaea 787",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: Trapezuntine until 1461, then Ottoman. Speech: the town was wholly Christian in 1486 (about 1,200 people) and in the early 16th c. (about 1,600, with only two converted households); Muslims became the majority later, but Christian quarters survived (two non-Muslim quarters in the early 19th c.; 60 houses in 1870; 310 families in 1913-14; the traders 'exclusively Greek' in 1916). The town's Greeks left for Russia when the returning Turkish bands destroyed their quarter in early 1918; four remained in 1919.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "year",
   "until_range": [
    1918,
    1923
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "1432: Melesianos of Rhizaion; 1486 register: all Christian except the garrison; early 16th c.: c. 1,600 people, two converted households; 1583: 26 Muslim households in the Câmi-i Şerif quarter; early 19th c.: 24 Muslim and 2 non-Muslim quarters; 1870 (kaza): 81 Rum households; Ioannidis 1870: 60 houses; church survey 1913-14: 310 families, 2 churches; 1914 Ottoman census (kaza): 1,507 Greek Orthodox; Patriarchate 1919: four Greeks left.",
   "ended_by": "Boycott of Christian businesses from May 1914; Russian occupation 8 March 1916-early 1918; in early 1918 returning Turkish irregular bands destroyed the Greeks' churches, schools and houses and the inhabitants were forced to leave for Russia (Patriarchate 1919, p. 113, via Topalidis, 'A History of Rize').",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "no recorded founder (fortified by Justinian)",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "yes: from the later 16th c. a Greek community in a Muslim-majority town whose people spoke Turkish (unchecked), with Laz speakers to the east (1914, kaza of Rize: 122,055 Muslims, 1,507 Greek Orthodox).",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Procopius, Buildings 3.7; Notitiae (suffragan of Neocaesarea, later Trapezous); bishop 787; town of the Empire of Trebizond",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "On the edge of Laz (Kartvelian) country; the countryside east of it was largely Laz-speaking, but the town was Greek in medieval Roman and Trapezuntine times. The 650 date reflects the Notitia; the town may have had civic status under Justinian.",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Periplus",
    "Procopius, Buildings 3.7",
    "Bryer & Winfield 1985",
    "Pleiades 857297",
    "TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, 'Rize': https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/rize",
    "S. Topalidis, 'A History of Rize, Pontos' (pontosworld.com)",
    "Chrysanthos, 'I Ekklisia Trapezountos', Archeion Pontou 4-5 (1933): church survey of 1913-14 (via Topalidis, pontosworld.com)",
    "Ottoman census of 1914 by kaza (Karpat 1985), as tabulated in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trebizond_vilayet"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 66,
   "list_group": "The Pontic coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. AD 750 – c. 1923",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b080",
   "id_prev": "C530",
   "latin": "Oenoe (Oinaion)",
   "greek": "Οἰνόη",
   "other_names": "Oinaion (Οἰναῖον, medieval Roman/Trapezuntine); Unieh",
   "modern": "Ünye",
   "modern_native": "Ünye",
   "population": 134771,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, district total (via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Ünye (Ünye, Ordu)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Ordu",
   "admin2": "Ünye",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 41.1262,
   "lon": 37.2854,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "857254",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 750,
   "greek_until": 1923,
   "phases": [
    [
     750,
     1923
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "ancient Oinoe was only a coastal place; possible see of Oinaion known from 8th- and 11th-c. seals (attribution queried) and one MS of Notitia 10; a major town of the Empire of Trebizond",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: Trapezuntine until 1346, then Turkmen and (by 1461 at the latest (unchecked)) Ottoman. Speech: a Greek-speaking Orthodox community lived on (800 families, 1870), speaking Pontic Greek (pontosworld; no dialect study seen). It ended with the killings and deportations of 1916-17 and 1921 and the exchange of 1923.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    1917,
    1924
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Seals of bishops 'of Oinaion' (8th, 11th c.); 1347: Oinaion; Ioannidis 1870: 800 families; 1896 Ottoman figure: 3,905 Greek Orthodox; 1914 Ottoman census (kaza): 5,251 Greek Orthodox.",
   "ended_by": "1916: about 500 Greek hostages of the Ünye district killed after guerrillas escaped; Oct 1916 an Ottoman brigade burned eleven Greek villages of the district; Jan 1917 about 60 notables marched to Amasya, half died within ten days; 1917 the Greeks deported inland to Tokat, Sivas and Amasya; 1921, 101 Ünye men sent to Tokat (Virtual Genocide Memorial; pontosworld, after Saltsis and Ioannidou 2016). The rest left under the Greek-Turkish convention on the exchange of populations, signed at Lausanne on 30 January 1923.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "no recorded founder",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "yes: under Turkmen (Hacıemiroğlu) rule from 1346 and then Ottoman rule, a Turkish-majority town with a Greek (and Armenian) minority (1914, kaza of Ünye: 58,351 Muslims, 5,251 Greek Orthodox, 5,861 Armenians).",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "medieval Roman seals of bishops 'of Oinaion (?)' (8th and 11th c., Dumbarton Oaks); Notitia 10 (one MS); Trapezuntine kastron/town",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Its city status is doubtful: the see may be the see of Polemonion moved here. The castle was built by the emperors of Trebizond; under Turkish (Hacıemiroğlu) rule from 1346.",
   "sources": [
    "Dumbarton Oaks seals BZS.1955.1.2057 and 1.4681",
    "Bryer & Winfield 1985",
    "Pleiades 857254",
    "Wikipedia: Ünye",
    "pontosworld.com, 'Unye (Oinaion)'",
    "Virtual Genocide Memorial, 'Kaza Ünye'",
    "Ottoman census of 1914 by kaza (Karpat 1985), as tabulated in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trebizond_vilayet"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 67,
   "list_group": "The Pontic coast",
   "dates_shown": "1297 – c. 1400",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b079",
   "id_prev": "C604",
   "latin": "Limnia",
   "greek": "τὰ Λίμνια",
   "other_names": "Kinte? (1139–40)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "unlocated castle-town and see in the Yeşilırmak delta (Çarşamba–Terme plain, Samsun); point placed near Çarşamba",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Samsun",
   "admin2": "Çarşamba",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 41.1992,
   "lon": 36.7236,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 1297,
   "greek_until": 1400,
   "phases": [
    [
     1297,
     1400
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "a see from 1317 (the metropolitan of Amaseia told to reside at Limnia); a Trapezuntine town and lordship from 1297 at the latest (John II of Trebizond died there), perhaps already Kinte in 1139–40 (Bryer & Winfield pp. 100–01); lost to the Turkmen 1384–86",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Administration: a Trapezuntine castle-town and lordship (1297 at the latest), a see from 1317; lost to the Turkmen in 1384-86, after which the Turkmen emirate of Limnia ruled the delta. Speech: no later record of a Greek community at the castle; the Orthodox of the Çarşamba district in 1911 spoke Turkish.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    1386,
    1500
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "1297: John II of Trebizond died at Limnia; 1317 and 1384 synodal acts (see of Limnia); 1384-86 lost to the Turkmen; 1911 Greek consular census: the 1,273 Orthodox of Çarşamba were Turkish-speaking.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: taken by the Turkmen emirs of the delta (the emirate of Limnia) in 1384-86 (unchecked: the dynasty); Turkmen settlement of the plain from the 14th c.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Panaretos; synodal acts of 1317 and 1384 (Vryonis 1971; Bryer 1975): a Trapezuntine kastron and lordship with a see and thirteen imperial forts",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "City status from its see (1317).",
   "sources": [
    "Bryer & Winfield, The imperial Monuments and Topography of the Pontos (1985) pp. 100–01 (opened, archive.org)",
    "Bryer, \"Greeks and Türkmens: the Pontic Exception\", DOP 29 (1975) p. 128",
    "Panaretos, Chronicle (via Bryer & Winfield)",
    "Greek consular census of 1911 (Samsun), in Kitromilides & Alexandris, Deltio Kentrou Mikrasiatikon Spoudon 5 (1984), table VI"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 68,
   "list_group": "The Pontic coast",
   "dates_shown": "c. 1515 – today",
   "period": "5 The later Greek towns (1475-1923)",
   "id": "b119",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Ophis (Of)",
   "greek": "Ὄφις (Όφ)",
   "other_names": "Of (Ottoman and Turkish); Ophis, Όφις (Pontic Greek, after Arrian's river Ophis)",
   "modern": "Of",
   "modern_native": "Of",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Of town at the mouth of the Solaklı river (Of, Trabzon)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Trabzon",
   "admin2": "Of",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 40.947,
   "lon": 40.267,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "B",
   "greek_from": 1515,
   "greek_until": null,
   "phases": [
    [
     1515,
     null
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Of was a kaza of the sancak of Trabzon in the 16th c. (TDV, 'Trabzon'). In the register of 1515 the households of the Of valleys were 98% Christian, and 76% in 1583 (Meeker 1971, via Topalidis); the people of the valleys spoke Pontic Greek (the Ophitic variety), which those who became Muslims kept.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Administration: the Empire of Trebizond to 1461, then Ottoman (a kaza seat), then Turkey. Speech: the people of the Of valleys became Muslims between the 16th and 18th c. but kept Greek: Bryer (1968) gives 8,000-10,000 of the 10,000-12,000 families of the Of area as Greek speakers in the 19th c., of whom only 192 families were openly Christian. The Christians (1,819 Greek Orthodox in the kaza by the Ottoman census of 1914) left in the exchange of 1923 (about 1,200 people); the Muslim Greek speakers stayed. Romeyka is still spoken, mostly by older people, in villages of the Of valley (1987: at least 17 of 21 villages of Çaykara, 7 of 12 of Dernekpazarı, 6 of 9 at Uzungöl: Mackridge), but no source seen describes its use in the town of Of itself, then or now. The open end belongs to the valley; for the town it is an assumption.",
   "until_basis": "still spoken today",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": null,
   "fade_evidence": "1515: 98% Christian households in the Of valleys; 1583: 76% (Meeker 1971); 19th c.: 8,000-10,000 of 10,000-12,000 families Greek-speaking, 192 openly Christian (Bryer 1968); 1910-12: 1,855 Greeks in the kaza (Alexandris 1999); 1914 Ottoman census: 75,050 Muslims and 1,819 Greek Orthodox in the kaza; 1923: about 1,200 Christians left in the exchange (Agiralioglu and Agiralioglu 2023); 1987: Romeyka in most villages of Çaykara and Dernekpazarı (Mackridge); today perhaps a couple of thousand speakers in the valleys of Of, Çaykara, Tonya, Sürmene and Maçka, mostly elderly (Topalidis).",
   "ended_by": "Not ended in the valley. The Orthodox minority left under the Convention concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations, signed at Lausanne on 30 January 1923, which did not apply to the Muslim Greek speakers. No named act: Romeyka is giving way to Turkish, the language of school and administration (unchecked).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "No recorded founder: the market and kaza seat at the mouth of the Of valley",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Arrian's Ophis was a river, the boundary of the Kolchoi, not a town.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Turkish",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Turkish (administration and religious learning; the only language of most of the district today)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": true,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Kaza seat of the sancak of Trabzon from the 16th c. (TDV, 'Trabzon'); a kaza in the Ottoman census of 1914",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Admitted as the seat of an overwhelmingly Greek-speaking district: no count or description of the town's own people was found. Its Greek speakers were mostly Muslims who spoke Romeyka (Ophitic Pontic Greek). The register percentages are for the Of valleys as a whole and are read from a secondary summary; the date of Bryer's estimate of Greek-speaking families is not given in the summary seen.",
   "sources": [
    "S. Topalidis, 'A History of Ophis (Of) in Pontos' (Meeker 1971; Bryer 1968; Mackridge 1987; Alexandris 1999; Agiralioglu and Agiralioglu 2023): https://mail.pontosworld.com/index.php/history/sam-topalidis/902-a-history-of-ophis-of-in-pontos",
    "TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, 'Trabzon' (the kazas of the sancak in the 16th c.): https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/trabzon",
    "Ottoman census of 1914 by kaza (Karpat 1985), as tabulated in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trebizond_vilayet",
    "P. Mackridge, 'Greek-speaking Moslems of north-east Turkey', BMGS 11 (1987) 115-137",
    "University of Cambridge news, 2024: https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/last-chance-to-record-archaic-greek-language-heading-for-extinction"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 69,
   "list_group": "The Pontic coast",
   "dates_shown": "1515 – 1923",
   "period": "5 The later Greek towns (1475-1923)",
   "id": "b088",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Tripolis (Tirebolu)",
   "greek": "Τρίπολις",
   "other_names": "Tripoli (Pontic Greek); Tireboli, Tirebolu (Ottoman and Turkish); Tripolis castellum (Pliny)",
   "modern": "Tirebolu",
   "modern_native": "Tirebolu",
   "population": 20671,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2022 (via the English Wikipedia article on the town)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Tirebolu town and its castle on the headland (Tirebolu, Giresun)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Giresun",
   "admin2": "Tirebolu",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 41.0026,
   "lon": 38.8195,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "B",
   "greek_from": 1515,
   "greek_until": 1923,
   "phases": [
    [
     1404,
     1923
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "A Trapezuntine castle and settlement by 1404; it is first clearly a town in the Ottoman registers, as the seat of a kaza of the sancak of Trabzon in the 15th-16th c.; an earlier register counts 62 Christian households and 5 widows in the fortress, which had passed to the Ottomans peacefully; that of 1515 counts 271 Christian households, 14 widows and 6 bachelors, with 8 Muslim households and a garrison of 13 (about 1,500 people) (TDV).",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Administration: Trapezuntine until 1461, then Ottoman (a kaza seat). Speech: a Christian, presumably Greek-speaking town in 1515; Muslims became the majority later, but a Greek community of 365 families lived there in 1913-14. It ended with the deportations of 1916-17 and 1921 and the exchange of 1923.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "year",
   "until_range": [
    1921,
    1924
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "1404: Tripolis; first Ottoman register: 62 Christian households and 5 widows in the fortress; 1515 register: 271 Christian households, 8 Muslim; 1836: 100 Rum houses of 500; 1847: 150 Rum households of c. 600; Ioannidis 1870: 200 families; c. 1890 (Cuinet): 2,000 Rum of 8,000; church survey 1913-14: 365 families, 2 churches; 1914 Ottoman census (kaza): 10,530 Greek Orthodox, 48,999 Muslims; 1927: 3,375 people in the town.",
   "ended_by": "16 Nov 1916-Mar 1917: the Greeks of the Tripolis and Görele districts were deported inland by the Ottoman authorities via Espiye, Karahisar and Suşehri to Pürk, where many died (the Greek population of the two districts fell from 15,195 to about 12,000: Valavanis 1925, via imoph.org); c. 1921 the district suffered the atrocities of Topal Osman's bands (Black Book 1922, pp. 20-21, which names Tirebolu and Bulancak); the rest left under the Greek-Turkish convention on the exchange of populations, signed at Lausanne on 30 January 1923.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "no recorded founder",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Pliny's 'Tripolis castellum' and Arrian's Tripolis were a fort and a river mouth, not a town.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "yes: from the 17th-19th c. a Turkish-majority town with a Greek minority of about a quarter (1836: 400 Turkish and 100 Rum houses; 1847: 150 Rum of c. 600 households; c. 1890 (Cuinet): 5,600 Turks, 2,000 Rum, 400 Armenians).",
   "other_language": "Turkish (later majority)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ottoman kaza seat (15th-16th c. registers; TDV); a Christian town of about 1,500 people in 1515; the Greek community 1913-14 (church survey)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Not a window A city: before 1461 it was a castle and harbour without a see or a city title. It is entered as a town of Ottoman times, when it was a kaza seat and still a Christian town. Its admission rests on the 1515 register alone: in the 19th c. the Greeks were a minority of about a fifth to a quarter of the town (1836: 100 houses of 500; Cuinet: 2,000 of 8,000), too few on their own. The register figures are read from an OCR copy of the TDV article whose layout is garbled (the passage is misplaced under another entry, but names Tirebolu); the language of the 1515 Christians is inferred from the region.",
   "sources": [
    "TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, 'Tirebolu' (OCR copy): https://cdn2.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/41/C41013370.pdf",
    "pontosworld.com, 'Tripoli' (CAMS list)",
    "Valavanis 1925, via imoph.org (2017), Part D",
    "Chrysanthos, 'I Ekklisia Trapezountos', Archeion Pontou 4-5 (1933): church survey of 1913-14 (via Topalidis, pontosworld.com)",
    "Ottoman census of 1914 by kaza (Karpat 1985), as tabulated in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trebizond_vilayet",
    "Pleiades 857360 (the ancient fort)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 70,
   "list_group": "The Pontic coast",
   "dates_shown": "1836 – 1923",
   "period": "5 The later Greek towns (1475-1923)",
   "id": "b086",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Platana (Akçaabat)",
   "greek": "Πλάτανα",
   "other_names": "Platana (Pontic Greek and Italian charts); Polathane, Akçaabat (Ottoman and Turkish)",
   "modern": "Akçaabat",
   "modern_native": "Akçaabat",
   "population": 130585,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, district total (via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Akçaabat town (Akçaabat, Trabzon)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Trabzon",
   "admin2": "Akçaabat",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 41.0212,
   "lon": 39.5715,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "B",
   "greek_from": 1836,
   "greek_until": 1923,
   "phases": [
    [
     1405,
     1923
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "A harbour on the 14th-century charts and a Greek village under the Empire of Trebizond; first counted as a small town in 1836 (Hamilton: about 340 houses, 140 Greek); later the seat of the kaza of Akçaabat (unchecked: the date).",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Speech: overwhelmingly Christian and Greek-speaking at the conquest; Muslims were the majority from the late 16th c., but the Greek community (Pontic Greek, Trapezuntine variety) remained about two-fifths of the town. In early 1918 Turkish irregulars plundered and burned it and the Greeks fled to Trabzon; the men were taken to labour battalions in March 1922; the rest left under the exchange.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "year",
   "until_range": [
    1922,
    1924
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "1405: Platana; 1836: 140 Greek houses of 340; 1901: 250 Greek houses; 1912: 6,327 Greeks in the district (about 30%); 1913-14: 345 families; 1914 Ottoman census (kaza): 6,561 Greek Orthodox, 56,401 Muslims, 3,517 Armenians.",
   "ended_by": "Early 1918: plundered and burned by Turkish irregulars as the Russian army withdrew (New York Times 24 Feb 1918; Fotiadis 2019); March 1922: men over 15 deported to labour battalions; December 1922: priests of the district reported killed; the rest left under the Greek-Turkish convention on the exchange of populations, signed at Lausanne on 30 January 1923 (pontosworld, after Fotiadis).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Greek harbour village grown into a town",
   "founder": "no recorded founder",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Pleiades puts ancient Hermonassa nearby; it was a small settlement, not a city.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Turkish",
   "bilingual_evidence": "1836 (Hamilton): about 140 Greek and 200 Turkish houses; 1901: 250 Greek houses and two Greek schools; 1913-14: 345 Greek families (c. 1,725 people), two churches.",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "a town of about 340 houses in 1836; seat of the kaza of Akçaabat (1914 Ottoman census); Greek churches and schools",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "A window B town: Greek was one of its two main languages in the 19th c. The kaza figures are for the district, not the town; the date it became a kaza seat was not found.",
   "sources": [
    "pontosworld.com, 'The History of Platana (Akçaabat), Pontos': https://pontosworld.com/index.php/pontus/places/923-history-of-platana-akcaabat-pontos-3",
    "W. J. Hamilton, Researches in Asia Minor, Pontus and Armenia (1842) [via pontosworld]",
    "Chrysanthos, 'I Ekklisia Trapezountos', Archeion Pontou 4-5 (1933): church survey of 1913-14 (via Topalidis, pontosworld.com)",
    "Ottoman census of 1914 by kaza (Karpat 1985), as tabulated in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trebizond_vilayet"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 71,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "c. 120 BC – c. AD 150",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b093",
   "id_prev": "C546",
   "latin": "Laodicea Pontica",
   "greek": "Λαοδίκεια",
   "other_names": "Laodikeia in Pontos",
   "modern": "Ladik",
   "modern_native": "Ladik",
   "population": 16309,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, district total (via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Ladik? (Ladik, Samsun)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Samsun",
   "admin2": "Ladik",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 40.913,
   "lon": 35.897,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "857208",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -120,
   "greek_until": 150,
   "phases": [
    [
     -120,
     150
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "known from civic bronzes 'ΛΑΟΔΙΚΕΙΑΣ' of the Mithridatic period (c. 120–63 BC); presumably named after a Pontic queen Laodike",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Known only from Mithridatic civic coins and from Ptolemy; the town drops out of the record after that (unchecked: not a late Roman see). The Ottoman town of Ladik had an Orthodox community in 1911 whose language is not recorded.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -63,
    700
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "civic bronzes c. 120-63 BC; Ptolemy (2nd c. AD)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town is simply lost from the record.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "a Mithridatid king of Pontus (named after a queen Laodike)",
   "founder_group": "rulers",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The location at Ladik is itself uncertain, and no pre-Hellenistic finds are reported at the town.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Pontic civic bronzes; Ptolemy",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Barrington leaves it unlocated (87 A4, 'Laodikeia', region of Amasya); the link to Ladik rests on the modern name. Barrington puts the fortress Kizari at Ladik.",
   "sources": [
    "Cohen 1995 (Laodikeia in Pontos)",
    "Barrington 87 A4",
    "Pleiades 857208",
    "Wikipedia: Ladik",
    "Pontus gazetteer of set 17 (Lâdik: language not recorded)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 72,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "c. 110 BC – c. 1450",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b095",
   "id_prev": "C547",
   "latin": "Amasea",
   "greek": "Ἀμάσεια",
   "other_names": "Amaseia; Ḫaraşna/Harşena (Ottoman name of the citadel)",
   "modern": "Amasya",
   "modern_native": "Amasya",
   "population": 151058,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, district total (via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Amasya town and citadel (Merkez, Amasya)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Amasya",
   "admin2": "Merkez",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 40.6668,
   "lon": 35.8279,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "857018",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -110,
   "greek_until": 1450,
   "phases": [
    [
     -110,
     1450
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "royal residence of the Pontic kings from c. 281 BC; first Greek civic coins (ΑΜΑΣΕΙΑΣ) under Mithridates VI, c. 110–63 BC; city era from 3/2 BC",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Danishmendid from the late 11th c. (probably their first seat), Seljuk from the 1170s, Mongol after 1243, Ottoman from c. 1392 (unchecked). The Greek metropolis of Amaseia survived throughout, but its Orthodox shifted to Turkish: by 1911 the Greek consular census marks the 1,300 Orthodox of Amasya as Turkish-speaking. When Greek speech ended is not recorded; the date is an estimate from the general course of the language shift in inland Anatolia (bilingualism widespread by the early 15th c.; Greek bishops preaching in Turkish by 1437).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    1200,
    1700
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "metropolitans to 1923; the Danishmendid emirs' coins of the 12th c. carry Greek legends (en.wikipedia 'Danishmendids'), a sign that Greek was still widely understood under them; 100 Orthodox families 1870 (S. Ioannidis, Istoria kai statistiki Trapezountos (Constantinople 1870), via the Pontus gazetteer of set 17); 1,300 Turkish-speaking Orthodox 1911 (Kitromilides & Alexandris, 'Ethnic survival, nationalism and forced migration', Deltio KMS 5 (1984) Appendix A, Table VI (Greek consular census of the metropolis of Amaseia, 1911), via the Pontus gazetteer of set 17, row 120); Shukurov, 2016 pp. 360-62 (via en.wikipedia 'Karamanlides', fetched): Greek-Turkish bilingualism common in Anatolia in the 13th-14th c. and very widespread by the early 15th; an anonymous Latin account of 1437 says the Greek bishops of Anatolia spoke Turkish and preached in Turkish",
   "ended_by": "No named act ends Greek speech: the Turkish conquest (Danishmendids, late 11th c.) and a gradual shift to Turkish. The Turkish-speaking Orthodox community ended in 1921-24: 72 Greeks were hanged after the Amasya Independence Tribunal (20 Aug-21 Sep 1921) and the rest left in the exchange (Fotiadis via the Virtual Genocide Memorial; en.wikipedia 'Amasya trials').",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Hellenized native town",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "native town; capital of the Mithridatid kings",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "A Hittite name (Ḫakmiš/Ḫakpiš) has been suggested for Amasya, but the identification is speculative and not adopted here.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Mithridatic civic bronze coins (c. 110–63 BC); Roman provincial coins (era 3/2 BC); Strabo 12.3.39; Hierocles; bishops 325–787",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Strabo's home town and the early Pontic royal capital (royal rock tombs). The name is native, not Greek. The Ottoman-era Orthodox spoke Turkish, so they do not extend the Greek-speaking phase.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 12.3.39",
    "Pleiades 857018",
    "Wikipedia: Pontic coinage",
    "Wikipedia: Amasya",
    "Kitromilides & Alexandris, 'Ethnic survival, nationalism and forced migration', Deltio KMS 5 (1984) Appendix A, Table VI (Greek consular census of the metropolis of Amaseia, 1911), via the Pontus gazetteer of set 17",
    "Shukurov (2016) pp. 360-62 (via en.wikipedia 'Karamanlides', fetched)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danishmendids (fetched)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 73,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "c. 110 BC – c. 1075",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b103",
   "id_prev": "C550",
   "latin": "Comana Pontica",
   "greek": "Κόμανα",
   "other_names": "Hierocaesarea (Roman); Komana Pontike",
   "modern": "Gümenek",
   "modern_native": "Gümenek",
   "population": null,
   "pop_year": null,
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Gümenek, c. 9 km NE of Tokat (Merkez, Tokat)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Tokat",
   "admin2": "Merkez",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 40.3576,
   "lon": 36.6387,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "857095",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -110,
   "greek_until": 1075,
   "phases": [
    [
     -110,
     1075
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Mithridatic civic bronze coins (ΚΟΜΑΝΩΝ), c. 110–63 BC; temple-state of Ma enlarged by Pompey; city era AD 34/35",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Comana faded in the middle ages, when the fortress-town of Dazimon (Tokat), 9 km away, became the centre of the plain; the last known bishop dates from 787. The Turkish conquest (Danishmendids, late 11th c.) ended Roman rule. Gümenek later had an Orthodox community (in the metropolis of Neocaesarea), of unknown language; the Orthodox of nearby Tokat spoke Turkish by 1870.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    787,
    1200
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "bishops 325-787; Tokat: '400 houses of Turkish-speaking Greeks' (S. Ioannidis, Istoria kai statistiki Trapezountos (Constantinople 1870), via the Pontus gazetteer of set 17)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: decline in favour of Dazimon (Tokat), then the Turkish conquest after 1071.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Hellenized native town",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "native temple-state of Ma (priest-dynasts)",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Komana → Hierocaesarea (Roman title)",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Native temple-state of Ma (Enyo); no pre-Greek attestation of the name for this Pontic site.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Mithridatic civic bronze coins (c. 110–63 BC); Strabo 12.3.32–36; Roman provincial coins (era 34/35); Hierocles; bishops 325–787",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Strabo describes over 6,000 temple slaves. medieval Roman Tokat (Dazimon/Dokeia) grew 9 km to the SW.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 12.3.32–36",
    "Pleiades 857095",
    "Wikipedia: Pontic coinage",
    "Olshausen & Biller 1984",
    "S. Ioannidis, Istoria kai statistiki Trapezountos (Constantinople 1870), via the Pontus gazetteer of set 17",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danishmendids (fetched)"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Komana → Hierocaesarea (Roman title)"
  },
  {
   "no": 74,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "c. 110 BC – c. AD 20",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b102",
   "id_prev": "C548",
   "latin": "Gaziura",
   "greek": "Γαζίουρα",
   "other_names": "",
   "modern": "Turhal",
   "modern_native": "Turhal",
   "population": 78101,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, district total (via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Turhal castle rock (Turhal, Tokat)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Tokat",
   "admin2": "Turhal",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 40.4041,
   "lon": 36.0591,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "857134",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -110,
   "greek_until": 20,
   "phases": [
    [
     -110,
     20
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Mithridatic civic bronze coins (ΓΑΖΙΟΥΡΩΝ), c. 110–63 BC; earlier satrapal mint with Aramaic legends (c. 333–322 BC)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Strabo, writing c. AD 18-23, calls Gaziura 'an ancient royal residence, now deserted' (12.3.15). No later civic community is known.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    -63,
    23
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Mithridatic civic coins c. 110-63 BC; Strabo 12.3.15 ('now deserted')",
   "ended_by": "No named act: deserted by Strabo's time.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Hellenized native town",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "native (satrapal) town; Pontic royal residence",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "Gazur (Aramaic)",
   "pre_greek_note": "Aramaic legend B'L GZWR/GZYR ('Baal of Gazur') on coins of the satrap Ariarathes (c. 333–322 BC) struck at Gaziura.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Mithridatic civic bronze coins (c. 110–63 BC); Strabo 12.3.15 ('ancient royal residence, now deserted'); Greek inscription of Mithridates VI's time on the castle rock",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Civic status is short-lived: Strabo calls it deserted in his day, and it does not reappear as a city.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 12.3.15",
    "Pleiades 857134",
    "Wikipedia: Pontic coinage",
    "Numista 427294 (Ariarathes, Gaziura)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 75,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "c. 110 BC – c. 1400",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b097",
   "id_prev": "C553",
   "latin": "Neocaesarea",
   "greek": "Νεοκαισάρεια",
   "other_names": "Kabeira (Mithridatic royal residence); Diospolis (Pompey, 64 BC); Sebaste (Pythodoris); Hadriane (2nd c. title)",
   "modern": "Niksar",
   "modern_native": "Niksar",
   "population": 37017,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2022 (via the English Wikipedia article on the town)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Niksar (Niksar, Tokat)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Tokat",
   "admin2": "Niksar",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 40.5917,
   "lon": 36.9517,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "857177",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -110,
   "greek_until": 1400,
   "phases": [
    [
     -110,
     1400
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Mithridatic civic bronze coins of Kabeira (c. 110–63 BC); made a polis as Diospolis by Pompey 64 BC; Neocaesarea from the 1st c. AD (era AD 64)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Neocaesarea became a seat of the Danishmendid emirs after 1071 (en.wikipedia); John II Komnenos besieged it in vain in 1139-40 (Choniates (unchecked)). The metropolitan see survived (its seat later moved to Tokat). The Ottoman town had 40 Orthodox houses in 1870 (S. Ioannidis, Istoria kai statistiki Trapezountos (Constantinople 1870), via the Pontus gazetteer of set 17), but no source states their language; the Armenians of the kaza 'were almost all Turkish-speaking' (Virtual Genocide Memorial). The date is an estimate; no Greek speech is attested after the conquest.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    1100,
    1800
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "metropolis of Pontus Polemoniacus; the Danishmendid emirs' coins of the 12th c. carry Greek legends (en.wikipedia 'Danishmendids'), a sign that Greek was still widely understood under them; 40 Orthodox houses 1870 (language unstated); 24,100 Greeks in 57 localities of the kaza in a 1911 survey (Sianloglou 1923, via the Virtual Genocide Memorial), language unstated",
   "ended_by": "No named act ends Greek speech: the Danishmendid conquest after 1071 and a gradual shift. The later Orthodox community: women, children and old people of Neocaesarea displaced in October 1916; the irregulars of Feridunoğlu Osman Ağa ravaged Greek villages of the kaza; killings again in May 1922 (Virtual Genocide Memorial 'Kaza Niksar'); exchange 1923-24.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Hellenized native town",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Mithridatic royal residence Kabeira; refounded by Pompey as Diospolis",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Kabeira → Diospolis (Pompey) → Sebaste (Pythodoris) → Neocaesarea (1st c. AD)",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Kabeira was a royal residence (palace, water-mill, park) of Mithridates VI before Pompey; no pre-Greek name attested.",
   "name_continues": "Latin name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Mithridatic civic bronze coins (c. 110–63 BC); Strabo 12.3.30–31; Roman provincial coins (era 64); metropolis of Pontus Polemoniacus; Hierocles; bishops from the 3rd c. (Gregory Thaumaturgus)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Pleiades puts Kabeira c. 6 km E of Niksar; Neocaesarea is under Niksar. Turkish Niksar < Neokaisareia (a Greek–Latin hybrid name).",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 12.3.30–31",
    "Pleiades 857177",
    "Wikipedia: Pontic coinage",
    "Wikipedia: Niksar",
    "https://www.virtual-genocide-memorial.de/wp-json/wp/v2/ort/4982 (Kaza Niksar, fetched)",
    "S. Ioannidis, Istoria kai statistiki Trapezountos (Constantinople 1870), via the Pontus gazetteer of set 17",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danishmendids (fetched)"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Kabeira → Diospolis (Pompey) → Sebaste (Pythodoris) → Neocaesarea (1st c. AD)"
  },
  {
   "no": 76,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "c. 110 BC – c. 63 BC",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b107",
   "id_prev": "C555",
   "latin": "Taulara",
   "greek": "Ταύλαρα",
   "other_names": "Talaura? (Mithridatic treasure fortress)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "unlocated; Pleiades point near Doğanşar (Sivas), Olshausen proposes the area between Tokat and Horoztepe",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Tokat",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 40.1703,
   "lon": 37.2538,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "857345",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -110,
   "greek_until": -63,
   "phases": [
    [
     -110,
     -63
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Mithridatic civic bronze coins (ΤΑΥΛΑΡΩΝ), c. 110–63 BC",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Known only from civic coins of c. 110-63 BC; if it is Talaura, Mithridates' treasure fortress, it was taken in the Roman war against him (unchecked).",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -63,
    100
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "civic bronze coins c. 110-63 BC only",
   "ended_by": "No named act recorded for the town.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Hellenized native town",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Non-Greek place-name.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Mithridatic civic bronze coins only",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Perhaps the Talaura where Mithridates kept treasure (Appian, Plutarch). Some link it to Sebasteia (Pleiades: Sebasteia/Megalopolis?/Talaura?).",
   "sources": [
    "Pleiades 857345",
    "Wikipedia: Pontic coinage",
    "Olshausen & Biller 1984"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 77,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "c. 100 BC – c. 85 BC",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b099",
   "id_prev": "C554",
   "latin": "Chabacta",
   "greek": "Χάβακτα",
   "other_names": "",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "unlocated, inland Pontus",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Tokat",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 40.5,
   "lon": 36.5,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -100,
   "greek_until": -85,
   "phases": [
    [
     -100,
     -85
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Mithridatic civic bronze coins (ΧΑΒΑΚΤΩΝ), c. 100–85 BC",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Known only from civic coins of Mithridates VI's reign (c. 100-85 BC).",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -85,
    100
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "civic bronze coins c. 100-85 BC only",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town is known only from coins.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Hellenized native town",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Non-Greek place-name, known only from coins.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Mithridatic civic bronze coins only",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Known only from coins of Mithridates VI's reign. The site and province are unknown; coordinates are a placeholder for inland Pontus.",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia: Pontic coinage",
    "Künker: Pontus, Chabakta Æ 100/85 BC"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 78,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "c. 100 BC – c. AD 100",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b094",
   "id_prev": "C551",
   "latin": "Eupatoria",
   "greek": "Εὐπατορία",
   "other_names": "Magnopolis (Pompey); Megalopolis (Strabo once)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "probably near Çevresu, at the Iris (Yeşilırmak)–Lycus (Kelkit) confluence (Erbaa, Tokat)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Tokat",
   "admin2": "Erbaa",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 40.78,
   "lon": 36.45,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "857122",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -100,
   "greek_until": 100,
   "phases": [
    [
     -100,
     100
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "founded by Mithridates VI Eupator (120–63 BC; exact date unknown), left unfinished; completed by Pompey as Magnopolis, 64 BC",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Pompey's Magnopolis disappears from the record after the 1st c. AD, perhaps absorbed by Neocaesarea.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -30,
    300
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Strabo 12.3.30 (Magnopolis); no later mention",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town is lost from the record.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Mithridates VI Eupator; completed by Pompey",
   "founder_group": "rulers",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Eupatoria → Magnopolis (Pompey, 64 BC)",
   "pre_settlement": "no known",
   "pre_evidence": "new site (archaeology)",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Kept. Strabo 12.3.30 says Mithridates VI founded it at the Iris–Lycus confluence and Pompey found it half-finished, which describes a city built from scratch. The site is unlocated and unexcavated, so the evidence is textual only.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 12.3.30; Appian Mith. 115",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Coordinates are an estimate for the confluence at the west end of the Phanaroia plain; Pleiades has only a rough point (40.5, 36.5). The city disappears after the 1st c. AD (perhaps absorbed by Neocaesarea).",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 12.3.30",
    "Pleiades 857122",
    "Wikipedia: Magnopolis",
    "Cohen 1995"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Eupatoria → Magnopolis (Pompey, 64 BC)"
  },
  {
   "no": 79,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "64 BC – c. 1100",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b092",
   "id_prev": "C545",
   "latin": "Neoclaudiopolis (Andrapa)",
   "greek": "Νεοκλαυδιόπολις",
   "other_names": "Phazemon (village); Neapolis (Pompey); Neoklaudiopolis (Claudius); Andrapa (late antique)",
   "modern": "Vezirköprü",
   "modern_native": "Vezirköprü",
   "population": 88564,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, district total (via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Vezirköprü (Vezirköprü, Samsun)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Samsun",
   "admin2": "Vezirköprü",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 41.1536,
   "lon": 35.4621,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "857028",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -64,
   "greek_until": 1100,
   "phases": [
    [
     -64,
     1100
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Pompey made the village of Phazemon into the city Neapolis, 64 BC (Strabo 12.3.38); renamed Neoklaudiopolis under Claudius; Andrapa in late antiquity",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Bishops (as Andrapa) to 681; the Turkish conquest came in the decades after 1071 (the Danishmendid emirs, centred on Sivas, Tokat and Niksar (and probably first at Amasya), took the inland Pontic towns in the years after Manzikert (1071; the dynasty was established after 1086 by one account, en.wikipedia 'Danishmendids'); the Seljuks of Rum absorbed the Sivas lands in 1174-75 and the last Danishmendids in 1178; the Mongols ruled after Köse Dağ (1243); the Ottomans took Amasya and Tokat c. 1392 and Sivas in 1398 (unchecked)). No Greek-speaking community is attested afterwards. The Ottoman town of Köprü (Vezirköprü, named after the Köprülü viziers in the 17th c.) had a small Orthodox community (225 persons in 1911) that spoke Turkish.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    1075,
    1400
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "bishops 431-681; 1911 Greek consular census: 225 Orthodox, marked Turkish-speaking (Kitromilides & Alexandris, 'Ethnic survival, nationalism and forced migration', Deltio KMS 5 (1984) Appendix A, Table VI (Greek consular census of the metropolis of Amaseia, 1911), via the Pontus gazetteer of set 17, row 193)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the Turkish conquest (Danishmendids, late 11th c.) and a gradual shift to Turkish. The Turkish-speaking Orthodox of 1911 received deportees in 1921 and left in the exchange of 1923-24.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Roman foundation",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Pompey",
   "founder_group": "Roman Republic",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Phazemon → Neapolis (Pompey) → Neoklaudiopolis (Claudius) → Andrapa",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The native village of Phazemon (Strabo). Hittite Nerik lies at nearby Oymaağaç Höyük, a different site, so no pre-Greek name is claimed.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 12.3.38; Paphlagonian oath of 3 BC found here; city coins (Neoklaudiopolis); Hierocles (Andrapa); bishops 431–681",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Older scholarship placed Phazemon/Neapolis at Merzifon; the city territory centred on Vezirköprü is now generally accepted. The end date is an estimate: no evidence of Greek speech after the conquest was found.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 12.3.38",
    "Bekker-Nielsen 2013",
    "Olshausen & Biller 1984",
    "Pleiades 857028",
    "Kitromilides & Alexandris, 'Ethnic survival, nationalism and forced migration', Deltio KMS 5 (1984) Appendix A, Table VI (Greek consular census of the metropolis of Amaseia, 1911), via the Pontus gazetteer of set 17",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danishmendids (fetched)"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Phazemon → Neapolis (Pompey) → Neoklaudiopolis (Claudius) → Andrapa"
  },
  {
   "no": 80,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "64 BC – c. 1100",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b108",
   "id_prev": "C563",
   "latin": "Nicopolis (Armenia Minor)",
   "greek": "Νικόπολις",
   "other_names": "Purkh/Pürk (Ottoman village)",
   "modern": "Yeşilyayla",
   "modern_native": "Yeşilyayla",
   "population": null,
   "pop_year": null,
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Yeşilyayla (Purkh), near Suşehri (Suşehri, Sivas)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Sivas",
   "admin2": "Suşehri",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Armenia Minor",
   "lat": 40.1486,
   "lon": 38.1435,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "857248",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -64,
   "greek_until": 1100,
   "phases": [
    [
     -64,
     1100
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "founded by Pompey on the field of his victory over Mithridates (66 BC), with veterans and locals; city era 64 BC",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Metropolis of Armenia I; the city was damaged by the earthquake of 499 and rebuilt (unchecked); the Turkish conquest came after 1071. The Ottoman village of Pürk on the site was Armenian (unchecked). The bishop of 'Nikopolis' under the metropolitan of Neocaesarea in 1870 sat at Şebinkarahisar, not here.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    1071,
    1300
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "coins (era 64 BC); bishops from the 4th c.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the Turkish conquest after 1071.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Roman foundation",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Pompey",
   "founder_group": "Roman Republic",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "no known",
   "pre_evidence": "new site (archaeology)",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Pompey founded the city on the battlefield where he defeated Mithridates (66 BC), with wounded and aged veterans, and neighbouring natives joined it (Dio 36.50.3). It was a new foundation, not a refoundation of a native town. The site itself is unexcavated.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 12.3.28; Roman provincial coins (era 64 BC); metropolis of Armenia I; Hierocles; bishops from the 4th c.",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Armenia Minor had a mixed Greek–Armenian population. The city itself used Greek (coins, inscriptions, metropolitan see).",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 12.3.28",
    "Cassius Dio 36.50",
    "Pleiades 857248",
    "Wikipedia: Nicopolis (Armenia)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 81,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "64 BC – c. 1400",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b114",
   "id_prev": "C562",
   "latin": "Sebastea",
   "greek": "Σεβάστεια",
   "other_names": "Megalopolis? (Pompey); Sebasteia; Sebastia/Sivas (medieval)",
   "modern": "Sivas",
   "modern_native": "Sivas",
   "population": 392711,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, district total (via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Sivas city (Merkez, Sivas)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Sivas",
   "admin2": "Merkez",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Armenia Minor",
   "lat": 39.749,
   "lon": 37.0166,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "629075",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -64,
   "greek_until": 1400,
   "phases": [
    [
     -64,
     1400
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "probably Pompey's Megalopolis (64 BC); Sebasteia under Augustus (city era 2 BC); coins from Trajan",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Basil II gave Sebasteia to the Armenian king Senekerim Artsruni in 1021, and the city became mixed Greek-Armenian. The Danishmendids took it after 1071 (unchecked); then the Seljuks, the Mongols, the Eretnids, Kadi Burhan al-Din, the Ottomans (1398) and Timur, who sacked the city in 1400 (unchecked). The metropolitan see survived but the Orthodox community shrank to 40 houses in 1870 (S. Ioannidis, Istoria kai statistiki Trapezountos (Constantinople 1870), via the Pontus gazetteer of set 17), of unstated language; Popov counts Sivas among the homes of Turkish-speaking Orthodox (via en.wikipedia 'Urums'). The date is an estimate.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    1100,
    1700
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "metropolis of Armenia I; Armenian resettlement 1021; the Danishmendid emirs' coins of the 12th c. carry Greek legends (en.wikipedia 'Danishmendids'), a sign that Greek was still widely understood under them; 40 Orthodox houses 1870, then under the metropolitan of Neocaesarea (S. Ioannidis, Istoria kai statistiki Trapezountos (Constantinople 1870), via the Pontus gazetteer of set 17); Shukurov, 2016 pp. 360-62 (via en.wikipedia 'Karamanlides', fetched): Greek-Turkish bilingualism common in Anatolia in the 13th-14th c. and very widespread by the early 15th; an anonymous Latin account of 1437 says the Greek bishops of Anatolia spoke Turkish and preached in Turkish",
   "ended_by": "No named act ends Greek speech: the Turkish conquest after 1071 and a gradual shift. Timur's sack of Sivas in August 1400 (unchecked) fell chiefly on the Armenian defenders.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Roman foundation",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Pompey (Megalopolis, if identical); renamed Sebasteia under Augustus",
   "founder_group": "Roman Republic",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Megalopolis (Pompey)? → Sebasteia (Augustus)",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Pleiades lists Hittite Šamuḫa and Šanaḫwitta, but Šamuḫa is now placed at Kayalıpınar and Šanaḫwitta is unlocated; there is no secure pre-Greek name. The Topraktepe mound in the city shows earlier occupation.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "yes: from 1021 Armenians resettled by the emperors with Senekerim Artsruni lived beside the Greeks; a mixed Greek-Armenian city until the Turkish conquest",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Roman provincial coins (Trajan onward); metropolis of Armenia I; Hierocles; bishops 325–787",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "That Sebasteia is Pompey's Megalopolis (Strabo 12.3.37) is the common view but unproven. If they are different, the date becomes c. 2 BC.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 12.3.37",
    "Pleiades 629075",
    "Catholic Encyclopedia: Sebaste",
    "Hierocles, Synecdemus",
    "S. Ioannidis, Istoria kai statistiki Trapezountos (Constantinople 1870), via the Pontus gazetteer of set 17",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urums (fetched: Popov 1997)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danishmendids (fetched)"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Megalopolis (Pompey)? → Sebasteia (Augustus)"
  },
  {
   "no": 82,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "64 BC – c. 1100",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b105",
   "id_prev": "C549",
   "latin": "Zela",
   "greek": "Ζῆλα",
   "other_names": "Zelitis (territory)",
   "modern": "Zile",
   "modern_native": "Zile",
   "population": 33557,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, population of municipalities, villages and quarters, 2022 (via Wikipedia)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Zile town and castle mound (Zile, Tokat)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Tokat",
   "admin2": "Zile",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 40.3039,
   "lon": 35.8902,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "857382",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -64,
   "greek_until": 1100,
   "phases": [
    [
     -64,
     1100
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "temple-state of Anaitis made a polis by Pompey, 64 BC; city era from 3/2 BC",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Bishops to the 9th c. (unchecked); the Turkish conquest came after 1071 (the Danishmendid emirs, centred on Sivas, Tokat and Niksar (and probably first at Amasya), took the inland Pontic towns in the years after Manzikert (1071; the dynasty was established after 1086 by one account, en.wikipedia 'Danishmendids'); the Seljuks of Rum absorbed the Sivas lands in 1174-75 and the last Danishmendids in 1178; the Mongols ruled after Köse Dağ (1243); the Ottomans took Amasya and Tokat c. 1392 and Sivas in 1398 (unchecked)). No Greek-speaking community is attested after the conquest. The Ottoman town had an Orthodox community, whose language is not recorded; its Armenians spoke Turkish (Virtual Genocide Memorial). 'Bishop of Zela' survived as the title of an assistant bishop of Amaseia (Euthymios, d. 1921).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    1075,
    1600
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "bishops 325-451 and later; Ottoman Orthodox community of unknown language; 31 Jul 1920 burning of the town reported (Nea Hellas, via the Virtual Genocide Memorial)",
   "ended_by": "No named act ends Greek speech. The later Orthodox community: the town and villages were burned on 31 July 1920, 'said to be on Kemalist orders' (Nea Hellas, via the Virtual Genocide Memorial); Bishop Euthymios of Zela was arrested on 22 Jan 1921 and died in Amasya prison on 29 May 1921; the rest left in the exchange.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Roman foundation",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Pompey (raised the temple-state to city status)",
   "founder_group": "Roman Republic",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Zela (Pompey, 64 BC)",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Strabo says the temple stood on the 'mound of Semiramis'; no pre-Greek name is attested.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 12.3.37; Roman provincial coins (era 3/2 BC); Hierocles; bishops 325–451 and later",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Site of Caesar's 'veni, vidi, vici' victory (47 BC). Persian cult of Anaitis before Pompey.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 12.3.37",
    "Pleiades 857382",
    "Wikipedia: Zela",
    "Pontus gazetteer of set 17 (Zile; Virtual Genocide Memorial 'Kaza Zile')",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danishmendids (fetched)"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Zela (Pompey, 64 BC)"
  },
  {
   "no": 83,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "c. 2 BC – c. 1100",
   "period": "3 Rome (63 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "b112",
   "id_prev": "C557",
   "latin": "Sebastopolis (Pontus)",
   "greek": "Σεβαστόπολις",
   "other_names": "Karana (native town); Herakleopolis (coin title)",
   "modern": "Sulusaray",
   "modern_native": "Sulusaray",
   "population": 4383,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2022 (via the English Wikipedia article on the town)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Sulusaray (Sulusaray, Tokat)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Tokat",
   "admin2": "Sulusaray",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 39.9974,
   "lon": 36.0834,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "629076",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -2,
   "greek_until": 1100,
   "phases": [
    [
     -2,
     1100
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "the village of Karana became the city of Sebastopolis when Pontus Galaticus was annexed (city era 3/2 BC)",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Bishops to 692; the town declined to the village of Sulusaray. The Turkish conquest came after 1071 (the Danishmendid emirs, centred on Sivas, Tokat and Niksar (and probably first at Amasya), took the inland Pontic towns in the years after Manzikert (1071; the dynasty was established after 1086 by one account, en.wikipedia 'Danishmendids'); the Seljuks of Rum absorbed the Sivas lands in 1174-75 and the last Danishmendids in 1178; the Mongols ruled after Köse Dağ (1243); the Ottomans took Amasya and Tokat c. 1392 and Sivas in 1398 (unchecked)); no later Greek-speaking community is known.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    700,
    1300
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "coins from Trajan; bishops 4th c.-692",
   "ended_by": "No named act: decline, then the Turkish conquest after 1071.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Roman foundation",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Augustus (city status with the annexation of 3/2 BC)",
   "founder_group": "Roman emperors to 330",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Karana → Sebastopolis (Augustan) = Herakleopolis",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Karana/Karanitis (Strabo 12.3.37) was a native settlement; no pre-Greek attestation.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Roman provincial coins (Trajan onward, era 3/2 BC); Pliny NH 6.8; Hierocles; bishops 4th c., 451, 458, 692",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Some of the council signatures for 'Herakleopolis' (e.g. 680–81) belong to Pedachthoe-Herakleoupolis, not to Sebastopolis.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 12.3.37",
    "Pleiades 629076",
    "Catholic Encyclopedia: Sebastopolis",
    "Hierocles, Synecdemus",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danishmendids (fetched)"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Karana → Sebastopolis (Augustan) = Herakleopolis"
  },
  {
   "no": 84,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "AD 325 – c. AD 900",
   "period": "3 Rome (63 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "b111",
   "id_prev": "C596",
   "latin": "Satala",
   "greek": "Σάταλα",
   "other_names": "Satala in Armenia (to distinguish it from Satala in Lydia)",
   "modern": "Sadak",
   "modern_native": "Sadak",
   "population": 348,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2022 (via the English Wikipedia article on the town)",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Sadak village, Kelkit (Gümüşhane): the legionary fortress and the late Roman city",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Gümüşhane",
   "admin2": "Kelkit",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Armenia Minor",
   "lat": 40.0279,
   "lon": 39.5979,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "874684",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 325,
   "greek_until": 900,
   "phases": [
    [
     325,
     900
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "bishop at Nicaea in 325; the people of Satala wrote to Basil for a bishop c. 372 (Basil, Ep. 99, 102, 103); city of Armenia I in Hierocles",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Bishops are attested to 879; the city suffered in the Persian and Arab wars of the 7th c. and is not described after that. The Notitiae list the see into the 13th c., but lists are not evidence of a living community. Sadak is a Turkish village; no later Greek community is known.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    700,
    1071
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "bishops 325-879; 2017 Greek epitaph (en.wikipedia); Notitiae into the 13th c.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: decline in the wars of the 7th-9th c. (unchecked), then the Turkish conquest after 1071.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Roman legionary base grown into a city",
   "founder": "Roman legionary base (legio XV Apollinaris, c. AD 75–117), which grew into a city",
   "founder_group": "Roman emperors to 330",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Armenian",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Basil writes in Greek 'to the citizens of Satala' (Epp. 99, 102, 103) among an Armenian-speaking countryside; Latin in the legion (set 16)",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Hierocles (Armenia I); Procopius, Aed. 3.4.1–4 (\"the city of Satala\"); bishops 325–879; Notitiae into the 13th c.",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Pleiades id added (874684, the legionary station and city). Earlier left out as \"Armenian\", but the civic community wrote and was written to in Greek. Its four sister cities of Armenia I (Sebasteia, Sebastopolis, Nikopolis, Koloneia) were already in the set.",
   "sources": [
    "Basil, Epp. 99, 102, 103 (newadvent.org/fathers/3202099, 3202102, 3202103, fetched)",
    "Procopius, Buildings 3.4-3.7 (LacusCurtius, Dewing transl., fetched)",
    "Hierocles, Synekdemos 703 (unchecked)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satala (fetched: bishops after Le Quien, 2017 Greek epitaph, Lightfoot 1998)",
    "Honigmann's list of the bishops at Nicaea (325)",
    "Mitford, East of Asia Minor (2018) and JRS 64 (1974) on the Satala inscriptions (unchecked)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 85,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "c. AD 375 – c. 1200",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b104",
   "id_prev": "C564",
   "latin": "Colonia (Armenia Minor)",
   "greek": "Κολώνεια",
   "other_names": "Koloneia; Koğonya (Seljuk); Karahisar",
   "modern": "Şebinkarahisar",
   "modern_native": "Şebinkarahisar",
   "population": 10695,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2022 (via the English Wikipedia article on the town)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Şebinkarahisar castle and town (Şebinkarahisar, Giresun)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Giresun",
   "admin2": "Şebinkarahisar",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Armenia Minor",
   "lat": 40.3068,
   "lon": 38.4128,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "857194",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 375,
   "greek_until": 1200,
   "phases": [
    [
     375,
     1200
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "ancient fortress said to have been built/renamed by Pompey c. 64 BC (Procopius); first attested as a city and see c. 375 (Basil's letters to the clergy and magistrates of Colonia; bishop Euphronius); Hierocles c. 527; rebuilt by Justinian",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Turkish rule began in 1099, after the death of Theodore Gabras; the emperors recovered Koloneia c. 1106, but it passed to the Danishmendids, to the Saltukids (1170s) and to the Mengujekids (1201/2); Uzun Hasan of the Ak Koyunlu took it in 1459 and Mehmed II in 1461 (ODB, Vryonis, Bryer & Winfield, via en.wikipedia). The metropolis of Kolonia lived on to 1923, and the Ottoman census of 1881/82-1893 counts 8,512 Greeks in the kaza (Karpat 1985), but no source seen states whether the Orthodox of the town spoke Greek or Turkish, so the Ottoman community does not extend the Greek-speaking phase here.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    1100,
    1700
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek inscription of the 9th-10th c. in the fortress; 100 Orthodox families in the town 1870 (S. Ioannidis, Istoria kai statistiki Trapezountos (Constantinople 1870), via the Pontus gazetteer of set 17); 8,512 Greeks in the kaza (Ottoman census 1881/82-1893, Karpat 1985, via en.wikipedia)",
   "ended_by": "No named act ends Greek speech. The later Orthodox community of the eparchy: c. 10,000 men deported to labour battalions, c. 3,000 dying by 1915 and c. 3,000 hanged or killed in 1919-21 (Valavanis 1925, a Greek account, via imoph.org); the survivors left in the exchange of 1923-24.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Roman foundation",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Pompey (tradition in Procopius)",
   "founder_group": "Roman Republic",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Procopius calls it an ancient fortress before Pompey; no name is recorded.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Procopius Aed. 3.4.6; Hierocles; bishops; seat of the theme of Koloneia (by 863); Greek inscription of the 9th–10th c. in the fortress",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Changed from set 16: the town fell to the Seljuks in 1099, was briefly recovered c. 1106, and was taken by Mehmed II in 1461 from the Ak Koyunlu (Uzun Hasan, 1459), not from Trebizond (en.wikipedia after Bryer & Winfield). Site in Giresun, just across the Sivas border. Strabo does not list it among Pompey's foundations; the Pompeian origin rests on Procopius.",
   "sources": [
    "Procopius, Aed. 3.4.6",
    "Pleiades 857194",
    "Hierocles, Synecdemus",
    "Wikipedia: Şebinkarahisar",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Şebinkarahisar (fetched: conquests 1099-1461; Karpat 1985 census)",
    "Valavanis 1925 via https://www.imoph.org/pdfs/2017/06/01/20170601aPontiakiGenoktoniaD.pdf (fetched)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danishmendids (fetched)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 86,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "AD 381 – c. 1100",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b096",
   "id_prev": "C552",
   "latin": "Ibora",
   "greek": "Ἴβωρα",
   "other_names": "",
   "modern": "İverönü",
   "modern_native": "İverönü",
   "population": null,
   "pop_year": null,
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "İverönü (Erbaa, Tokat)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Tokat",
   "admin2": "Erbaa",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 40.6169,
   "lon": 36.5933,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "857169",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 381,
   "greek_until": 1100,
   "phases": [
    [
     381,
     1100
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "first bishop at the Council of Constantinople, 381; city in Hierocles (c. 527)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Bishops 381-681 and later in the Notitiae; the Turkish conquest came after 1071 (the Danishmendid emirs, centred on Sivas, Tokat and Niksar (and probably first at Amasya), took the inland Pontic towns in the years after Manzikert (1071; the dynasty was established after 1086 by one account, en.wikipedia 'Danishmendids'); the Seljuks of Rum absorbed the Sivas lands in 1174-75 and the last Danishmendids in 1178; the Mongols ruled after Köse Dağ (1243); the Ottomans took Amasya and Tokat c. 1392 and Sivas in 1398 (unchecked)). No Greek-speaking community is attested afterwards. The Orthodox villages of the Erbaa district in the 19th-20th c. are not shown to descend from it, and their language is not recorded.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    1071,
    1300
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "bishops 381, 451, 680-81",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the Turkish conquest (Danishmendids, late 11th c.).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Hellenized native town",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Native place-name; no pre-Greek attestation.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Hierocles; bishops 381, 451, 680–81; Basil's letters",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Near Annisa, the family estate of Basil of Caesarea. Home town of Evagrius Ponticus.",
   "sources": [
    "Hierocles, Synecdemus",
    "Pleiades 857169",
    "Wikipedia: Ibora",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danishmendids (fetched)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 87,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "AD 458 – c. 1100",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b110",
   "id_prev": "C556",
   "latin": "Verisa",
   "greek": "Βήρισα",
   "other_names": "Berissa, Berisa, Verissa",
   "modern": "Bolus",
   "modern_native": "Bolus",
   "population": null,
   "pop_year": null,
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Bolus, c. 25 km SW of Tokat, near Çamlıbel (Yeşilyurt?, Tokat)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Tokat",
   "admin2": "Yeşilyurt?",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 40.1028,
   "lon": 36.4841,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "857369",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 458,
   "greek_until": 1100,
   "phases": [
    [
     458,
     1100
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "first known bishop (Maxentius) signs the letter of the Armenia I bishops to Leo I, 458",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Bishops 458-681 and an archbishopric in the Notitiae; the Turkish conquest came after 1071 (the Danishmendid emirs, centred on Sivas, Tokat and Niksar (and probably first at Amasya), took the inland Pontic towns in the years after Manzikert (1071; the dynasty was established after 1086 by one account, en.wikipedia 'Danishmendids'); the Seljuks of Rum absorbed the Sivas lands in 1174-75 and the last Danishmendids in 1178; the Mongols ruled after Köse Dağ (1243); the Ottomans took Amasya and Tokat c. 1392 and Sivas in 1398 (unchecked)). Bolus is a Turkish village; no later Greek-speaking community is known.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    1071,
    1300
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "bishops 458, 553, 680-81",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the Turkish conquest (Danishmendids, late 11th c.).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Hellenized native town",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Native place-name; no pre-Greek attestation.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "bishops 458, 553, 680–81; Justinian Nov. 31; Notitiae (suffragan, later archbishopric, under Sebasteia)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Under Basil it belonged to the see of Ibora; it is not in Hierocles. The site was identified by Kiepert and Ramsay. The current official name of the village is not verified.",
   "sources": [
    "Pleiades 857369",
    "Wikipedia: Berissa",
    "Catholic Encyclopedia: Berissa",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danishmendids (fetched)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 88,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "c. AD 516 – c. 1080",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b098",
   "id_prev": "C544",
   "latin": "Euchaita",
   "greek": "Εὐχάϊτα",
   "other_names": "Avkat (Ottoman); linked with Theodoroupolis (John I Tzimiskes, 972)",
   "modern": "Beyözü (Avkat)",
   "modern_native": "Beyözü",
   "population": 314,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2022 (via the English Wikipedia article on the town)",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Beyözü (Avkat) (Mecitözü, Çorum)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Çorum",
   "admin2": "Mecitözü",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 40.5704,
   "lon": 35.2669,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "857120",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 516,
   "greek_until": 1080,
   "phases": [
    [
     516,
     1080
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "village and pilgrimage centre of St Theodore (4th c.); after a Hunnic raid in 515 Anastasius I walled it and raised it to city status",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "After Manzikert (1071) Euchaita lay on the line of the Türkmen raids; the sources say nothing more of the town, which was probably depopulated, and from the 12th c. it was in the Seljuk sultanate (Foss). Metropolitans are named sporadically to 1318, probably absentees, and the see was joined to Caesarea in 1327. By the 16th c. the site was a dervish lodge with a few remains (Dernschwam, 1555). Administration: Turkish from the late 11th c.; speech: no Greek-speaking community is attested after that.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    1071,
    1200
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "lively fair of St Theodore in the mid-11th c.; John Mauropous, Greek writer, metropolitan c. 1050-1075 (unchecked: his dates); metropolitans to 1318; dervish lodge of Elvan Çelebi by the 16th c.; Dernschwam 1555",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the Turkish conquest after 1071 (Türkmen raids, then the Seljuk sultanate in the 12th c.) emptied the town (Foss, ODB 1991, via en.wikipedia).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Roman foundation",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Anastasius I",
   "founder_group": "emperors in Constantinople 330–1453",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Village → city (Anastasius I, c. 515)",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Avkat Project: the village is dominated by a Bronze Age mound next to the Roman lower town. Survey ceramics show occupation from the Early Bronze Age, including Late Bronze Age burnished wares (Hittite Şapinuwa is c. 20 km away). The site was 'occupied since prehistoric, and certainly since Hittite times'.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "raised to a city by Anastasius I; bishops 680–787; autocephalous archbishopric (7th c.), then metropolis",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Wikipedia says the renaming as Theodoroupolis in 972 applied to neighbouring Euchaneia; some sources apply it to Euchaita itself. Records end after Manzikert (1071). Excavated by the Avkat Project (2006–12).",
   "sources": [
    "Haldon et al. 2018, The Euchaita/Avkat Project",
    "Pleiades 857120",
    "Wikipedia: Euchaita",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euchaita (fetched: Foss 1991; McGeer, Nesbitt & Oikonomides 2001; Wolper 2000, 2011)"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Village → city (Anastasius I, c. 515)"
  },
  {
   "no": 89,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "c. AD 625 – c. 1100",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b109",
   "id_prev": "C561",
   "latin": "Pedachthoe",
   "greek": "Πηδαχθόη",
   "other_names": "Herakleoupolis (medieval Roman); Bedohtun (Ottoman)",
   "modern": "Güneykaya",
   "modern_native": "Güneykaya",
   "population": 1347,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2022 (via the English Wikipedia article on the town)",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Güneykaya, formerly Bedohtun, N of Sivas (Yıldızeli?, Sivas)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Sivas",
   "admin2": "Yıldızeli?",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Armenia Minor",
   "lat": 40.1087,
   "lon": 36.875,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "857266",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 625,
   "greek_until": 1100,
   "phases": [
    [
     625,
     1100
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "the village of the martyr Athenogenes became the city and see Herakleoupolis, probably under Heraclius (610–641); first bishop (Ioannes) at Constantinople 680–81",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Bishops from 680-81 and an archbishopric in the Notitiae; the Turkish conquest came after 1071 (the Danishmendid emirs, centred on Sivas, Tokat and Niksar (and probably first at Amasya), took the inland Pontic towns in the years after Manzikert (1071; the dynasty was established after 1086 by one account, en.wikipedia 'Danishmendids'); the Seljuks of Rum absorbed the Sivas lands in 1174-75 and the last Danishmendids in 1178; the Mongols ruled after Köse Dağ (1243); the Ottomans took Amasya and Tokat c. 1392 and Sivas in 1398 (unchecked)). Bedohtun/Güneykaya is a Turkish village.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    1071,
    1300
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "bishop 680-81; 7th-c. seal of an archbishop",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the Turkish conquest (Danishmendids, late 11th c.).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Roman foundation",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "probably Heraclius (the renaming Herakleoupolis suggests 610–641)",
   "founder_group": "emperors in Constantinople 330–1453",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Pedachthoe → Herakleoupolis",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Native village name; no pre-Greek attestation.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "bishop 680–81 (Ioannes, 'Herakleioupolis or Pidachthoe'); 7th-c. seal of an archbishop of Pidachthoe; Notitiae (autocephalous archbishopric)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The founder Heraclius is inferred only from the name. The Ottoman village name Bedohtun preserves Pedachthoe.",
   "sources": [
    "Pleiades 857266",
    "Wikipedia: Pedachtoë",
    "PBE Ioannes 46",
    "Martyrdom of Athenogenes",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danishmendids (fetched)"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Pedachthoe → Herakleoupolis"
  },
  {
   "no": 90,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "c. AD 900 – c. 1404",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b115",
   "id_prev": "C606",
   "latin": "Keltzene (Eriza)",
   "greek": "Κελτζηνή",
   "other_names": "Eriza (Ptolemy); Erēz, Erznka (Armenian); Arzinjan (Arabic, Persian); Arzinga (Marco Polo, Clavijo); Erzincan",
   "modern": "Erzincan",
   "modern_native": "Erzincan",
   "population": 168093,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, district total (via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey')",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Old Erzincan, just south of the present city, which was rebuilt further north after the 1939 earthquake; the medieval walled town is not precisely located",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Erzincan",
   "admin2": "Merkez",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Armenia",
   "lat": 39.725,
   "lon": 39.505,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "874467",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 900,
   "greek_until": 1404,
   "phases": [
    [
     900,
     1404
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "c. 900: a see of the Constantinopolitan church (first under Kamachos, a metropolis by c. 1000); Greeks beside Armenians in the city still in 1404 (Clavijo)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Under Turkish rule from c. 1071 (Mengujekids, Seljuks, Ilkhanids, the emir Mutahharten); the metropolis was last filled in 1318/19, but Clavijo found Greeks in the city in 1404, the last attestation. The Ottomans took Erzincan after Otlukbeli (1473) and from the Safavids under Selim I (1514-15) (unchecked). Ioannidis (1870) counts 30 Orthodox families, of unstated language.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    1404,
    1520
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "metropolitans 1029-1318/19; Clavijo 1404; 30 Orthodox families 1870 (S. Ioannidis, Istoria kai statistiki Trapezountos (Constantinople 1870), via the Pontus gazetteer of set 17)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the community fades from the record after 1404.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Armenian town",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "Erēz (Arm.)",
   "pre_greek_note": "The Armenian town Erēz, cult centre of Anahit in Acilisene.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Turkish",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Armenian",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Clavijo (1404): 'many Christians, Armenians and Greeks', with a Greek priest at the head of the clergy; see of the Constantinopolitan church from c. 900",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "see from c. 900, metropolis by c. 1000 (Honigmann; ODB); metropolitans at the synods of 1029 and 1031/2; metropolitan Basil 1071–72 (Dumbarton Oaks seal); the metropolis last filled 1318/19; Clavijo (1404): a walled, populous city",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Under Turkish rule from c. 1071 (Mengujekid, Seljuk, Ilkhanid, then the emir Mutahharten, who married a Trapezuntine princess).",
   "sources": [
    "Clavijo, Embassy to Tamerlane, tr. Le Strange (1928) pp. 160–61; Historia del gran Tamorlan (Madrid 1782) pp. 109–10 (opened, archive.org)",
    "Clavijo, tr. Markham (1859) ch. IV",
    "Marco Polo, tr. Yule, bk 1 ch. 4; Ibn Battuta via Bosworth, Encyclopaedia Iranica s.v. Arzenjan",
    "Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium (1991) s.v. Keltzene p. 1173 (opened)",
    "Honigmann, Die Ostgrenze des byzantinischen Reiches (1935) pp. 198–213",
    "Dumbarton Oaks seal BZS.1947.2.51 (Basil, metropolitan of Keltzene)",
    "Charanis (1963)",
    "S. Ioannidis, Istoria kai statistiki Trapezountos (Constantinople 1870), via the Pontus gazetteer of set 17"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 91,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "c. AD 900 – 1923",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b101",
   "id_prev": "C608",
   "latin": "Leri",
   "greek": "Λέριν",
   "other_names": "Kabaköy; Kabakilise (the church of Hagia Sophia, now Ayasofya Camii)",
   "modern": "Arzularkabaköy (Kabaköy)",
   "modern_native": "Arzularkabaköy",
   "population": null,
   "pop_year": null,
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "The Leri valley east of Gümüşhane; the church of Hagia Sophia at Kabaköy, 'probably the oldest surviving church in the Pontos' (6th c.; Bryer & Winfield pp. 313–16)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Gümüşhane",
   "admin2": "Merkez",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 40.4172,
   "lon": 39.6658,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 900,
   "greek_until": 1923,
   "phases": [
    [
     900,
     1923
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "a see of Trebizond by the reign of Leo VI (886–912), in the lists down to c. 1054 (Bryer & Winfield p. 313)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "The see is last listed c. 1054, but the Leri villages stayed Greek Orthodox under the Empire of Trebizond (to 1461) and the Ottomans: in 1857 a British consular count gave about 200 Greek families in the Leri group, in the Chaldiot area of Pontic Greek speech. Administration: Turkish (Ottoman) from 1461; speech: Pontic Greek to the end. The Russian army held the area from July 1916 to February 1918; the last Orthodox left in the exchange of 1923-24.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "year",
   "until_range": [
    1923,
    1924
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "see in the lists c. 900-1054 (Bryer & Winfield p. 313); 6th-c. church of Hagia Sophia at Kabaköy; c. 200 Greek families in 1857 (consular, via the Pontus gazetteer); Chaldiot Pontic Greek spoken in the district (district-level evidence, not village by village)",
   "ended_by": "Removed under the Convention concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations, signed at Lausanne on 30 January 1923 by the governments of Greece and of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey; no named act against these villages in particular is recorded in the sources seen.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "suffragan see of Trebizond in the Nea Taktika of Leo VI and in lists of c. 980–1054 (Bryer & Winfield p. 313)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Continuity of a Greek-speaking community between the last see list (c. 1054) and the 19th-c. villages is inferred from the unbroken Orthodox settlement of Chaldia, not attested century by century. The see lay among 'the Leri villages'; no town is described.",
   "sources": [
    "Bryer & Winfield (1985) pp. 49, 311–16 (opened, archive.org)",
    "Pontus gazetteer of set 17 (Leri group: c. 200 families 1857)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 92,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "AD 949 – c. 1080",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b113",
   "id_prev": "C601",
   "latin": "Theodosiopolis",
   "greek": "Θεοδοσιούπολις",
   "other_names": "Karin (Armenian); Arzan al-Rum (Arabic); Erzurum",
   "modern": "Erzurum",
   "modern_native": "Erzurum",
   "population": 191228,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, district total (via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Erzurum city: the citadel and old town (Yakutiye, Erzurum)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Erzurum",
   "admin2": "Yakutiye",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Armenia",
   "lat": 39.908,
   "lon": 41.276,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "874373",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 949,
   "greek_until": 1080,
   "phases": [
    [
     949,
     1080
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "949: taken by John Kourkouas's successor Theophilos Kourkouas; its Muslim population was replaced by Greek and Armenian settlers; Roman until c. 1071–80",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Roman until the Turkish conquest c. 1071-80; the Saltukid emirs ruled from Erzurum afterwards (unchecked). The Ottoman city had an Orthodox community under the Patriarchate of Antioch (500 persons in 1870, S. Ioannidis, Istoria kai statistiki Trapezountos (Constantinople 1870), via the Pontus gazetteer of set 17), but Popov describes the Orthodox emigrants of 1829-30 from Erzurum as Turkish-speaking (via en.wikipedia 'Urums'), so it does not extend the Greek-speaking phase.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    1071,
    1100
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "theme capital after 949; 500 Orthodox 1870; Turkish-speaking Orthodox families from Erzurum emigrated to Russian Georgia in 1829-30 (Popov 1997; Eloeva 2002, via en.wikipedia 'Urums' and 'Tsalka language')",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the Seljuk-Türkmen conquest after Manzikert (1071).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Armenian town",
   "founder": "Theodosius II (c. 415–421, as Theodosiopolis); resettled under Constantine VII (949)",
   "founder_group": "emperors in Constantinople 330–1453",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "Karin (Arm.)",
   "pre_greek_note": "The Armenian town Karin, fortified as Theodosiopolis c. 415–421.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Armenian",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Greek and Armenian settlers after 949 (Runciman, Whittow, Holmes)",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "late Roman fortress-city and see; theme capital after 949 (theme of Iberia from 1000/1022)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Pleiades id added (874373, Erzurum/Theodosiopolis). Counted for 949-c. 1080 only. The Turkish name comes from Arabic Arzan al-Rum, \"Arzan of the Romans\".",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia 'Erzurum' (consulted; cites Whittow, The Making of Byzantium 600-1025 (1996) p. 322; Garsoian, 'The Foundation of Theodosiopolis-Karin' (2003); Arakelyan 1976; Inalcik, EI2 s.v. Erzurum; Gelzer 1901 pp. 536, 551 for the Notitiae; Meyendorff 1989 for the council of 593)",
    "Wikipedia 'John Kourkouas' (consulted)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urums (fetched: Popov 1997)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsalka_language (fetched: Eloeva 2002)",
    "S. Ioannidis, Istoria kai statistiki Trapezountos (Constantinople 1870), via the Pontus gazetteer of set 17"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 93,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "c. AD 950 – 1923",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b106",
   "id_prev": "C607",
   "latin": "Cheriana",
   "greek": "τὰ Χεριάνα",
   "other_names": "Şiran (the Ottoman town, about 6 km SSW)",
   "modern": "Uluşiran (near Şiran)",
   "modern_native": "Uluşiran",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Probably the walled mound at Uluşiran, 6 km NNE of Şiran, walled under the emperors (Bryer & Winfield p. 171)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Gümüşhane",
   "admin2": "Şiran",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 40.239,
   "lon": 39.154,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 950,
   "greek_until": 1923,
   "phases": [
    [
     950,
     1923
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "10th c.: a new see of the metropolis of Trebizond in the 10th-c. episcopal lists (Bryer & Winfield p. 167); 'a chora' to Lazaropoulos; in Turkish hands by 1355",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "The walled town was in Turkish (Türkmen) hands by 1355 (Panaretos, via Bryer & Winfield), and no town life is recorded after that. The Greek community of Cheriana lived on in the villages round Şiran: Ioannidis (1870) counts 'many Greek villages, some of them Turcophone', and the see survived as the metropolis of Chaldia and Cheriana. Bryer & Winfield call Cheriana 'until this century the most southerly outpost of Pontic Greek settlement'. The last Orthodox left in the exchange of 1923-24.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "year",
   "until_range": [
    1923,
    1924
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "10th-c. see; Türkmen by 1355 (Panaretos); 1870: many Greek villages, some Turkish-speaking (Ioannidis 1870 p. 252); metropolis of Chaldia and Cheriana to 1923",
   "ended_by": "Town: no named act; it was in Türkmen hands by 1355. Villages: removed under the Convention concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations, signed at Lausanne on 30 January 1923 by the governments of Greece and of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The Uluşiran mound is a prehistoric site with a Roman phase (perhaps Cunissa) (B&W p. 171).",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "a see of Trebizond in the 10th-c. lists (no bishop named); Lazaropoulos calls it a chora; walled hill site (Bryer & Winfield 1985 pp. 165–72)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "The phase to 1923 follows the Greek community of the district, not a town: after 1355 the Greek speakers lived in villages, and some of them spoke Turkish by 1870. 'Clearly a Greek enclave with its own bishop, until this century the most southerly outpost of Pontic Greek settlement' (Bryer & Winfield p. 171); its town is inferred from the see, not described.",
   "sources": [
    "Bryer & Winfield (1985) pp. 165–75 (opened, archive.org)",
    "Bryer, \"Greeks and Türkmens: the Pontic Exception\", DOP 29 (1975) pp. 125, 133 (opened)",
    "Panaretos and Lazaropoulos (via Bryer & Winfield)",
    "S. Ioannidis, Istoria kai statistiki Trapezountos (Constantinople 1870) p. 252, via the Pontus gazetteer of set 17"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 94,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "c. 1486 – 1923",
   "period": "5 The later Greek towns (1475-1923)",
   "id": "b120",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Matsouka (Tzevizlik, Maçka)",
   "greek": "Ματζούκα (Τζεβιζλίκ)",
   "other_names": "Dikaisimon, Δικαίσημον (the medieval name of the place, a bridge, 1223); Matzouka (the medieval bandon and valley); Cevizlik, Jevislik, Tzevizlik (Ottoman); Maçka (Turkish, from the valley's medieval name)",
   "modern": "Maçka",
   "modern_native": "Maçka",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Maçka town on the Değirmendere, about 30 km south of Trabzon (Maçka, Trabzon)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Trabzon",
   "admin2": "Maçka",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Pontus",
   "lat": 40.8111,
   "lon": 39.6132,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "B",
   "greek_from": 1486,
   "greek_until": 1923,
   "phases": [
    [
     1486,
     1923
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "The centre of the bandon of Matzouka of the Empire of Trebizond (attested 1223); under the Ottomans a nahiye of the kaza of Trabzon in the 16th c. (TDV) and later the seat of the kaza of Maçka. The first figures are the register of 1486: 8,930 Christians and 30 Muslims in the 52 villages of the valley (Lowry, via Topalidis).",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Administration: Trapezuntine to 1461, then Ottoman. Speech: the valley was Christian and Greek-speaking (the Matsouka variety of Pontic Greek): 8,930 Christians and 30 Muslims in 1486; 88% Christian c. 1520 (57 villages); 12,224 Greeks in the kaza in 1910-12 (Alexandris); 19,575 Greek Orthodox and 17,950 Muslims in the kaza by the Ottoman census of 1914; 76% Christian in 70 villages c. 1920 (Bryer and Winfield). By autumn 1916 most of the town had been burned; the Christians left in the exchange of 1923. The Romeyka spoken in the valley today is that of Muslims resettled from Çaykara, Of and Sürmene after the flood of 1929, not a continuation of the valley's own Greek.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "year",
   "until_range": null,
   "fade_evidence": "1223: bandon of Matzouka; 1486: 8,930 Christians, 30 Muslims (52 villages); c. 1520: 88% Christian; 1910-12: 12,224 Greeks in the kaza; 1913-14: a parish of St Theodore with 20 families listed at or near the town (church survey, location approximate); 1914: 19,575 Greek Orthodox and 17,950 Muslims in the kaza; c. 1920: 76% Christian; autumn 1916: 'only small houses in the centre of Maçka' (Mintslov); 1923: exchange.",
   "ended_by": "In 1915 Greek men of the labour battalions worked on the military railway Trabzon-Maçka; by autumn 1916 most of the town had been burned or destroyed (Mintslov 1923; who burned it is not stated in the summary seen); in May 1922 children were held without food in a barbed-wire enclosure near 'Jevislik' (H. Gibbons, Christian Science Monitor, 31 May 1922) and in June 1922 seventeen Greek men were beheaded on the outskirts of Maçka (Morris and Ze'evi 2019, p. 421) (all via Topalidis); the remaining Christians left under the Convention concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations, signed at Lausanne on 30 January 1923.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "No recorded founder: the centre of the Matzouka valley on the road from Trebizond to the south",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Dikaisimon (a bridge) in the medieval sources; no earlier name is attested.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Turkish",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Turkish (the Muslims of the kaza, about half of it by the Ottoman census of 1914)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Seat of the kaza of Maçka (c. 1910; the Ottoman census of 1914 by kaza); earlier the centre of the bandon and nahiye of Matzouka",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Admitted as the seat of an overwhelmingly Greek-speaking district; nothing found describes the town's own people. The town was small, and one historian of the valley knows of no former Orthodox church in it, while the church survey of 1913-14 lists a parish of St Theodore with 20 families placed at or near Maçka only approximately. By the Ottoman census of 1914 the kaza was only about half Greek Orthodox (52%), against 76% in Bryer and Winfield's figure for c. 1920.",
   "sources": [
    "S. Topalidis, 'A History of Maçka, Pontos' (Lowry 1986; Alexandris 1999; Bryer and Winfield 1985; Mintslov 1923; Gibbons 1922; Morris and Ze'evi 2019): https://mail.pontosworld.com/index.php/history/sam-topalidis/951-a-history-of-macka-pontos",
    "Ottoman census of 1914 by kaza (Karpat 1985), as tabulated in https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trebizond_vilayet",
    "TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, 'Trabzon' (Maçka a nahiye of the kaza of Trabzon in the 16th c.): https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/trabzon",
    "Chrysanthos, 'I Ekklisia Trapezountos', Archeion Pontou 4-5 (1933), p. 793: church survey of 1913-14 (via the Pontus gazetteer of set 17)",
    "Bryer and Winfield 1985, pp. 251, 330-339"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 95,
   "list_group": "Inland Pontus, Chaldia and Armenia Minor",
   "dates_shown": "c. 1590 – 1923",
   "period": "5 The later Greek towns (1475-1923)",
   "id": "b100",
   "id_prev": "",
   "latin": "Argyroupolis",
   "greek": "Ἀργυρούπολις",
   "other_names": "Gümüşhane (Ottoman and Turkish, 'silver house'); Gimiskhana, Kiumuskhana (Greek renderings of the Turkish name); Argyroupoli, Argyropolis (the Greek name, used from the early 19th c.)",
   "modern": "Gümüşhane",
   "modern_native": "Gümüşhane",
   "population": 54341,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, district total (via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "The old town (Eski Gümüşhane, Süleymaniye) in the side valley above the present city, which moved down to the Harşit valley in the 20th c. (unchecked)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Gümüşhane",
   "admin2": "Merkez",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "the Pontus (Chaldia)",
   "lat": 40.4598,
   "lon": 39.4778,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "B",
   "greek_from": 1590,
   "greek_until": 1923,
   "phases": [
    [
     1590,
     1923
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "The silver-mining town grew up in the late 16th c.: 'established in the 1590s' (Topalidis 2019, after Bryer); Murad III (1574-1595) seems to have given privileges to the chief miners, and the town 'became a centre of Hellenism' (en.wikipedia). There is no evidence that the mines were worked before the Ottoman conquest.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "The mines declined in the 18th-19th c.; the miners moved to new mines at Akdağmadeni, Keban, Ergani and elsewhere, and in 1763 a group went to Akhtala in the Caucasus at the invitation of Erekle II (unchecked). After the Russian occupation of 1829 most inhabitants left with the Russian army for southern Russia (en.wikipedia; Topalidis). A Greek community remained (405 houses 1857; 300 families 1870), speaking the Chaldiot variety of Pontic Greek (district-level evidence). The Russian army held the town from 20 July 1916 to 15 February 1918. 'After the exchange of populations (1923) no Greek Orthodox remained.'",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "year",
   "until_range": [
    1923,
    1924
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "privileges under Murad III (1574-1595); diocese raised to an archdiocese 1650; Frontisterion from 1723; mass departure 1829-30; 405 Greek houses 1857 (consular); 300 families 1870 (Ioannidis); 1914: about 1,600 Greeks of some 3,000 people (pontosworld settlement list after Samouilidis 1992; the figure is not sourced and may cover the town with its quarters); Russian occupation 1916-18; exchange 1923-24",
   "ended_by": "Removed under the Convention concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations, signed at Lausanne on 30 January 1923 by the governments of Greece and of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. Earlier losses: the departure with the retreating Russian army in 1829-30, for fear of reprisals after the war of 1828-29 (en.wikipedia; Topalidis).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Ottoman mining town",
   "founder": "Greek miners of Chaldia working the Ottoman silver mines",
   "founder_group": "Ottoman Empire",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Turkish",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Greek miners held the skilled work and the mine headship (Topalidis 2019 ch. 7, after Bryer); seat of the metropolitan of Chaldia (Ioannidis 1870); Greek school (Frontisterion) from 1723; 405 Greek houses in 1857 (British consular count); a Muslim Turkish population beside them",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "sanjak and kaza seat (Gümüşhane, vilayet of Trebizond); seat of the metropolitan of Chaldia (Ioannidis 1870); Frontisterion from 1723; 405 Greek houses 1857 (British consular report, via the Pontus gazetteer)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Greek or bilingual: the town's own figures by faith were not found, so 'bilingual city' (Greek and Turkish) is the cautious call; Greek may have been the majority in the 17th-18th c. A claimed Ionian foundation 'Thyra' of c. 700 BC (pontosworld) has no support and is not used. Popov counts Turkish-speaking Orthodox families from the Gümüşhane area among the emigrants of 1829-30, so not every Orthodox of the sanjak spoke Greek.",
   "sources": [
    "Topalidis, An Introduction to Pontic Greek History (2019) ch. 7, https://pontosworld.com/downloads/Introduction%20to%20Pontic%20Greek%20History.pdf (fetched)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gümüşhane (fetched)",
    "https://mail.pontosworld.com/index.php/pontus/places/184-argyroupoli-guemueshane (fetched)",
    "Pontus gazetteer of set 17 (405 houses 1857; Ioannidis 1870: 300 families, seat of the metropolitan of Chaldia)",
    "Bryer & Winfield (1985), Chaldia section (unchecked)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 96,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 631 BC – 1923",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b046",
   "id_prev": "C524",
   "latin": "Sinope",
   "greek": "Σινώπη",
   "other_names": "Colonia Iulia Felix Sinope (Caesar, 45 BC)",
   "modern": "Sinop",
   "modern_native": "Sinop",
   "population": 57404,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2022 (via the English Wikipedia article on the town)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Sinop (Merkez, Sinop)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Sinop",
   "admin2": "Merkez",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Paphlagonia",
   "lat": 42.0258,
   "lon": 35.143,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "857321",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -631,
   "greek_until": 1923,
   "phases": [
    [
     -631,
     1923
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "refounded by the Milesians Kous and Kretines after the Cimmerian raids, 631 BC (Eusebius), matching the earliest Greek pottery (late 7th c.); tradition of an earlier Milesian foundation (Habrondas) before the Cimmerians, which Trapezous' date (756) would put before 756",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Administration: Trebizond 1204-1214; taken by the Seljuk sultan Kaykaus I in 1214; then the Pervane family and the Candarids (Isfendiyarids); in June 1461 Ismail Bey surrendered it to Mehmed II. Speech: the Greek community lived on under Turkish rule (in 1315 the bishop left for Side, but the Orthodox remained: the first Ottoman register of the town, of 1487, lists seven of its twenty quarters as non-Muslim and two as mixed, and the revenue ledgers of the mid-19th c. count 367 non-Muslim houses; the registers do not give the language, and some of the non-Muslims may have been Armenians). The Greek consular census of 1911 counted 3,668 Orthodox in the town, Pontic Greek in speech. In 1916 the German consul Kuckhoff reported that 'the entire Greek population of Sinope and the coastal region of the district of Kastamonu has been exiled' (cited by Travis 2017); in September-October 1921 Christian children aged 9-12 were rounded up and deported from Sinop and Gerze; the survivors left in the exchange of 1923-24, many for Nea Sinopi in Greece (unchecked: the place).",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "year",
   "until_range": [
    1923,
    1924
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "1315 bishop leaves for Side; 1487 Ottoman register: 7 of 20 quarters non-Muslim, 2 mixed; mid-19th c. revenue ledgers: 367 non-Muslim houses; 1911 consular census: 3,668 Orthodox (Pontic Greek); 1922 Greek figure 3,768; Kuckhoff 1916; deportation of children 1921 (Morris & Ze'evi 2019: 411)",
   "ended_by": "Exile of the Greeks of Sinope by the Ottoman authorities in 1916 (consul Kuckhoff, cited by Travis 2017); deportation of the Christian children of Sinop and Gerze, September-October 1921, under the Ankara government (Morris & Ze'evi 2019: 411); the survivors removed under the Convention concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations, signed at Lausanne on 30 January 1923.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Miletus (oikists Kous and Kretines; earlier Habrondas by tradition; mythical Autolykos)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus",
   "refounded_by": "Refounded after the Cimmerian destruction (631 BC); Roman colony Colonia Iulia Felix (45 BC)",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Sinop Kale excavations (2000, 2015) found Early Bronze Age pottery and Early–Middle Iron Age (c. 1000–700 BC) structures, probably a seasonal fishing settlement, beneath the colony. No pre-Greek name is attested; claims of a Hittite-era port are unsupported.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "yes: from the Seljuk conquest of 1214 a Turkish-speaking Muslim town with a Greek-speaking Orthodox community to 1923",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP (Pontos); coins from 5th c. BC; Pontic royal capital 183–70 BC; Roman colony 45 BC; Hierocles; bishops 451–; medieval Roman autocephalous archbishopric",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Mother city of Kotyora, Kerasous, Trapezous and (in part) Amisos. Trapezuntine 1204–14; Seljuk from 1214 (briefly retaken by Trebizond in the mid-13th c.); Ottoman 1461. The Ottoman conquest is dated 1461 (Ismail Bey's surrender to Mehmed II on his march to Trebizond); the date 1458 sometimes given is not followed. Wikipedia's figure of c. 8,000 Greeks in 1920 is not supported by the 1911 count and is not used. IACP number not checked.",
   "sources": [
    "IACP (Pontos), Sinope",
    "Ps.-Scymnus (Sinope)",
    "Doonan et al. 2017, Sinop Kale excavations",
    "Pleiades 857321",
    "Wikipedia: Sinop, Turkey (1214, 1315, 1461; read Oct 2026)",
    "Pontus gazetteer (set 17), after Kitromilides & Alexandris 1984, Table VI (1911 Greek consular census)",
    "Morris & Ze'evi, The Thirty-Year Genocide (2019), p. 411"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 97,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 560 BC – c. 1923",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b060",
   "id_prev": "C062",
   "latin": "Heraclea Pontica",
   "greek": "Ἡράκλεια Ποντική",
   "other_names": "Herakleia en Pontoi; Pontoherakleia (medieval Roman); Penderaklia (medieval Italian)",
   "modern": "Ereğli",
   "modern_native": "Ereğli",
   "population": 122282,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2022 (via the English Wikipedia article on Karadeniz Ereğli)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Karadeniz Ereğli (Ereğli, Zonguldak)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Zonguldak",
   "admin2": "Ereğli",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Bithynia",
   "lat": 41.2833,
   "lon": 31.4174,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "844944",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -560,
   "greek_until": 1923,
   "phases": [
    [
     -560,
     1923
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "c. 560 BC (Ps.-Scymnus: founded 'when Cyrus took Media', i.e. c. 560/554 BC) by Megarians and Boeotians of Tanagra; no earlier Greek material known",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Administration: David Komnenos held it 1205-1214 for Trebizond; Theodore I Laskaris took it in 1214; a Genoese trading station after 1261; Turkish from c. 1360 or 1397 (the dates differ; Clavijo wrote in 1404 that the Turks had bought the town some thirty years before) (TDV). Speech: a synod of 1387 transferred the metropolis to Amastris because the few remaining Christians had no pastoral care after Turkoman raids and migrations; yet in 1404 Clavijo found a small town most of whose people were Greeks. By the early 16th c. the town was Muslim: the register counts 42 non-Muslim households of 221, some of them newcomers from elsewhere; P. M. Bıjışkyan (1817-1819) found a Rum quarter of about forty poor households (TDV); the Bolu sanjak had 5,146 Greek Orthodox in 1914. The language of the Ottoman-era Rum is not recorded; if they spoke Greek, as is likely on this coast but not proven, Greek lasted until the exchange of 1923, hence the wide range.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    1404,
    1923
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "1387 synod: metropolis given to Amastris for lack of Christians (en.wikipedia Heraclea Pontica); Genoese Penderaklia 14th-15th c.; 1404: Clavijo found a small town, most of whose people were Rum (Greeks) (TDV); early 16th-c. register: 221 households, 179 Muslim and 42 non-Muslim, some of the latter newcomers; 1817-1819 (Bıjışkyan): a poor Rum quarter of about forty houses, tanners, in a town of at most 7,000; Cuinet: 1,255 houses and 6,274 people; Kastamonu salname of 1314 H (1896/97): 5,300 people in 915 houses (no religious breakdown); Bolu sanjak 1914: 5,146 Greek Orthodox",
   "ended_by": "No named act: Turkoman raids and settlement in the 14th c. reduced the Christians (synod of 1387); the remaining Orthodox, whatever their language, left under the Convention concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations, signed at Lausanne on 30 January 1923 (unchecked: Ereğli itself).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Megara with Boeotians (Tanagra); oikist Gnesiochos (tradition)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Megara (with Boeotians)",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Built in the land of the Mariandynoi, who were reduced to dependent status; no pre-Greek settlement known at the site itself. Founded in Mariandynian territory and the Mariandynoi were reduced to dependants, but no native settlement on the site is attested archaeologically or textually. The Lykos/Herakles stories are myth, and it is even unclear whether the Roman city overlies the colony.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP (Pontos); coins from 5th c. BC; tyrants and Hellenistic decrees; Hierocles; bishops 431–787; medieval Roman metropolis",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The Mariandynoi became dependent labourers. Herakleia founded Kallatis and Chersonesos (outside Turkey). IACP number not checked.",
   "sources": [
    "IACP (Pontos), Herakleia",
    "Burstein 1976, Outpost of Hellenism",
    "Ps.-Scymnus",
    "Pleiades 844944",
    "Wikipedia: Heraclea Pontica",
    "Wikipedia: Heraclea Pontica (1387 synod; Genoese period)",
    "1914 Ottoman census (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1914_Ottoman_census): Kastamonu vilayet 20,958 Greek Orthodox of 767,227; Bolu sanjak 5,146 of 408,648"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 98,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 550 BC – c. 1350",
   "period": "1 The colonies (c. 650-480 BC)",
   "id": "b057",
   "id_prev": "C514",
   "latin": "Tium (Tios, Tieion)",
   "greek": "Τίειον",
   "other_names": "Tios, Teion (Ps.-Scylax); Phileios (medieval Roman, after the river Billaios/Phileios)",
   "modern": "Filyos",
   "modern_native": "Filyos",
   "population": 4847,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2022 (via the English Wikipedia article on the town)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Filyos/Hisarönü (Çaycuma, Zonguldak)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Zonguldak",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Paphlagonia",
   "lat": 41.5712,
   "lon": 32.0315,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "845084",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -550,
   "greek_until": 1350,
   "phases": [
    [
     -550,
     1350
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Milesian colony (Steph. Byz.); excavators date the earliest acropolis settlement to the 6th c. BC (some 7th-c. material reported in the region); Ps.-Scylax 90 'Hellenic city with harbour' (c. 340 BC)",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Bishops of Tieion are attested to 869; the site at Filyos has a medieval castle (unchecked). The coast passed to the Candarids and then the Ottomans in the 14th-15th c. (unchecked); Filyos was a Turkish village in Ottoman times. The end is an estimate.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    869,
    1460
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "bishops 431-869; medieval Roman name Phileios (unchecked)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the Turkish conquest of the coast (Candarids, then Ottomans), 14th-15th c. (unchecked).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Miletus",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus",
   "refounded_by": "Joined Amastris' synoecism c. 300 BC but soon seceded and became independent again",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Rejected 'no known'. Sönmez & Öztürk report only one acropolis sounding (Kale Tepesi), whose earliest sherds are black-figure pieces 'thought possibly Archaic'. They give no depth and do not say virgin soil or bedrock was reached, so this is absence of finds in a limited sounding (rule 7). No author calls the site new ground. Strabo (12.3.5) places the native Kaukones around Tieion, so a native presence nearby is possible but unproven.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP (Pontos); Ps.-Scylax 90; coins Hellenistic to Gallienus; Hierocles; bishops 431–869",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Ancient writers disagree whether it belonged to Bithynia or Paphlagonia. Birthplace of Philetairos of Pergamon. The Turkish Filyos comes from the medieval Roman name of the river and town. IACP number not checked.",
   "sources": [
    "IACP (Pontos)",
    "Strabo 12.3.8",
    "Atasoy, Filyos-Tios excavations (2006–)",
    "Pleiades 845084",
    "Wikipedia: Tium"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 99,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 425 BC – c. 100 BC +",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b054",
   "id_prev": "C525",
   "latin": "Carusa",
   "greek": "Κάρουσα",
   "other_names": "Karoussa; Polichnion (Barrington)",
   "modern": "Gerze",
   "modern_native": "Gerze",
   "population": 19144,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2022 (via the English Wikipedia article on the town)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Gerze (Gerze, Sinop)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Sinop",
   "admin2": "Gerze",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Paphlagonia",
   "lat": 41.8101,
   "lon": 35.1589,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "857181",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -425,
   "greek_until": 1923,
   "phases": [
    [
     -425,
     -100
    ],
    [
     1850,
     1923
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "assessed for tribute in the Athenian Pontic assessment of 425/4 BC; 'Hellenic city' in Ps.-Scylax 89 (c. 340 BC)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "The ancient town: Ps.-Scylax (c. 340 BC) calls Karousa a Greek city; Arrian (AD 131) knows only 'an open road where ships lie, but no port', so the town had gone or shrunk by his time; the end of this first phase is an estimate between the two. No Greek community is recorded at the place from then until the 20th c. (Turkish from 1214 with Sinope; Ottoman 1461). The modern community: a Pontic Greek-speaking Orthodox community lived in Gerze (645 people in the 1911 consular census); it is first counted in 1911, and its start is an estimate (the 19th-century growth of the Greek communities of this coast); it may have been an offshoot of Sinope's community, which is attested throughout. In September-October 1921 Christian children were rounded up and deported from Sinop and Gerze; the survivors left in the exchange of 1923-24.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "year",
   "until_range": [
    1923,
    1924
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax (c. 340 BC: Greek city); Arrian, Periplus (AD 131: an open roadstead, no port); 1911 consular census: 645 Orthodox, Pontic Greek (Pontus gazetteer (set 17), after Kitromilides & Alexandris 1984, Table VI (1911 Greek consular census)); 1921 deportations (Morris & Ze'evi 2019: 411)",
   "ended_by": "Exile of the coastal Greeks in 1916 (consul Kuckhoff, cited by Travis 2017); deportation of the Christian children of Sinop and Gerze in 1921 (Morris & Ze'evi 2019: 411); the survivors removed under the Convention concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations, signed at Lausanne on 30 January 1923.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "unknown Greek settlers (probably from Sinope)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "unknown",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "No archaeological evidence for occupation at Gerze before the Greek town is reported.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "yes: under Turkish rule (1214-1923) a Turkish-speaking town with a Pontic Greek-speaking minority",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP p. 958; Athenian tribute assessment 425/4 BC; Ps.-Scylax 89",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "150 stadia south-east of Sinope; later a small emporion (Arrian). The medieval and early Ottoman history of a Greek community at Gerze is not documented; the phase runs on without a known gap. IACP number not checked.",
   "sources": [
    "IACP p. 958",
    "Ps.-Scylax 89",
    "Arrian, Periplus",
    "Pleiades 857181",
    "Wikipedia: Carussa",
    "Pontus gazetteer (set 17), after Kitromilides & Alexandris 1984, Table VI (1911 Greek consular census)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 100,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 400 BC – c. 1214",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b045",
   "id_prev": "C523",
   "latin": "Armene (Harmene)",
   "greek": "Ἁρμένη",
   "other_names": "Harmene (Ps.-Scylax)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Akliman (Merkez, Sinop)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Sinop",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Paphlagonia",
   "lat": 42.0492,
   "lon": 35.0419,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "844865",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -400,
   "greek_until": 1214,
   "phases": [
    [
     -400,
     1214
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "harbour of Sinope where the Ten Thousand stayed in 400 BC (Xen. Anab. 6.1.15); 'Hellenic city with harbour' in Ps.-Scylax 89 (c. 340 BC)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "A harbour of Sinope; still named by Strabo, Arrian and the anonymous Periplus. Its later history is that of Sinope's countryside: Turkish from 1214, with Pontic Greek-speaking Orthodox villages near by until 1923 (Prophitis Ilias/Hacıoğlu, 590 people in 1911). No later record of Armene itself, so the end is placed at the Seljuk conquest of Sinope.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    150,
    1923
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Arrian, Periplus; anonymous Periplus; 1911 consular census for the nearby villages (Pontus gazetteer (set 17), after Kitromilides & Alexandris 1984, Table VI (1911 Greek consular census))",
   "ended_by": "No named act for Armene: the Seljuk conquest of Sinope by Kaykaus I, 1214.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Sinope",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Sinope",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "No excavation at Akliman, and no report of a pre-Greek settlement at the site. Strabo's 'who walled Armene' proverb is not evidence of earlier occupation.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP (Pontos); Xen. Anab. 6.1.15; Ps.-Scylax 89; Strabo 12.3.10",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "A dependency of Sinope 50 stadia to its west. Strabo quotes a proverb about the man 'who walled Armene'. IACP number not checked.",
   "sources": [
    "Xen. Anab. 6.1.15",
    "Ps.-Scylax 89",
    "Strabo 12.3.10",
    "Pleiades 844865",
    "Wikipedia: Armene"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 101,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 350 BC – c. AD 600",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b053",
   "id_prev": "C516",
   "latin": "Cromna",
   "greek": "Κρῶμνα",
   "other_names": "",
   "modern": "Tekkeönü",
   "modern_native": "Tekkeönü",
   "population": null,
   "pop_year": null,
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Tekkeönü (Kurucaşile, Bartın)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Bartın",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Paphlagonia",
   "lat": 41.8382,
   "lon": 32.6511,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "844994",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -350,
   "greek_until": 600,
   "phases": [
    [
     -350,
     600
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Homeric Paphlagonian place (Il. 2.855); a Greek polis striking its own silver in the 4th c. BC; probably an Archaic Ionian foundation of unknown date",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "After c. 300 BC a village of Amastris; still named by Pliny, Ptolemy, Arrian and the anonymous Periplus (unchecked). No later record of the place; the coast passed to Turkish rule in the 14th-15th c. The end is the last attestation, with a range to the conquest.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    150,
    1400
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Pliny NH 6.5; Ptolemy 5.1.7; anonymous Periplus (unchecked)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: no record of the place after late antiquity.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Ionian (probably Milesian) settlers; not attested",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus?",
   "refounded_by": "Absorbed into Amastris c. 300 BC",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Named as a Paphlagonian place in Homer's Trojan Catalogue; no pre-Greek-script attestation.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP (Pontos); civic silver coins 4th c. BC; absorbed into Amastris c. 300 BC",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Steph. Byz. says Amastris was first called Kromna, so some place Kromna at Amasra; Barrington puts it at Tekkeönü near Kurucaşile. A village dependent on Amastris after c. 300 BC. IACP number not checked.",
   "sources": [
    "IACP (Pontos)",
    "Strabo 12.3.10",
    "Homer Il. 2.855",
    "Pleiades 844994"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 102,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 340 BC – c. 1460",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b055",
   "id_prev": "C515",
   "latin": "Amastris",
   "greek": "Ἄμαστρις",
   "other_names": "Sesamos (Σήσαμος, the earlier Greek city on the site); Samastro (Genoese)",
   "modern": "Amasra",
   "modern_native": "Amasra",
   "population": 6098,
   "pop_year": 2021,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2021 (via the English Wikipedia article on the town)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Amasra (Amasra, Bartın)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Bartın",
   "admin2": "Amasra",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Paphlagonia",
   "lat": 41.747,
   "lon": 32.3856,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "844856",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -340,
   "greek_until": 1460,
   "phases": [
    [
     -340,
     1460
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Sesamos: Ionian (probably Milesian) settlement of unknown date, probably Archaic; first firm evidence is Ps.-Scylax 90 'Hellenic city' (c. 340 BC); synoecised as Amastris by Queen Amastris c. 300 BC",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: Genoese Samastro 1261-1460; surrendered to Mehmed II in 1459/1460 (Babinger: autumn 1460; İnalcık: 1458/1459). Speech: a metropolis still existed in 1387 (Heraclea's see was transferred to it). After the surrender the sultan moved much of the population to Constantinople (Kritoboulos) (unchecked); the town's two churches were turned into mosques and the people of the castle of Eflani were settled in the town by his order (Kure Ansiklopedisi, 'Bartın'). No Greek community in Ottoman Amasra is attested in the sources seen; one may have lived on to the exchange of 1923 (unchecked; not checked), hence the range.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    1460,
    1923
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "1387 synod (metropolis of Amastris); conquest of 1459/1460: churches converted to mosques, people of Eflani settled in the town (Kure Ansiklopedisi); transfer of inhabitants to Constantinople (unchecked); an Ottoman-era Greek community (unchecked; unconfirmed)",
   "ended_by": "Mehmed II moved much of the population to Constantinople after the surrender of 1459/1460 (Kritoboulos) (unchecked) and settled the people of the castle of Eflani in the town (Kure Ansiklopedisi). If a Greek community lived on, it left under the Convention concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations, signed at Lausanne on 30 January 1923.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Ionian (probably Milesian) settlers at Sesamos; synoecism by Queen Amastris c. 300 BC",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Miletus?",
   "refounded_by": "Sesamos → Amastris (synoecism of Sesamos, Kytoros, Kromna and Tieion by Queen Amastris, c. 300 BC); Sesamos became its acropolis",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Sesamos is named among Paphlagonian places in Homer (Il. 2.853); surveys at Tekketepe report possible Bronze Age material. No native-script name.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP (Pontos) for Sesamos; Ps.-Scylax 90; coins of Queen Amastris and the city; Roman 'metropolis' title; Hierocles; bishops from 2nd c. (Palmas) to 787; later metropolis",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Mother city not attested; the founding date of Sesamos is probably Archaic but undocumented. Genoese 1261-1460, then Ottoman (surrender of 16-17 October 1460 in the Wikipedia account). No Ottoman register figure, salname count or church survey for Christians in Ottoman Amasra was found (the encyclopedia of the Turkish Religious Foundation has no article on the town; its only related entry is the church turned into a mosque by Mehmed II, the Fatih Camii), so an Ottoman-era Greek community is not attested and the phase ends with the surrender; the range to 1923 is kept open only because the Kastamonu vilayet had Greek Orthodox communities until the exchange. IACP number not checked.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 12.3.10",
    "IACP (Pontos), Sesamos",
    "Pleiades 844856",
    "Wikipedia: Amasra",
    "Wikipedia: Amasra (conquest 1460; Babinger, İnalcık)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 103,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 340 BC – c. 200 BC",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b047",
   "id_prev": "C518",
   "latin": "Carambis",
   "greek": "Κάραμβις",
   "other_names": "Karamos (Ps.-Scylax MSS); Carambas (Tab. Peut.)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "near Fakaz, Kerempe Burnu (Doğanyurt, Kastamonu)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Kastamonu",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Paphlagonia",
   "lat": 42.0136,
   "lon": 33.3697,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "844970",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -340,
   "greek_until": -200,
   "phases": [
    [
     -340,
     -200
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "called a 'Hellenic city' by Ps.-Scylax 90 (c. 340 BC); founding date unknown",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Ps.-Scylax (c. 340 BC) is the only writer who calls Karambis a Greek town. Strabo (12.3.10) knows Karambis only as a great cape (unchecked), and Arrian (AD 131) uses it only as a point for his distances ('from Carambis to Zephyrium an hundred and sixty stadia'); neither names a town there, so the town had probably gone, or shrunk to a village, by the 1st c. AD. The end is an estimate between the last attestation (c. 340 BC) and Strabo's silence (c. AD 20).",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -340,
    20
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 90 only (as a town)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town is not recorded after c. 340 BC.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "unknown Greek settlers (perhaps from Sinope)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "unknown",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Known only from Ps.-Scylax; the site near Cape Kerempe is tentative and unexcavated.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 90 'Hellenic city'; Pliny, Strabo (cape)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "The only evidence that it was a city is Ps.-Scylax. The site near Cape Kerempe is a tentative placement.",
   "sources": [
    "Ps.-Scylax 90 (Shipley 2019)",
    "Strabo 12.3.10",
    "Pleiades 844970",
    "Wikipedia: Carambis"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 104,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 340 BC – c. 1300",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b050",
   "id_prev": "C520",
   "latin": "Cinolis",
   "greek": "Κίνωλις",
   "other_names": "Kimolis",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Ginolu Kalesi, on the coast c. 4.5 km W of Çatalzeytin (Çatalzeytin, Kastamonu)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Kastamonu",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Paphlagonia",
   "lat": 41.9657,
   "lon": 34.1656,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "844984",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -340,
   "greek_until": 1300,
   "phases": [
    [
     -340,
     1300
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "called a 'Hellenic city' by Ps.-Scylax 90 (c. 340 BC); founding date unknown",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Later an anchorage (Strabo, Arrian, anonymous Periplus); a medieval Roman castle of the 9th-10th c. stands at Ginolu Kalesi. The coast west of Sinope came under Turkish rule after 1214 and under the Candarids in the 14th c. (unchecked). No later Greek community is recorded at the site; the end is an estimate.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    600,
    1400
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Arrian, Periplus; anonymous Periplus; 9th-10th-c. castle",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the Turkish conquest of the coast west of Sinope, 13th-14th c. (unchecked).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "unknown Greek settlers (perhaps from Sinope)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "unknown",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Known from Ps.-Scylax and later periploi; the only visible remains are a 9th/10th-c. castle at Ginolu Kalesi. No early levels are known.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 90 'Hellenic city'; later only an anchorage/emporion (Strabo 12.3.10, Arrian, Periplus)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Its city status rests only on Ps.-Scylax. Later a small emporion, with a 9th/10th-c. medieval Roman castle at Ginolu Kalesi.",
   "sources": [
    "Ps.-Scylax 90",
    "Arrian, Periplus",
    "Pleiades 844984",
    "Wikipedia: Cinolis"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 105,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 340 BC – c. 200 BC",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b051",
   "id_prev": "C521",
   "latin": "Colussa (Koloussa)",
   "greek": "Κόλουσσα",
   "other_names": "",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "near Güllüsu (Türkeli, Sinop)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Sinop",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Paphlagonia",
   "lat": 41.9474,
   "lon": 34.2715,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "844989",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -340,
   "greek_until": -200,
   "phases": [
    [
     -340,
     -200
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "called a 'Hellenic city' by Ps.-Scylax 90 (c. 340 BC); founding date unknown",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Known only from Ps.-Scylax (c. 340 BC). Arrian (AD 131), who lists the anchorages of this coast in detail, does not name it, so the town had probably gone or become a village by then; the end is an estimate between the two writers. The Orthodox of the nearby Türkeli villages (Yarna, Morza, Tosos, Taista, Helaldı) were Turkish-speaking in 1911, so they do not continue a Greek-speaking phase here.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -340,
    131
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 90 only; 1911 consular census: Turkish-speaking Orthodox villages of Türkeli (Pontus gazetteer (set 17), after Kitromilides & Alexandris 1984, Table VI (1911 Greek consular census))",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town is not recorded after c. 340 BC.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "unknown Greek settlers (perhaps from Sinope)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "unknown",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Known only from Ps.-Scylax; the location is a Barrington placement and the site is unexcavated.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 90 'Hellenic city' only",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Known only from Ps.-Scylax. The site is Barrington's placement and lies near the Kastamonu–Sinop boundary.",
   "sources": [
    "Ps.-Scylax 90",
    "Barrington 86 E2",
    "Pleiades 844989",
    "Wikipedia: Colussa"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 106,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 340 BC – c. AD 600",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b052",
   "id_prev": "C517",
   "latin": "Cytorus",
   "greek": "Κύτωρος",
   "other_names": "Kytoris (Ps.-Scylax)",
   "modern": "Gideros (Kalafat, Cide)",
   "modern_native": "Gideros",
   "population": 146,
   "pop_year": 2021,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS at 31 Dec 2021 (via the English Wikipedia article 'Kalafat, Cide')",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Gideros bay, Kalafat (Cide, Kastamonu)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Kastamonu",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Paphlagonia",
   "lat": 41.8619,
   "lon": 32.8978,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "844997",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -340,
   "greek_until": 600,
   "phases": [
    [
     -340,
     600
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Emporion of Sinope (Strabo 12.3.10), founding date unknown; first called a 'Hellenic city' by Ps.-Scylax 90 (c. 340 BC)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "A village of Amastris after c. 300 BC; named by Strabo, Pliny, Ptolemy and the anonymous Periplus (unchecked); the name lives on in Gideros. No later Greek community is recorded; the end is the last attestation, with a range to the Turkish conquest of the coast.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    150,
    1400
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Strabo 12.3.10; Pliny; anonymous Periplus (unchecked)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: no record of the place after late antiquity.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Sinope (as its emporion)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Sinope",
   "refounded_by": "Absorbed into Amastris c. 300 BC",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Named as a Paphlagonian place in Homer (Il. 2.853); Greek myth makes Kytoros son of Phrixos the eponym.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP (Pontos); Ps.-Scylax 90; absorbed into Amastris c. 300 BC",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Famous for boxwood. Turkish Gideros keeps the name, which is probably Paphlagonian (Homeric). A village of Amastris after the synoecism. IACP number not checked.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 12.3.10",
    "Ps.-Scylax 90",
    "Homer Il. 2.853",
    "Pleiades 844997",
    "Wikipedia: Cytorus"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 107,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 340 BC – c. 200 BC",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b048",
   "id_prev": "C522",
   "latin": "Tetrakis",
   "greek": "Τετρακίς",
   "other_names": "",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "unlocated, Sinop coast between Stephane and Armene (Ayancık–Erfelek area?)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Sinop",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Paphlagonia",
   "lat": 41.99,
   "lon": 34.8,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -340,
   "greek_until": -200,
   "phases": [
    [
     -340,
     -200
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "called a 'Hellenic city' by Ps.-Scylax 89 (c. 340 BC), listed after Armene",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Known only from Ps.-Scylax (c. 340 BC), who places it between Harmene and Stephane. Arrian (AD 131), who lists the anchorages of this coast in detail, does not name it, so the town had probably gone or become a village by then. The end is an estimate between the two writers.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -340,
    131
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 89 only",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town is not recorded after c. 340 BC.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "unknown Greek settlers (perhaps from Sinope)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "unknown",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Unlocated; known only from Ps.-Scylax.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 89 'Hellenic city' only",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Known only from Ps.-Scylax. Its position comes from his east-to-west order (Sinope, Kerasous, Harmene, Tetrakis, then Stephane in Paphlagonia).",
   "sources": [
    "Ps.-Scylax 89 (Shipley 2019)",
    "Wikipedia: Tetrakis (Paphlagonia)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 108,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 185 BC – c. 1323",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b069",
   "id_prev": "C059",
   "latin": "Prusias ad Hypium",
   "greek": "Προυσιὰς πρὸς Ὑπίῳ",
   "other_names": "Kieros (earlier town, Heracleote possession); Ottoman Üskübü",
   "modern": "Konuralp",
   "modern_native": "Konuralp",
   "population": null,
   "pop_year": null,
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Konuralp (Düzce)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Düzce",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Bithynia",
   "lat": 40.9142,
   "lon": 31.1204,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "845049",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -185,
   "greek_until": 1323,
   "phases": [
    [
     -185,
     1323
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Kieros taken from Heraclea by Prusias I and refounded as Prusias, c. 190–185 BC (Memnon)",
   "date_basis": "documented royal/imperial foundation",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Bishops are attested to 879 and the see still existed in the 10th c. Osman I took the town in 1323 and gave it to his commander Konur Alp, whose name the village now bears; under the Ottomans the old centre was abandoned and the settlement was called Üskübü. No later Greek community is recorded; the end is placed at the conquest.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    1200,
    1400
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "bishops 325-879; see still listed in the 10th c.; Ottoman conquest 1323; old centre abandoned",
   "ended_by": "Conquered by Osman I in 1323 and handed to his commander Konur Alp; the old town centre was then abandoned. Nothing is recorded about the fate of the Greek inhabitants.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Prusias I of Bithynia",
   "founder_group": "rulers",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Kieros → Prusias (Prusias I)",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Kieros/Kios (named after its river) is known only from Greek sources (Memnon, Photius).",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Roman provincial coins; Greek civic inscriptions (IK 27); Hierocles; bishops 325–879",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Kieros belonged to Heraclea Pontica before its capture; whether it was then a polis is unclear. Prusias' date is approximate.",
   "sources": [
    "Memnon FGrH 434 F 19",
    "IK 27 (Prusias ad Hypium, Ameling 1985)",
    "Pleiades 845049",
    "Wikipedia: Prusias ad Hypium",
    "TIB 9 (Belke 1996)",
    "Wikipedia: Prusias ad Hypium (1323; bishops)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 109,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 120 BC – c. 1350 +",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b049",
   "id_prev": "C519",
   "latin": "Abonoteichus (Ionopolis)",
   "greek": "Ἀβώνου τεῖχος",
   "other_names": "Ionopolis (Ἰωνόπολις, renamed c. AD 160s at the request of Alexander of Abonouteichos); Inepolis (medieval Roman)",
   "modern": "İnebolu",
   "modern_native": "İnebolu",
   "population": 10594,
   "pop_year": 2021,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2021 (via the English Wikipedia article on the town)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "İnebolu (İnebolu, Kastamonu)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Kastamonu",
   "admin2": "İnebolu",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Paphlagonia",
   "lat": 41.974,
   "lon": 33.766,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "844847",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -120,
   "greek_until": 1923,
   "phases": [
    [
     -120,
     1350
    ],
    [
     1850,
     1923
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "first attested as a minting community: Pontic civic bronzes 'ΑΒΩΝΟΥ ΤΕΙΧΟΥΣ' under Mithridates VI (c. 120–63 BC); Strabo 12.3.10 calls it a polisma",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "The ancient and medieval town: a Greek town under the kings of Pontus and Rome (Arrian, AD 131, names the 'fortress of Abonum'; Lucian's Alexander and the civic coins of Ionopolis (unchecked)) and a see under Constantinople (unchecked: its last bishops); the coast passed to the Turkish emirs (the Candarids) in the 14th c. and to the Ottomans in 1461 (unchecked). No Greek community is recorded at İnebolu from then until the 19th c., so the first phase is ended, as an estimate, at the Turkish conquest of the coast. The modern community: in 1893 Lynch wrote that 'the Greeks live on one side, the Turks on the other'; Triandafyllidis (1938) puts the western (Oinountiac) Pontic dialects in a broken zone from İnebolu to Ünye. Its start is an estimate, and whether it descended from the medieval town or came with 19th-century migration is not established. In 1916 the German consul Kuckhoff reported that 'the entire Greek population of Sinope and the coastal region of the district of Kastamonu has been exiled' (cited by Travis 2017). The survivors left in the exchange of 1923; many settled at Nea Ionia near Athens (the Inepolis quarter).",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "year",
   "until_range": [
    1923,
    1924
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Lynch 1893 (Greek quarter); Triandafyllidis 1938 (Pontic dialect zone from İnebolu); Kuckhoff 1916 (exile of the coastal Greeks of Kastamonu); exchange 1923",
   "ended_by": "Exile of the coastal Greeks of the Kastamonu district by the Ottoman authorities in 1916 (consul Kuckhoff, cited by Travis 2017); the survivors removed under the Convention concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations, signed at Lausanne on 30 January 1923.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "no recorded founder",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Abonouteichos → Ionopolis (2nd c. AD)",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The İnebolu–Bozkurt–Abana survey found Hellenistic pottery, Roman blocks and a necropolis, with no pre-Greek levels reported. The origin of the name 'Abonos' is unknown.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "yes: under Turkish rule (14th c.-1923) a Turkish-speaking town with a Greek quarter; the Greeks were a minority by 1920 (population c. 9,000, 'mainly Turks') (unchecked: the proportion)",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Pontic civic bronzes c. 120–63 BC; Strabo 12.3.10; Roman provincial coins (Abonouteichos, then Ionopolis); Hierocles; bishops 325–787",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Home of the prophet Alexander and the Glykon cult (Lucian). The origin of the name 'Abonos' is unknown. It may have been a Greek coastal settlement long before the coins. Whether the Greek community was continuous from the medieval town is not documented; no gap is attested.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 12.3.10",
    "Lucian, Alexander",
    "Pleiades 844847",
    "Wikipedia: Abonoteichos",
    "Wikipedia: İnebolu (Lynch 1893; 1920 population; Inepolis quarter of Nea Ionia)",
    "Pontus gazetteer (Triandafyllidis 1938; Kuckhoff 1916 via Travis 2017)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 110,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 110 BC – c. AD 20",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b067",
   "id_prev": "C543",
   "latin": "Pimolisa",
   "greek": "Πιμώλισα",
   "other_names": "Pimolissa (medieval Roman see?); Pimolisene district",
   "modern": "Osmancık",
   "modern_native": "Osmancık",
   "population": 30537,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2022 (via the English Wikipedia article on the town)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Osmancık castle (Osmancık, Çorum), per Barrington; others put it near Boyabat (Sinop)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Çorum",
   "admin2": "Osmancık",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Paphlagonia",
   "lat": 40.9781,
   "lon": 34.8062,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "845039",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -110,
   "greek_until": 20,
   "phases": [
    [
     -110,
     20
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "civic bronze coins 'ΠΙΜΩΛΙΣΩΝ' struck under Mithridates VI (c. 111–90 BC); destroyed by Strabo's time",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Strabo (12.3.40) calls the royal fortress of Pimolisa destroyed in his day. A medieval see 'Pimolissa' is unverified. The end is placed at Strabo's notice.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    -70,
    20
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Strabo 12.3.40 (fortress destroyed)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the fortress was destroyed by Strabo's time, probably in the Mithridatic or Roman wars; Strabo names no one.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Hellenized native town",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "none recorded (royal Pontic fortress)",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "A native Paphlagonian fortress (non-Greek name) on the Halys before the Mithridatic coinage.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Pontic civic bronzes c. 111–90 BC; Strabo 12.3.40 (royal fortress, destroyed); a see 'Pimolissa' in medieval Roman Notitiae (to be checked)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Mithridatic 'civic' bronzes were also struck at fortresses, so its polis status is uncertain. The site is disputed (Osmancık vs Boyabat).",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 12.3.40",
    "Künker: Pimolisa Æ 111/90 BC",
    "Belke, TIB 9 Paphlagonien (1996)",
    "Pleiades 845039"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 111,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 90 BC – c. 1320",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b064",
   "id_prev": "C050",
   "latin": "Dia / Diospolis",
   "greek": "Δῖα",
   "other_names": "Diospolis (Ptolemy); Diaspolis (Marcian)",
   "modern": "Akçakoca",
   "modern_native": "Akçakoca",
   "population": 27878,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK (via the English Wikipedia article on the town)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Akçakoca (Düzce)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Düzce",
   "admin2": "Akçakoca",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Bithynia",
   "lat": 41.0875,
   "lon": 31.1238,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "844907",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -90,
   "greek_until": 1320,
   "phases": [
    [
     -90,
     1320
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "civic bronze coins inscribed ΔΙΑΣ, of the Mithradatic series (c. 95–70 BC)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: under Constantinople, then the Nicaean empire after 1204; the district was taken by the Ottomans in the 1320s, by the raider Akça Koca (hence Turkish Akçaşehir, later Akçakoca) (unchecked). Speech: the town is last named by Marcian (c. 400) and the anonymous Periplus; a Genoese-era castle stands above it (unchecked). No Greek community is recorded after the Ottoman conquest, so the end is an estimate between the last mention and the conquest.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    600,
    1400
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Marcian, Periplus 2.8 (c. 400); Ptolemy 5.1.3; no medieval see; Ottoman name Akçaşehir after Akça Koca, 14th c. (unchecked)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the district was conquered by the Ottoman commander Akça Koca, c. 1320s (unchecked); nothing is recorded about the fate of its Greek inhabitants.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "unknown (probably a Heracleote emporion)",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "No archaeological or textual evidence for a pre-Greek settlement at Akçakoca has been reported.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "coins (ΔΙΑΣ, Mithradates VI era); Pliny; Ptolemy (Diospolis); Marcian of Heraclea",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Port 60 stadia east of the Hypios mouth. City status rests on the small coinage; not in Hierocles.",
   "sources": [
    "Marcian, Peripl. 2.8",
    "Ptol. 5.1.3",
    "TIB 9 (Belke 1996)",
    "Pleiades 844907",
    "Wikipedia: Dia (Bithynia)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 112,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 64 BC – c. 1450",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b071",
   "id_prev": "C060",
   "latin": "Bithynion / Claudiopolis",
   "greek": "Βιθύνιον",
   "other_names": "Claudiopolis (Claudius); Hadriana (Hadrian); medieval Roman Klaudioupolis, Boli",
   "modern": "Bolu",
   "modern_native": "Bolu",
   "population": 222340,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, district total (via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Bolu (Bolu)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Bolu",
   "admin2": "Merkez",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Bithynia",
   "lat": 40.7562,
   "lon": 31.5859,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "844879",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -64,
   "greek_until": 1450,
   "phases": [
    [
     -64,
     1450
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Bithynian town that was a city of the Roman province by Pompey's organisation (64/63 BC) at the latest; Strabo 12.4.7 gives it the Salon district; claimed Mantinean (Arcadian) origin (Paus. 8.9.7)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Medieval Klaudioupolis (Turkish Bolu, from 'polis') stayed a metropolis of Honorias. Turkmen occupied it after Manzikert; the emperors retook it in 1097 and held it as a frontier town (Manuel I relieved a Turkish siege in 1179); the Seljuks of Rum took it before 1214, Orhan's Ottomans in 1325, and the Candarids held it 1402-1423. The metropolis ceased to be residential in the 15th c., the last sign of a local Christian community; the end is placed there. A small Orthodox community lived in the Bolu sanjak in the 19th-20th c. (5,573 Greeks and Armenians together in 1916), but its language and any tie to the medieval community were not established, so it is not counted as a phase.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    1325,
    1500
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "bishops to 787; residential metropolis to the 15th c.; Bolu sanjak 1914: 5,146 Greek Orthodox of 408,648 (Ottoman census); 1916: 5,573 Greeks and Armenians (Bolu salname)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the Seljuk conquest (before 1214) and the Ottoman conquest under Orhan (1325); no record of what became of the town's Greeks.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Hellenized native town",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "none recorded (claimed descent from Mantineia)",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Bithynion → Claudiopolis (Claudius) → Hadriana (Hadrian)",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Name 'town of the Bithynians' (Thracian-speaking Bithynoi); no native-script form attested.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Roman provincial coins (Claudiopolis, Hadriana); Pliny Ep. 10.39; Hierocles (metropolis of Honorias); bishops 431–787",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Birthplace of Antinous. The city's start date is approximate: the Mantinean link is a later kinship claim, and no pre-Roman coinage is known. Bolu comes from (Klaudiou)polis.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 12.4.7",
    "Paus. 8.9.7",
    "IK 31 (Klaudiupolis, Becker-Bertau 1986)",
    "Pleiades 844879",
    "TIB 9 (Belke 1996)",
    "Wikipedia: Bolu (1071, 1097, 1179, before 1214, 1325, 1402-1423; see to the 15th c.)",
    "1914 Ottoman census (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1914_Ottoman_census): Kastamonu vilayet 20,958 Greek Orthodox of 767,227; Bolu sanjak 5,146 of 408,648",
    "TÜBA, Local History of the National Struggle 7, ch. 4 (Bolu): 5,573 Greeks and Armenians in Bolu sanjak, 1916 (https://www.tuba.gov.tr/files/yayinlar/tarih-serisi/TUBA-978-625-8352-69-6_ch04.pdf)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 113,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "64 BC – c. 1300",
   "period": "2 Kings and cities (480-63 BC)",
   "id": "b058",
   "id_prev": "C542",
   "latin": "Pompeiopolis",
   "greek": "Πομπηιούπολις",
   "other_names": "Sebaste? (Barrington)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Zımbıllı Tepe opposite Taşköprü (Taşköprü, Kastamonu)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Kastamonu",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Paphlagonia",
   "lat": 41.5184,
   "lon": 34.2141,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "845041",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -64,
   "greek_until": 1300,
   "phases": [
    [
     -64,
     1300
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "founded by Pompey in 65/64 BC after the Third Mithridatic War",
   "date_basis": "documented royal/imperial foundation",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "A medieval metropolis, listed to the 14th c. After Manzikert (1071) Turkish bands overran inner Bithynia and Paphlagonia; Nicaea fell to Süleyman b. Kutalmış c. 1081. The Komnenoi won back the coast and part of the interior (John II at Kastamon 1132-1133), but the interior was lost again in the later 12th c.; the frontier then ran close to the coast, and in the 13th-14th c. the Çobanoğulları and the Candarids (Kastamonu) and the Ottomans (Bithynia) held the land (unchecked: the details). Taşköprü, opposite the site, was a Turkish town under the Candarids. The end is an estimate.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    1100,
    1400
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "bishops 325-787; metropolis in the Notitiae to the 14th c. (possibly nominal)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the Turkish conquest of inner Paphlagonia (12th-13th c.) (unchecked).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Roman foundation",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Pompey",
   "founder_group": "Roman Republic",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "no known",
   "pre_evidence": "new site (archaeology)",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The site is a mound (Zımbıllı Tepe höyüğü), but the excavators have not yet found pre-Roman architecture; the Amnias valley has Iron Age rock tombs and tumuli. Excavations on Zımbıllı Tepe show Roman walls set into sterile subsoil. The hill's earliest pottery is late 1st c. BC/1st c. AD (Summerer: first occupied c. 1st–2nd c. AD), so its earliest levels are those of the Roman city. Note: Pompey's 64 BC city may first have stood elsewhere.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 12.3.40; coins; 'metropolis of Paphlagonia' (Antoninus Pius–Gallienus); Hierocles; bishops 325–787; medieval Roman metropolis to the 14th c.",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "It may have taken over from the Mithridatic fortress of Pimolisa. Excavated since 2006 (Summerer).",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 12.3.40",
    "Summerer (ed.) 2011, Pompeiopolis I",
    "Pleiades 845041",
    "Wikipedia: Pompeiopolis"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 114,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "c. AD 75 – c. 1350",
   "period": "3 Rome (63 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "b070",
   "id_prev": "C061",
   "latin": "Krateia / Flaviopolis",
   "greek": "Κράτεια",
   "other_names": "Flaviopolis (Vespasian); Agrippeia?; medieval Roman Kreteia",
   "modern": "Gerede",
   "modern_native": "Gerede",
   "population": 23547,
   "pop_year": 2021,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2021 (via the English Wikipedia article on the town)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Gerede (Bolu)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Bolu",
   "admin2": "Gerede",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Bithynia",
   "lat": 40.8121,
   "lon": 32.1649,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "844991",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 75,
   "greek_until": 1350,
   "phases": [
    [
     75,
     1350
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "raised to city status as Flaviopolis, probably under Vespasian (69–79); imperial coins from Antoninus Pius to Gallienus",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Medieval Kreteia was a see of Honorias. After Manzikert (1071) Turkish bands overran inner Bithynia and Paphlagonia; Nicaea fell to Süleyman b. Kutalmış c. 1081. The Komnenoi won back the coast and part of the interior (John II at Kastamon 1132-1133), but the interior was lost again in the later 12th c.; the frontier then ran close to the coast, and in the 13th-14th c. the Çobanoğulları and the Candarids (Kastamonu) and the Ottomans (Bithynia) held the land (unchecked: the details). Gerede passed to the Ottomans in the 14th c. (unchecked). No later Greek community is recorded.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    1100,
    1460
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "bishops 431-787; later Notitiae (unchecked)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the Turkish conquest of inner Paphlagonia and Bithynia (12th-14th c.) (unchecked).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Roman foundation",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Vespasian (as Flaviopolis)",
   "founder_group": "Roman emperors to 330",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Krateia → Flaviopolis (Vespasian); Agrippeia?",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "No pre-Hellenistic material is reported at Gerede. The recent study of Krateia and Keçi Kalesi gives the Hellenistic (Bithynian) period as the earliest and notes Hıdırlık Tepesi as the probable acropolis, which is undated.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Roman provincial coins (Antoninus Pius–Gallienus); Greek civic inscriptions; Hierocles; bishops 431–787",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "A small autonomous coin with ΚΡΗ is attributed to it, which would suggest earlier civic status. The origin of the name Krateia (Greek or native) is unclear.",
   "sources": [
    "TIB 9 (Belke 1996, Paphlagonien und Honorias)",
    "Pleiades 844991",
    "Wikipedia: Cratia (Bithynia)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 115,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "c. AD 125 – c. AD 800",
   "period": "3 Rome (63 BC - AD 330)",
   "id": "b068",
   "id_prev": "C539",
   "latin": "Hadrianopolis (Paphlagonia)",
   "greek": "Ἁδριανούπολις",
   "other_names": "Kaisareia (Καισάρεια); Proseilemmene/Proseilemmenitai district; Hadrianopolis in Honoriade",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "ruins 3 km W of Eskipazar (Eskipazar, Karabük)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Karabük",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Paphlagonia",
   "lat": 40.926,
   "lon": 32.4914,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "844959",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 125,
   "greek_until": 800,
   "phases": [
    [
     125,
     800
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "settlement from the 1st c. BC; earlier city name Kaisareia (probably Julio-Claudian); named Hadrianopolis under Hadrian (117–138); Hierocles; bishops from the 4th–5th c.",
   "date_basis": "documented royal/imperial foundation",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Bishops to 787; the excavations show occupation to the 8th c., after which the town declined. The end is placed at the last bishop and the end of occupation, with a range to the Turkish conquest.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    750,
    1100
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "bishops 451-787; excavations (occupation to the 8th c.)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town was abandoned or shrank after the 8th c.; the cause is not recorded (Arab raids are possible but not attested here).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Roman foundation",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Hadrian (as Hadrianopolis); earlier Kaisareia, under an unknown Julio-Claudian emperor",
   "founder_group": "Roman emperors to 330",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Kaisareia → Hadrianopolis (Hadrian)",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Kept 'yes' only on the excavators' own academic report (Daily Sabah rejected). Kalkan & Çelikbaş 2022 report handmade red-clay pottery in a pit in the city's necropolis, which was partly destroyed by the Roman rock-cut graves, plus dry-stone walls that predate the Roman city. They date this short-lived prehistoric occupation to at least 5,000 years ago (Late Chalcolithic), long before the 1st-c. BC town. These are concrete finds in a sealed feature on the site, but they are dated only typologically and have no non-Turkish corroboration, so confidence is low.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Hierocles (Honorias); bishops 325 (Honigmann) and 451–787; excavations since 2003 (theatre, baths, churches with mosaics)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Its city status probably began as Kaisareia before Hadrian, but the date is not documented, so the Hadrianic date is used. Excavations show occupation to the 8th c.",
   "sources": [
    "Çelikbaş, Hadrianopolis excavations",
    "Hierocles, Synekdemos",
    "Pleiades 844959",
    "Wikipedia: Hadrianopolis (Paphlagonia)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 116,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "AD 451 – c. 1100",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b061",
   "id_prev": "C538",
   "latin": "Dadybra",
   "greek": "Δάδυβρα",
   "other_names": "",
   "modern": "Devrek",
   "modern_native": "Devrek",
   "population": 27444,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2022 (via the English Wikipedia article on the town)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Devrek (Devrek, Zonguldak), per Barrington; alternatively Safranbolu (Karabük)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Zonguldak",
   "admin2": "Devrek",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Paphlagonia",
   "lat": 41.2231,
   "lon": 31.9454,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "844903",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 451,
   "greek_until": 1100,
   "phases": [
    [
     451,
     1100
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "first bishop at Chalcedon 451; city in Hierocles (c. 527)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Bishops to 681 and seals of the 10th-11th c. After Manzikert (1071) Turkish bands overran inner Bithynia and Paphlagonia; Nicaea fell to Süleyman b. Kutalmış c. 1081. The Komnenoi won back the coast and part of the interior (John II at Kastamon 1132-1133), but the interior was lost again in the later 12th c.; the frontier then ran close to the coast, and in the 13th-14th c. the Çobanoğulları and the Candarids (Kastamonu) and the Ottomans (Bithynia) held the land (unchecked: the details). The end is placed at the loss of inner Paphlagonia. If the city was at Safranbolu, the Orthodox of 19th-c. Safranbolu (Kıranköy) were Turkish-speaking (unchecked) and do not continue a Greek phase.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    1071,
    1200
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "bishops 451-681; 10th-11th-c. seals",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the Turkish conquest of inner Paphlagonia after 1071 (unchecked).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Hellenized native town",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "none recorded",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "A non-Greek (Paphlagonian) place name, listed by Ptolemy; no pre-Greek-script attestation.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ptolemy 5.4; Hierocles; bishops 451–681; Notitiae; 10th–11th-c. episcopal seals",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Site disputed: Barrington puts it at Devrek, while a study of seals naming St Stephen argues for Safranbolu (Karabük).",
   "sources": [
    "Hierocles, Synekdemos",
    "Belke, TIB 9 Paphlagonien (1996)",
    "Pleiades 844903",
    "Deltio KMS (Safranbolu study)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 117,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "AD 451 – c. 1100",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b063",
   "id_prev": "C540",
   "latin": "Sora",
   "greek": "Σῶρα",
   "other_names": "",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "near Karabük (Merkez, Karabük)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Karabük",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Paphlagonia",
   "lat": 41.1396,
   "lon": 32.6224,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "845067",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 451,
   "greek_until": 1100,
   "phases": [
    [
     451,
     1100
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "first bishop at Chalcedon 451; city in Hierocles (c. 527)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Bishops to 787. After Manzikert (1071) Turkish bands overran inner Bithynia and Paphlagonia; Nicaea fell to Süleyman b. Kutalmış c. 1081. The Komnenoi won back the coast and part of the interior (John II at Kastamon 1132-1133), but the interior was lost again in the later 12th c.; the frontier then ran close to the coast, and in the 13th-14th c. the Çobanoğulları and the Candarids (Kastamonu) and the Ottomans (Bithynia) held the land (unchecked: the details). The end is an estimate at the loss of inner Paphlagonia.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    787,
    1200
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "bishops 451-787; Notitiae (suffragan of Gangra)",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the Turkish conquest of inner Paphlagonia after 1071 (unchecked).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Hellenized native town",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "none recorded",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "A non-Greek place name; no pre-Greek-script attestation.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Hierocles; bishops 451–787; Notitiae (suffragan of Gangra)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The site is only approximately known (Barrington 86 C2, near Karabük).",
   "sources": [
    "Hierocles, Synekdemos",
    "Belke, TIB 9 Paphlagonien (1996)",
    "Pleiades 845067",
    "Wikipedia: Sora (Anatolia)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 118,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "AD 869 – c. 1330",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b062",
   "id_prev": "C049",
   "latin": "Daphnousia",
   "greek": "Δαφνουσία",
   "other_names": "Thynias / Apollonia (ancient island names)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Kefken Adası, off Cebeci/Kefken (Kandıra, Kocaeli)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Kocaeli",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Bithynia",
   "lat": 41.182,
   "lon": 30.26,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 869,
   "greek_until": 1330,
   "phases": [
    [
     869,
     1330
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "island fortress-town made a bishopric in the 9th c.: bishop Leo at the council of 869, Antonius 879; see in the Notitia of Leo VI (c. 901–907)",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Last recorded in 1261, when the Latin fleet was besieging the island as Michael VIII retook Constantinople. The Bithynian coast passed to the Ottomans under Orhan in the 1320s-1330s (unchecked); the island is uninhabited today. The end is an estimate.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    1261,
    1400
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "bishops 869, 879; Notitiae from Leo VI; Latin siege 1261",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the Ottoman conquest of the coast in the 14th c. (unchecked); nothing is recorded about the island's people.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Greek town grown into city",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "none recorded (episcopal see)",
   "founder_group": "none (Greek town grown)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Earlier occupation of the island was Greek (Thynias/Apollonia, Heraclea's dependency). The island's name evokes the Thracian Thynoi, but no Thracian settlement is attested there.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "bishops 869, 879; Notitiae from Leo VI; titular see",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Ancient Thynias/Apollonia was a dependency of Heraclea, not a polis. Counted only by the medieval-see rule; the settlement stayed small (fortress besieged by the Latins in 1261).",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia: Daphnusia",
    "Darrouzès, Notitiae 7",
    "TIB 13 (Belke 2020)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 119,
   "list_group": "Paphlagonia and Bithynia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 1100 – c. 1320",
   "period": "4 Constantinople and Trebizond (330-1475)",
   "id": "b072",
   "id_prev": "C058",
   "latin": "Modra / Modrene",
   "greek": "Μόδρα",
   "other_names": "Modrene (medieval Roman see and district); Modrina",
   "modern": "Mudurnu",
   "modern_native": "Mudurnu",
   "population": 5379,
   "pop_year": 2021,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2021 (via the English Wikipedia article on the town)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Mudurnu or nearby (Mudurnu, Bolu)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Bolu",
   "admin2": "Mudurnu",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Bithynia",
   "lat": 40.489,
   "lon": 31.1435,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "845022",
   "iacp": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": 1100,
   "greek_until": 1320,
   "phases": [
    [
     1100,
     1320
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Modra a town at the source of the Gallos (Strabo 12.3.7); attested as a see under Nicaea only in the Notitiae, securely in the 12th c. ('Modrene, that is Mela')",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "A see of Nicaea in the 12th-c. Notitiae ('Modrene, that is Mela'). Mudurnu was Ottoman by the 1370s at the latest (Yıldırım Bayezid's mosque, 1372), probably from Orhan's reign (1320s) (unchecked: the date). No Greek community is recorded later; the end is estimated at the Ottoman conquest.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    1200,
    1400
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "12th-c. Notitiae; Ottoman mosque of Bayezid I, 1372",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the Ottoman conquest under Orhan, c. 1320s (unchecked).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "Hellenized native town",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "none recorded",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Modra is a non-Greek (probably Phrygian/Bithynian) name known only from Greek sources.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "urum": false,
   "muslim_greek": false,
   "greek_town_years": "",
   "greek_town_text": "",
   "status_evidence": "Notitiae (Modrene, suffragan of Nicaea); titular see Modra",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "May be the same see as Mela (12th-c. Notitiae: 'Modrene, that is Mela'), which would make it a double count; the Annuario Pontificio treats them as separate. The see may be older than the 12th c.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 12.3.7",
    "Pleiades 845022",
    "Wikipedia: Modra (Bithynia)",
    "Wikipedia: Mela (Bithynia)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  }
 ],
 "stories": [
  {
   "city": "Chalcedon",
   "title": "The city of the blind",
   "text": "Chalcedon, on the Asian shore of the Bosporus, was founded by Megarians seventeen years before Byzantium, which rose on the European shore opposite. Herodotus (4.144) tells how the Persian general Megabazus, left in Europe after Darius's Scythian campaign (about 513 BC), heard this at Byzantium and said that the Chalcedonians must have been blind: with the finer site in full view across the water, they had chosen the worse. Later writers turned his joke into an oracle. Strabo (7.6.2) and Tacitus (Annals 12.63) say that Apollo told the founders of Byzantium to settle \"opposite the blind\". Byzas, the founder whose name Byzantium was said to carry, belongs to later tradition, not to Herodotus.",
   "sources": [
    "Hdt. 4.144",
    "Strabo 7.6.2 (checked, LacusCurtius)",
    "Tac. Ann. 12.63"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Borysthenes",
   "title": "A letter on lead",
   "text": "Berezan, a small island at the mouth of the Dnieper and Bug estuary, holds the oldest Greek settlement on the north coast of the Black Sea; Eusebius dates Borysthenes to 647/646 BC. In 1970 excavators found there a folded sheet of lead written in Ionic Greek about 500 BC, one of the oldest Greek private letters known. \"Protagoras, your father sends you this message\": Achillodoros is being wronged by Matasys, who is trying to make him a slave and has seized his cargo, claiming that he belongs to Anaxagoras, who holds Matasys's own slaves and houses. The son must go to Anaxagoras and his wife and tell them that his father is a free man with nothing to do with Matasys, and must bring his mother and brothers into the town. How the quarrel ended is not known.",
   "sources": [
    "Eusebius, Chronicle (Borysthenes 647/6 BC)",
    "Berezan lead letter: Vinogradov 1971, SEG 26.845, Chadwick 1973",
    "G. Boffa, AXON 2 (2018), text, translation and commentary (checked): https://edizionicafoscari.it/media/pdf/article/axon/2018/2/art-10.14277-Axon-2532-6848-2018-02-001.pdf"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Histria",
   "title": "The city that lost its sea",
   "text": "Histria, which the Greeks called Istros after the Danube, was in Eusebius's date founded by Miletus in 657/656 BC, the oldest Greek city on the west coast of the Black Sea; the sacred area of its first settlers, with a small early temple, has been excavated there. Herodotus (2.33) places \"Istria, a colony of the Milesians\" where the Danube runs into the sea. The city lived by trade with the Getae and Scythians inland and struck silver coins with an eagle seizing a dolphin. But the river's silt slowly closed its harbour, and the bay became the lagoon of Sinoe, cut off from the open sea. The city declined, and was abandoned in the 7th century AD. Its ruins now stand on the shore of the lagoon, among reeds.",
   "sources": [
    "Hdt. 2.33",
    "Eusebius, Chronicle",
    "Ps.-Scymnus 767-771",
    "coins of Istros"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Mesembria",
   "title": "The refugees of 493 BC",
   "text": "Mesembria (Nesebar) stands on a small rocky peninsula joined to the land by a narrow isthmus. Ps.-Scymnus (738-742) says that Megarians and Chalcedonians founded it at the time of Darius's march against the Scythians, about 513 BC. Herodotus (6.33) adds a second wave: in 493 BC, after the Ionian revolt had failed and the Persian king's Phoenician fleet sailed into the Hellespont, the people of Byzantium and of Chalcedon across the strait did not wait for it. They left their cities, fled into the Black Sea and settled in Mesambria. The town kept its Doric Greek for centuries, and its Greek fishermen and wine-growers were still the great majority of its people around 1900.",
   "sources": [
    "Hdt. 6.33",
    "Ps.-Scymnus 738-742",
    "c. 1900: 89% Greek of about 1,900 (en.wikipedia, Nesebar)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Olbia",
   "title": "Scyles, the king who lived as a Greek",
   "text": "Herodotus (4.78-80) tells of Scyles, a Scythian king whose mother came from Istria and taught him Greek. Whenever he brought his army to the city of the Borysthenites (Olbia), he left it outside the walls, went in alone, put on Greek clothes and lived as a Greek, with a house and a wife in the town, while guards at the gates kept any Scythian from seeing him. He even had himself initiated into the rites of Bacchic Dionysus. A man of the city led some Scythians up a tower to watch their king in the god's frenzied procession. The army rose against him; Scyles fled to Thrace, was handed back, and was beheaded by his brother Octamasades. The Scythians, Herodotus concludes, punish those who take up foreign customs.",
   "sources": [
    "Hdt. 4.78-80"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Phasis",
   "title": "Arrian at the Phasis",
   "text": "Phasis, the Milesian colony at the mouth of the Rioni, stood where, in the legend, the Argonauts had come for the Golden Fleece. In AD 131/132 Arrian, Hadrian's governor of Cappadocia, inspected its fort and reported to the emperor in Greek (Periplus of the Black Sea 9). He found four hundred picked soldiers in a strong position, and at the river mouth a statue of the goddess of the Phasis, seated, with a cymbal in her hands and lions under her throne, like Pheidias' statue of the Mother of the gods in Athens. The river water, he wrote, floats on the sea without mixing and does not spoil even after ten years. He was shown an anchor of the Argo; the iron one did not look old to him, but he thought some old fragments of a stone anchor there might be its remains.",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Periplus 9 (checked, English translation on en.wikisource)",
    "Pomponius Mela 1.108 (Milesian colony)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Nymphaion",
   "title": "Demosthenes' grandfather",
   "text": "Nymphaion, a small Greek harbour town south of Panticapaeum, was for a time held by Athens. In 330 BC the orator Aeschines, attacking his rival Demosthenes (Against Ctesiphon 171-172), told a damaging story about it. Demosthenes' grandfather on his mother's side, Gylon, had betrayed Nymphaion to the enemy, was impeached at Athens and fled before his trial to the Bosporus, where its rulers gave him the town of Kepoi. There he married a rich woman who was, Aeschines said, Scythian by birth; so Demosthenes was \"a Scythian, a barbarian speaking Greek\". Aeschines was a hostile witness, but the story shows how close the ties were between Athens and the Bosporan kingdom about 400 BC.",
   "sources": [
    "Aeschines 3.171-172"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Theodosia",
   "title": "Grain for Athens",
   "text": "Theodosia (Feodosia), a Milesian colony on the south-east coast of the Crimea, was taken into the Bosporan kingdom by Leukon I in the 360s BC. In 355/354 BC Demosthenes told the Athenians why Leukon deserved his honours (Against Leptines 31-33). Athens, he said, ate more imported grain than any other city, and as much came from the Pontus as from all other markets together. From Leukon's kingdom alone came some 400,000 medimni a year: \"the figures can be checked by the books of the grain commissioners\". Leukon let merchants bound for Athens load without paying his one-thirtieth export toll, and when he opened Theodosia as a second grain port, which \"our merchants say is not at all inferior to the Bosporus\", he gave them the same exemption there.",
   "sources": [
    "Dem. 20.31-33 (checked, Vince's Loeb translation via cts.perseids.org)",
    "Strabo 7.4.4"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Gorgippia",
   "title": "Tirgatao, queen of the Ixomatae",
   "text": "Gorgippia, the Greek city at Anapa on the land of the Sindi, took its name from Gorgippus, son of the Bosporan ruler Satyrus I. Polyaenus (Stratagems 8.55) tells how the Bosporan rulers dealt with the Sindian kings. Hecataeus, king of the Sindi, was married to Tirgatao, a woman of the Maeotians. Satyrus restored him to his throne, gave him his own daughter, and urged him to kill Tirgatao. Hecataeus loved her and shut her in a fortress instead. She escaped, travelling by night and hiding by day, reached the Ixomatae, her own people, married their king and led them to war. Satyrus sent two men to murder her; the sword struck her girdle. Satyrus died in the war, and Gorgippus made peace and paid her tribute.",
   "sources": [
    "Polyaenus 8.55 (checked, attalus.org)",
    "Gorgippia named after Gorgippus: archaeology and Bosporan inscriptions"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Callatis",
   "title": "Refugees from a siege",
   "text": "Kallatis (Mangalia) was a Dorian colony of Heraclea Pontica. In 313 BC it led the Greek cities of the west coast, with Thracian and Scythian allies, in a revolt against Lysimachus, Alexander's successor in Thrace, and drove out his garrison (Diodorus 19.73). Lysimachus laid siege to it. Diodorus (20.25) tells what became of some of its people. When Kallatis was \"hard pressed by lack of food\", Eumelus, king of the Cimmerian Bosporus far to the north-east, took under his care \"a thousand who had left their homes because of the famine\", gave them a city, and allotted them land in a district whose name is corrupt in the manuscripts. How the siege of Kallatis ended is not recorded.",
   "sources": [
    "Diod. 19.73",
    "Diod. 20.25.1 (checked, LacusCurtius)",
    "Ps.-Scymnus 760-764"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Heraclea",
   "title": "Clearchus, the philosopher-tyrant",
   "text": "Heraclea Pontica (Ereğli), founded by Megarians and Boeotians about 560 BC, was the strongest Greek city on the south coast. In 364 BC its oligarchs, faced with unrest, recalled an exile, Clearchus, who had studied in Athens with Plato and Isocrates. He turned on them, posed as the people's protector, killed or banished the oligarchs, and made himself tyrant. The local historian Memnon (in Photius' summary) and Justin (16.5) describe a ruler who claimed to be a son of Zeus; Plutarch adds that he named one of his sons Keraunos, \"Thunderbolt\". After twelve years, in 353/352 BC, during a festival of Dionysus, two young citizens, Chion and Leonides, themselves pupils of Plato, struck him down. They were killed by his guards, and his brother Satyrus ruled on as regent for his young son Timotheus.",
   "sources": [
    "Memnon, FGrH 434 F1",
    "Justin 16.4-5",
    "Diod. 15.81, 16.36",
    "en.wikipedia, Clearchus of Heraclea (checked: recall by the oligarchs, Keraunos, twelve-year reign, Satyrus)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Chersonesos",
   "title": "The citizens' oath",
   "text": "About 300-280 BC the citizens of Chersonesos, the Dorian city on the south-western tip of the Crimea, swore an oath that survives on a marble stele found in the city. Each swore by Zeus, Earth, the Sun, the Maiden (the city's goddess) and the Olympian gods and heroes: he would \"co-operate to defend the safety and freedom of the city and the citizens\", would not betray Chersonesos, Kerkinitis, Kalos Limen or the other forts to anyone, Greek or barbarian, and \"will not abolish the democracy\". He would denounce conspirators to the magistrates, and would not sell the grain of the plain or ship it anywhere but to Chersonesos. An oath-breaker called down on himself barren land and sea, and women who bear no children.",
   "sources": [
    "IOSPE I2 401 = Syll.3 360, English translation (checked): https://www.attalus.org/docs/sig1/s360.html"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Byzantium",
   "title": "The toll on the Bosporus",
   "text": "Every ship that sailed between the Black Sea and the Aegean passed under the walls of Byzantium. Polybius (4.38) lists what came out of the Pontus: \"cattle and slaves\" in great numbers and of the best quality, \"honey, wax and preserved fish\", and grain in some years. In 220 BC, drained by the tribute it paid to the Gauls who had settled in Thrace, Byzantium began \"exacting duties from vessels trading with the Pontus\" (4.46). The merchants complained to Rhodes, then the leading sea power. When Byzantium refused to drop the toll, Rhodes declared war (4.47). The war was short: under the peace made later that year, Byzantium engaged \"not to levy toll on ships bound for the Pontus\" (4.52).",
   "sources": [
    "Polyb. 4.38, 4.46-47, 4.52 (checked, LacusCurtius, Loeb translation)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Trapezus",
   "title": "The sea! The sea!",
   "text": "In the winter of 401/400 BC the Ten Thousand, Greek mercenaries left leaderless deep in the Persian empire, climbed Mount Theches after months of marching through the mountains of Armenia. The men in front began to shout, and as each rank came up the shout grew, until Xenophon heard the words: \"Thalatta! Thalatta!\", \"The sea! The sea!\" (Anabasis 4.7.24). The soldiers embraced their generals and captains in tears and built a great cairn. A few days later they reached Trapezous, \"an inhabited Greek city on the Euxine Sea, a colony of the Sinopeans\" (4.8.22). They stayed a month, sacrificed to Zeus and Herakles, and held games on the hill above the town, with a horse race down the steep slope and back up (4.8.25-28).",
   "sources": [
    "Xen. Anab. 4.7.21-26",
    "Xen. Anab. 4.8.22-28 (checked, Perseus English translation via cts.perseids.org)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Trapezus",
   "title": "The mad honey",
   "text": "On their way down to Trapezous the Ten Thousand camped in Colchian villages full of beehives, and many soldiers ate the honey. Xenophon (Anabasis 4.8.20-21) describes what followed. They lost their senses, vomited and had diarrhoea, and none of them could stand up. Those who had eaten a little were like men very drunk, those who had eaten much like madmen, and some like men dying. The camp lay strewn with bodies as if after a defeat. But nobody died, and the next day, at about the same hour, they began to come round, and on the third and fourth days they got up as if from a drug. The honey of the rhododendrons of these hills still has this effect. Strabo (12.3.18) says that the Heptakometai later used it to destroy three maniples of Pompey's army.",
   "sources": [
    "Xen. Anab. 4.8.20-21 (checked, Perseus English translation via cts.perseids.org)",
    "Strabo 12.3.18 (checked, LacusCurtius)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Panticapaeum",
   "title": "The death of Mithridates",
   "text": "Mithridates VI Eupator, king of Pontus and for a quarter of a century Rome's most dangerous enemy in the east, was born and raised at Sinope (Strabo 12.3.11). Driven from Pontus by Pompey, he spent his last years at Panticapaeum (Kerch), capital of the Bosporan kingdom. In 63 BC his son Pharnaces turned the army against him. Mithridates took poison with his two young daughters, Mithridatis and Nyssa. They died, but he did not, because, Appian says (Mithridatic Wars 111), he had long guarded himself with other drugs. He had protected himself against poison, he said, but not against \"the treachery of army, children, and friends\", and he asked a Gallic officer, Bituitus, to kill him. Pompey had the body buried among the kings at Sinope (Appian 113).",
   "sources": [
    "Appian, Mithr. 110-113 (checked, livius.org translation)",
    "Cassius Dio 37.13",
    "Strabo 12.3.11 (checked, LacusCurtius)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Apollonia",
   "title": "Apollo's colossus goes to Rome",
   "text": "Apollonia (Sozopol), a colony of Miletus, was built largely on an island with a temple of Apollo (Strabo 7.6.1). Its pride was a colossal bronze Apollo by Kalamis, one of the great sculptors of the 5th century BC. Pliny the Elder (Natural History 34.39) gives its height as thirty cubits, some 13 metres, and its cost as 500 talents. In 72-71 BC the Roman general Marcus Lucullus, campaigning on the west coast of the Black Sea against the allies of Mithridates, took Apollonia and carried the statue off to Rome, where he set it up on the Capitol (Strabo 7.6.1). The god who had watched over the harbour for nearly four centuries became a trophy of war.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 7.6.1 (checked, LacusCurtius)",
    "Pliny NH 34.39 (30 cubits checked via en.wikipedia, Calamis; the cost of 500 talents)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Tomis",
   "title": "Ovid's Getic poem",
   "text": "In AD 8 Augustus banished the poet Ovid from Rome to Tomis, the Greek town that is now Constanța, where he died about ten years later. In his poems from exile he complains that few of its people kept \"traces of the Greek tongue\", and even that \"made barbarous by the Getic sound\" (Tristia 5.7.51-52), and that no one understood his Latin: \"here I am the barbarian\" (Tristia 5.10.37). In one letter (Ex Ponto 4.13) he writes that he composed a short poem in Getic, \"barbarian words set in our metres\", in praise of the dead Augustus and of Tiberius. When he read it out, his listeners shook their heads and their full quivers, and a long murmur went round. The poem is lost.",
   "sources": [
    "Ovid, Ex Ponto 4.13.19-38 (checked, thelatinlibrary.com)",
    "Ovid, Tristia 5.7.51-52 (checked)",
    "Ovid, Tristia 5.10.37 (checked)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Olbia",
   "title": "The city that knew Homer by heart",
   "text": "The orator Dio Chrysostom, banished by Domitian, sailed one summer to Olbia, which its people called Borysthenes, on his way to the Getae (the visit is usually dated about AD 95). He found a city still marked by its capture by the Getae \"not more than one hundred and fifty years\" before (Oration 36.4). Its people \"no longer speak Greek distinctly, because they live in the midst of barbarians\", yet \"almost all at least know the Iliad by heart\" (36.9). Outside the walls he met Callistratus, a tall, handsome youth of eighteen in trousers and Scythian dress, with a great cavalry sabre at his belt, who loved Homer and was eager to learn philosophy. For the Borysthenites, he told Dio, \"Achilles is our god\" (36.14).",
   "sources": [
    "Dio Chrysostom, Or. 36.1-14 (checked, LacusCurtius, Loeb translation)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Tanais",
   "title": "Two peoples in one town",
   "text": "Tanais, at the mouth of the Don, was founded by the Bosporan Greeks in the 3rd century BC on the edge of the steppe. Strabo (11.2.3) calls it \"a common emporium\" of the nomads of Asia and Europe and of the Bosporans: the nomads brought \"slaves, hides, and such other things as nomads possess\", the Greeks clothing, wine and the other goods of settled life. \"Recently\", he adds, it \"was sacked by King Polemon because it would not obey him\". The town was rebuilt. Its Greek inscriptions of the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD show two communities with their own officers, a \"Hellenarch\" for the Greeks and an archon of the Tanaites, and many religious societies whose members bore Iranian names. The Goths destroyed the town in the mid-3rd century.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 11.2.3 (checked, LacusCurtius)",
    "CIRB, inscriptions of Tanais (Hellenarch, archon of the Tanaites)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Dioskourias",
   "title": "The market of many tongues",
   "text": "Dioskourias, the Milesian colony on the site of Sukhumi, was the great market of the eastern Black Sea, where the peoples of the Caucasus came down to trade. Strabo (11.2.16) writes that \"seventy tribes come together in it, though others, who care nothing for the facts, actually say three hundred\", all speaking different languages because they live scattered in the mountains. Pliny the Elder (Natural History 6.15) repeats the higher figure from the Hellenistic admiral Timosthenes, three hundred peoples of different tongues, and adds that the Romans later did business there \"through 130 interpreters\". Yet by his own day, Pliny says, the town was deserted. The Roman fort of Sebastopolis later stood on the site.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 11.2.16 (checked, LacusCurtius)",
    "Pliny NH 6.15 ('in eam ccc nationes dissimilibus linguis descendere... et postea a nostris cxxx interpretibus negotia ibi gesta', checked via Gibbon's note)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Amastris",
   "title": "Pliny and the sewer",
   "text": "Amastris (Amasra) took its name from Queen Amastris, niece of the last Persian king Darius III, who about 300 BC merged four small towns of the coast, Sesamos, Kytoros, Kromna and Tios, into one city (Strabo 12.3.10). Four centuries later, about AD 111, Pliny the Younger, Trajan's governor of Bithynia and Pontus, wrote to the emperor (Letters 10.98). Amastris was \"elegant and well adorned\", and had among its finest works a very long and beautiful street; but beside it, all the way along, ran what was called a river and was in truth a filthy sewer, foul to see and pestilent to smell. Covering it, Pliny argued, would serve health as much as looks. Trajan agreed (10.99), if the city could find the money.",
   "sources": [
    "Pliny, Ep. 10.98-99 (checked, thelatinlibrary.com)",
    "Strabo 12.3.10 (checked, LacusCurtius)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Pityus",
   "title": "The edge of the empire",
   "text": "Pityus (Pitsunda), on a pine-covered cape north of Dioskourias, was in the 3rd century AD the last Roman fortress on the east coast of the Black Sea. About AD 256, Zosimus says (1.31-33), raiders from the north, whom he calls Scythians and Borani, came by sea in ships obtained from the Bosporans and attacked its strong walls. The commander Successianus routed them; but when the emperor Valerian called him away, they came back, took Pityus, and went on to sack Trapezous. A century and a half later Pityus was chosen as the place of exile of John Chrysostom, the deposed archbishop of Constantinople. Soldiers drove him there by forced marches, but he never arrived: he died on the road, at Comana in Pontus, on 14 September 407.",
   "sources": [
    "Zosimus 1.32 (checked, livius.org translation)",
    "Zosimus 1.31, 1.33 (the Borani; the capture of Pityus and Trapezous)",
    "Palladius, Dialogue on the Life of John Chrysostom 11"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Phanagoria",
   "title": "An emperor in exile",
   "text": "In 695 the emperor Justinian II was overthrown, his nose was cut off, and he was banished to Cherson in the Crimea. About 703, fearing that he would be handed over to his enemies, he escaped and went to the Khazars, whose khagan Busir received him and gave him his sister in marriage; she took the name Theodora. The couple lived at Phanagoria, the old Greek city on the Taman peninsula. When the emperor Tiberius III bribed Busir to kill his brother-in-law, Theodora warned her husband, and he strangled the two Khazar officers sent to do it, Papatzys and Balgitzin. He fled in a fishing boat, won the help of Tervel of Bulgaria, and in 705 entered Constantinople through a water conduit to take back his throne.",
   "sources": [
    "Theophanes, Chronographia AM 6196-6197",
    "Nikephoros, Short History 42",
    "en.wikipedia, Justinian II (checked)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Chersonesos",
   "title": "Vladimir at Korsun",
   "text": "The Rus' Primary Chronicle tells how Vladimir, prince of Kiev, in the year it dates 988, besieged Cherson, which the Slavs called Korsun, the emperors' city in the Crimea. The siege dragged on until a man of the city named Anastas shot an arrow into the Rus' camp with a message: the city's water came by pipe from springs to the east; dig across it. Vladimir cut the water, and the city surrendered. He then demanded the hand of Anna, sister of the emperors Basil II and Constantine VIII, and was baptised, the Chronicle says, in Korsun itself, though it notes that others placed the baptism elsewhere. He gave the city back to the emperors as a bride-gift and took Anastas and its priests home to Kiev.",
   "sources": [
    "Russian Primary Chronicle, s.a. 6496 (988)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Theodosia",
   "title": "The siege of Kaffa and the plague",
   "text": "On the site of ancient Theodosia the Genoese built Kaffa from about 1266; it became the capital of their colonies on the Black Sea, a town of Genoese, Greeks, Armenians and Tatars. In 1343 and again from 1345 to 1347 Janibeg, khan of the Golden Horde, besieged it. The notary Gabriele de' Mussis of Piacenza wrote soon afterwards that a deadly disease struck the besiegers, that the Tatars hurled the corpses into the town with their siege engines, and that ships fleeing from Kaffa then carried the plague to Italy. De' Mussis was not at the siege, and historians doubt that this was the only, or the main, road by which the Black Death reached Europe in 1347. But his is the best-known account of its coming.",
   "sources": [
    "Gabriele de' Mussis, Historia de morbo",
    "en.wikipedia, Siege of Caffa (checked)",
    "M. Wheelis, Emerging Infectious Diseases 8 (2002)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Sougdaia",
   "title": "The Polos at Soldaia",
   "text": "Sougdaia (Sudak), on the south-east coast of the Crimea, was a Greek bishop's see from the 8th century and, by the 13th, the chief port of the peninsula, where the goods of the steppe met the ships of Constantinople and Italy. Marco Polo begins his book there. In 1260 his father Niccolò and his uncle Maffeo, merchants of Venice, sailed from Constantinople to Soldaia, and from there rode into the lands of the Mongols, the journey that led them in the end to the court of Kublai Khan. Their elder brother, also called Marco, kept a house in Soldaia, no doubt for his business; his will, made in Venice in 1280, shows that his son Nicolò and his daughter Maroca were then living there.",
   "sources": [
    "Marco Polo, Description of the World, prologue (ch. 2)",
    "Will of Marco Polo the elder, 1280, as summarised in H. Yule, The Book of Ser Marco Polo, introduction (checked via bookrags.com copy)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Trapezus",
   "title": "The fall of Trebizond, 1461",
   "text": "For 257 years Trebizond was the capital of an empire of its own, founded in 1204 by Alexios and David Komnenos, grandsons of the emperor Andronikos I. In the summer of 1461, eight years after taking Constantinople, Mehmed II marched over the Pontic mountains while his fleet blockaded the city. The emperor David Komnenos surrendered on terms, negotiated, by Chalkokondyles' account, through the scholar George Amiroutzes, a cousin of the grand vizier Mahmud Pasha. The Sultan entered the city on 15 August 1461. David and his family were shipped to Constantinople with their wealth, many leading townspeople were resettled there, and, by Kritoboulos' account, 1,500 boys and girls were taken as slaves. Two years later, on 1 November 1463, David and his sons were put to death in Constantinople.",
   "sources": [
    "Chalkokondyles 9",
    "Kritoboulos 4",
    "en.wikipedia, Fall of Trebizond (checked; Babinger for the date)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Theodoro",
   "title": "The last principality",
   "text": "On the high plateau of Mangup in the south-west Crimea stood Doros, the stronghold of the Crimean Goths, which became Theodoro, the capital of a small Orthodox principality; Greek inscriptions call its ruler \"lord of the city of Theodoro and of the coast\". In 1475, after taking Kaffa, the Ottoman army of Gedik Ahmed Pasha laid siege to it. Prince Alexander, who had just taken power with the backing of Moldavia, held out from September to the end of December. Then the city surrendered on terms; its leaders were taken to Constantinople and put to death (the Ottoman chronicler Aşıkpaşazade), Alexander among them. Theodoro outlived Trebizond by fourteen years. Its Gothic tongue lingered: in the 1560s the envoy Busbecq wrote down words of Crimean Gothic.",
   "sources": [
    "en.wikipedia, Principality of Theodoro (checked: siege September-December 1475; Aşıkpaşazade; Vasiliev for Alexander's fate; title authentes poleos Theodorous kai parathalassias)",
    "Busbecq, Turkish Letters 4"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Argyroupolis",
   "title": "The miners of the silver town",
   "text": "Argyroupolis, \"the silver town\", the Greek name of Gümüşhane, grew up around the silver mines of the mountains south of Trebizond; Sultan Murad III (1574-1595) seems to have given privileges to its chief miners. Its Greek miners and smelters became sought-after specialists. In 1763 King Erekle II of Kartli-Kakheti invited a group of them to Akhtala, in what is now northern Armenia, where they built silver and copper works, one of the first Pontic Greek mining communities of the Caucasus. After the Russian-Ottoman war of 1828-1829 many of the town's people left with the withdrawing Russian army, many for Georgia, where they settled on the Tsalka plateau. Those who stayed left in the exchange of 1923.",
   "sources": [
    "Topalidis, An Introduction to Pontic Greek History (2019), ch. 7",
    "en.wikipedia, Gümüşhane",
    "Akhtala and Tsalka: Russian and Georgian scholarship as summarised in the set's data"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Mariupol",
   "title": "From the Crimea to the Azov",
   "text": "In 1778 Catherine II ordered the Christians of the Crimean khanate to move to Russian land north of the Sea of Azov. The move was asked for by their metropolitan, Ignatius of Gothia and Kefe, and carried out by General A. V. Suvorov, whose returns count 31,386 Christians moved, Greeks and Armenians; the first years on the new land were hard. The Greeks' town was named Mariupol in 1779 (some accounts give 1780). It had its own Greek court and magistracy until the reforms of the 1860s-1870s, and until 1859 no others could settle there. Yet most of its founders spoke not Greek but Urum, a Turkic language: many of the Greek court's papers are in Urum written in Greek letters. Greek, the Rumeic dialect, was spoken mainly in the villages around the town.",
   "sources": [
    "Ponomaryova 2014 (court records in Urum)",
    "en.wikipedia, Eviction of Christians from the Crimea (1778) (checked: 31,386 in Suvorov's returns, after Özer 2008)",
    "Encyclopedia of Ukraine, Mariupol Greeks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Balaklava",
   "title": "The Greek battalion's last fight",
   "text": "Balaklava, the deep, narrow harbour south of Sevastopol, was given in 1784 to a battalion of Greeks from the Peloponnese and the Aegean and Ionian islands who had fought for Russia against the Ottomans; with their families they made it a Greek town. On the night of 25-26 September 1854, as the British army marched on Balaklava to make it the supply port for the siege of Sevastopol, a company of the battalion, 80 soldiers and 30 retired invalids by the Russian official history edited by Totleben, held the old Genoese fortress with four small mortars. Shelled from land and sea, they held out for some six hours. Their wounded commander, Colonel M. A. Manto, and about 60 wounded men were taken prisoner.",
   "sources": [
    "E. I. Totleben (ed.), Opisanie oborony g. Sevastopolya, via K. V. Nikiforov in Greki Balaklavy i Sevastopolya (Inslav 2013), p. 12: https://inslav.ru/sites/default/files/editions/2013_greki_balaklavy_i_sevastopolja.pdf",
    "en.wikipedia, Greek Battalion of Balaklava"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Sulina",
   "title": "Europolis",
   "text": "Sulina, at the mouth of the middle arm of the Danube, grew from a few huts into a town after 1829, when Greek pilots and lightermen settled there to guide ships over the bar. In 1856, after the Crimean War, the European Commission of the Danube made it the base of its works (its seat was at Galați) and began to dredge and embank the channel. In 1857 an Italian vice-consul called the Greeks \"the backbone of the city\"; a count of 1879 (Sturdza) found 1,653 Greeks among 2,875 residents. They built a church of St Nicholas and their own schools. The Romanian writer Jean Bart (Eugeniu Botez) set his novel Europolis (1933) in this many-tongued port. After the Commission lost its powers in 1938-1939 the town declined, and its Greeks slowly left.",
   "sources": [
    "Sturdza 1880 and Engelhardt 1862, via hrmars.com paper on Sulina",
    "en.wikipedia, Sulina",
    "Jean Bart (Eugeniu Botez), Europolis (1933), set in Sulina (checked, publisher's description of the English translation, 2023: https://www.aup.nl/en/book/9789633868492)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Anchialos",
   "title": "The burning of 1906",
   "text": "Anchialos (Pomorie), on a narrow cape north of Burgas, was a Greek town for more than two thousand years: a small town of the Apolloniates in Strabo's day (7.6.1), a Roman city with its own coins, an archbishopric under Constantinople, and about 1900 a town of some 6,000 people, most of them Greeks. Patriarch Jeremias II Tranos, who corresponded with the Lutheran theologians of Tübingen, was born there. On 30 July 1906, during the Greek-Bulgarian struggle over Macedonia, Bulgarian rioters, many of them from Burgas, set the town on fire; official reports from Sofia said that more than half of it burned. Many of its Greeks left that year and founded Nea Anchialos, near Volos in Thessaly.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 7.6.1",
    "en.wikipedia, Pomorie and Nea Anchialos",
    "A. Lyberatos, 'Confronting the Urban Crowd' (2013)",
    "Gisborne Times, 16 August 1906"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Platana",
   "title": "Platana, the harbour west of Trebizond",
   "text": "Platana (Akçaabat), a harbour some 13 km west of Trebizond, appears on the sea charts of the 14th century and was a Greek village under the Empire of Trebizond. Under the Ottomans it grew into a small town. In 1836 the British traveller W. J. Hamilton counted about 340 houses, 140 of them Greek. Its Greeks spoke the Pontic Greek of Trebizond and kept their churches and schools; the church survey of 1913-1914 counted 345 families. In early 1918, as the Russian army withdrew from the Pontus, Turkish irregulars plundered and burned the town and its Greeks fled to Trebizond (Fotiadis 2019); on 24 February 1918 the New York Times reported that the Turks had occupied Platana. In March 1922, a British report said, the Greek men over fifteen of Trebizond and the country around it were taken to the labour battalions; the rest left in the exchange of 1923.",
   "sources": [
    "W. J. Hamilton, Researches in Asia Minor, Pontus and Armenia (1842)",
    "Chrysanthos, Archeion Pontou 4-5 (1933), church survey of 1913-14",
    "New York Times, 24 Feb 1918 (via Fotiadis 2019 and pontosworld.com)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Amisus",
   "title": "Lucullus weeps at Amisos",
   "text": "Amisos (Samsun), a Greek colony of the 6th century BC, was one of the royal cities of Mithridates VI. In the war against him the Roman general Lucullus besieged it, and when the city fell, about 71 BC, its commander Callimachus abandoned it, \"first setting fire to it with his own hands\". Plutarch (Lucullus 19) says that when Lucullus entered at daybreak he \"burst into tears\". He had often counted Sulla fortunate, he told his friends, because Sulla had been able to save Athens when he wished; to himself Heaven had given \"the reputation of Mummius\", the destroyer of Corinth. He tried to put out the fire and, \"as far as circumstances allowed\", to restore the city. Among the prisoners taken there was the grammarian Tyrannion, who later taught in Rome.",
   "sources": [
    "Plutarch, Lucullus 19 (checked, LacusCurtius, Loeb translation)",
    "Strabo 12.3.14 (Milesian, then Athenian settlers; checked, LacusCurtius)"
   ]
  }
 ],
 "left_out": [
  {
   "name": "Naulochos (Obzor)",
   "greek": "Ναύλοχος",
   "modern": "Obzor",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A small dependent town of Mesembria (Strabo 7.6.1 calls it a polichnion of the Mesembrians), later a Roman road station (Templum Iovis, Tetranaulochus). No civic institutions of its own are known.",
   "lat": 42.8167,
   "lon": 27.8833
  },
  {
   "name": "Aquae Calidae (Thermopolis)",
   "greek": "Θερμόπολις",
   "modern": "Burgas Mineral Baths (Vetren)",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A hot-spring spa and road station near Burgas, with a medieval fort; not a self-governing town.",
   "lat": 42.6186,
   "lon": 27.3967
  },
  {
   "name": "Rousokastro",
   "greek": "Ῥουσόκαστρον",
   "modern": "Rusokastro",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A medieval fortress (battle of 1332 between Ivan Alexander and Andronikos III); no evidence of a Greek-speaking town.",
   "lat": 42.43,
   "lon": 27.2
  },
  {
   "name": "Erite (Ereta)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A coastal fort and road station between Odessos and Mesembria; not a town.",
   "lat": 43.0546,
   "lon": 27.9132
  },
  {
   "name": "Emona (Cape Emine)",
   "greek": "Αἵμων?",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A fort on the cape at the end of the Haemus; not a town.",
   "lat": 42.7,
   "lon": 27.9
  },
  {
   "name": "Tirizis (Kaliakra)",
   "greek": "Τίριζις",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A fortified cape: a Thracian and Roman fort, and in the 14th c. the seat of the despots of Dobruja (Dobrotitsa, Ivanko). No evidence of a Greek-speaking civic community.",
   "lat": 43.3658,
   "lon": 28.4663
  },
  {
   "name": "Karon Limen (Shabla)",
   "greek": "Καρῶν λιμήν",
   "modern": "Shabla",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A harbour and late Roman fort on the coast; not a city.",
   "lat": 43.5396,
   "lon": 28.5891
  },
  {
   "name": "Kastritsi (Varna)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A medieval fortress north of Varna; not a town.",
   "lat": 43.24,
   "lon": 28.0
  },
  {
   "name": "Chersonesos (south of Sozopol)",
   "greek": "Χερσόνησος",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A small coastal place named in the periploi between Apollonia and Agathopolis; not a city.",
   "lat": 42.2801,
   "lon": 27.7698
  },
  {
   "name": "Zaldapa",
   "greek": "Ζάλδαπα",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A large late Roman fortified town inland in Dobrich province (home of the general Vitalian); its inscriptions and culture point to Latin, and no Greek civic community is attested.",
   "lat": 43.883,
   "lon": 27.8095
  },
  {
   "name": "Karvuna (medieval Kavarna/Balchik)",
   "greek": "Καρβώνα",
   "modern": "Kavarna or Balchik",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Seat of a medieval despotate and of a metropolitan of Karvuna under the Patriarchate (14th c.); the Greek is that of the church hierarchy, and the town's speech is not documented. The site is disputed (Kavarna or Balchik).",
   "lat": 43.43,
   "lon": 28.33
  },
  {
   "name": "Balchik (Ottoman and modern town)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Balchik",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Ottoman Balchik was a town of Gagauz (Turkish-speaking Orthodox), Tatars and Turks that became mostly Bulgarian; no Greek-speaking community was found. The ancient Greek city (Dionysopolis) is a separate entry.",
   "lat": 43.4178,
   "lon": 28.1629
  },
  {
   "name": "Aegyssus (Tulcea)",
   "greek": "Αἴγισος",
   "modern": "Tulcea",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A Getic stronghold (Ovid, Ex Ponto 1.8.11-20, 4.7.21-24) and then a Roman fort and small town of the Latin-speaking Danube frontier; no Greek civic institutions.",
   "lat": 45.1798,
   "lon": 28.8064
  },
  {
   "name": "Tulcea (19th c.)",
   "greek": "Τούλτσα",
   "modern": "Tulcea",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A mixed Danube town with a Greek minority: 324 Greeks of 17,518 people in 1878 (Bulgarians 6,244, Romanians 5,304) and 1,233-1,305 in 1907 (L. Dima). Left out as minority-only; see the presence point.",
   "lat": 45.1787,
   "lon": 28.805
  },
  {
   "name": "Vicina",
   "greek": "Βιτζίνα",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A Danube trading town of the 11th-14th c. with a metropolitan of the Patriarchate (Hyacinth moved to Arges in 1359) and a Genoese consul. It is unlocated (Isaccea, Macin, Nufaru, Pacuiul lui Soare and others are proposed), and a 14th-c. document says few Christians lived there. Greek is attested only for the church and trade.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Licostomo (Chilia Veche)",
   "greek": "Λυκόστομον",
   "modern": "Chilia Veche",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A Genoese trading town at the Chilia mouth (late 13th-15th c.), under Moldavia and then the Ottomans (1484). The Greek name is old, but Doukas speaks of the Romanians living there in 1461 and no Greek-speaking community is shown.",
   "lat": 45.42,
   "lon": 29.29
  },
  {
   "name": "Presthlavitza / Pereyaslavets (Nufaru?)",
   "greek": "Πρεσθλάβιτζα",
   "modern": "Nufaru",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Danube town of the 10th-11th c. under the Bulgarians, Sviatoslav of Kiev (969) and Constantinople; mixed population, and no positive evidence that Greek was a main language of its residents.",
   "lat": 45.15,
   "lon": 28.92
  },
  {
   "name": "Halmyris (Murighiol)",
   "greek": "Ἁλμυρίς",
   "modern": "Murighiol",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Roman fort and naval station near the delta, of the Latin-speaking frontier; not a city.",
   "lat": 45.0247,
   "lon": 29.1973
  },
  {
   "name": "Noviodunum (Isaccea)",
   "greek": "Νοβιόδουνον",
   "modern": "Isaccea",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Celtic-named Roman fortress, base of the Danube fleet, and a Latin-speaking civitas; no Greek civic community.",
   "lat": 45.2708,
   "lon": 28.492
  },
  {
   "name": "Troesmis (Iglita)",
   "greek": "Τρόσμις",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A legionary base and Latin municipium (the Lex municipii Troesmensium); Latin-speaking.",
   "lat": 45.1432,
   "lon": 28.1951
  },
  {
   "name": "Tropaeum Traiani (Adamclisi)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Adamclisi",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A Latin municipium beside Trajan's victory monument, inland; its inscriptions are Latin.",
   "lat": 44.0921,
   "lon": 27.944
  },
  {
   "name": "Ibida / Libida (Slava Rusa)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Slava Rusa",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A large late Roman fortified town of the Latin-speaking interior; no Greek civic community.",
   "lat": 44.8531,
   "lon": 28.6024
  },
  {
   "name": "Dinogetia (Garvan)",
   "greek": "Δινογέτεια",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Roman fort and a village-like settlement of the 10th-12th c. under Constantinople; not a Greek-speaking town.",
   "lat": 45.379,
   "lon": 28.1388
  },
  {
   "name": "Axiopolis (Cernavoda)",
   "greek": "Ἀξιούπολις",
   "modern": "Cernavoda",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Roman fort and small town on the Danube; Latin-speaking.",
   "lat": 44.3276,
   "lon": 28.0198
  },
  {
   "name": "Capidava",
   "greek": "Καπίδαυα",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Getic and Roman fort on the Danube; not a city.",
   "lat": 44.4937,
   "lon": 28.0903
  },
  {
   "name": "Carsium (Harsova)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Harsova",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Roman fort on the Danube; not a city.",
   "lat": 44.6818,
   "lon": 27.952
  },
  {
   "name": "Beroe (Piatra Frecatei)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A late Roman fort on the Danube; not a city.",
   "lat": 44.915,
   "lon": 28.152
  },
  {
   "name": "Arrubium (Macin)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Macin",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Roman fort and settlement on the Danube; Latin-speaking.",
   "lat": 45.2462,
   "lon": 28.1325
  },
  {
   "name": "Salsovia (Mahmudia)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Mahmudia",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A late Roman fort (where Licinius was killed in 325); not a city.",
   "lat": 45.0767,
   "lon": 29.0803
  },
  {
   "name": "Ulmetum (Pantelimon)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Pantelimon",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Roman village (vicus) and late fort; not a city.",
   "lat": 44.5476,
   "lon": 28.3417
  },
  {
   "name": "Sacidava (Dunareni)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Roman fort on the Danube; not a city.",
   "lat": 44.2046,
   "lon": 27.7906
  },
  {
   "name": "Ophioussa",
   "greek": "Ὀφιοῦσσα",
   "modern": "Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi (area)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Not a separate entry: Pliny (NH 4.82) says Tyras stood where Ophiusa had been, while Ps.-Scylax (68) lists Ophioussa as a polis beside Nikonion. No separate site has been securely identified, so it is treated with Tyras.",
   "lat": 46.2008,
   "lon": 30.3501
  },
  {
   "name": "Kremnoi",
   "greek": "Κρημνοί",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A trading place (emporion) of the Royal Scythians on Lake Maeotis (Herodotus 4.20, 4.110); its site is unknown (the Pleiades point near the Molochnyi liman is a guess), and no Greek civic community is attested.",
   "lat": 46.6721,
   "lon": 35.8411
  },
  {
   "name": "Hylaia",
   "greek": "Ὑλαίη",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A wooded district on the lower Dnieper (Herodotus 4.18-19, 4.54-55, 4.76), not a town.",
   "lat": 46.6518,
   "lon": 32.2387
  },
  {
   "name": "Achilleios Dromos (the Tendra spit)",
   "greek": "Ἀχιλλέως δρόμος",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A sandbar with a sanctuary and cult of Achilles used by the Olbians; a sanctuary, not a town.",
   "lat": 46.2182,
   "lon": 31.7069
  },
  {
   "name": "Leuke (Snake Island)",
   "greek": "Λευκή",
   "modern": "Zmiinyi Island",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The island sanctuary of Achilles off the Danube mouths, with Greek dedications from many cities; a sanctuary, not a town.",
   "lat": 45.2551,
   "lon": 30.2039
  },
  {
   "name": "Cape Hippolaos and the sanctuary of Demeter",
   "greek": "Ἱππόλεω ἄκρη",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A cape with a sanctuary of Demeter (Herodotus 4.53) on the Dnieper-Bug liman opposite Olbia; a sanctuary, not a town.",
   "lat": 46.5573,
   "lon": 32.1407
  },
  {
   "name": "The farms and villages of Olbia's territory (Kozyrka, Bilozerka, Stanislav, Didova Khata, Shyroka Balka and others)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Greek rural settlements and forts in the territory (chora) of Olbia on the Bug and Dnieper limans, 6th-1st centuries BC; villages, not towns. Some, like Kozyrka and Bilozerka, were large, but none had civic status.",
   "lat": 46.6292,
   "lon": 32.4403
  },
  {
   "name": "The harbours on the coast near Odesa (Isiakon Limen, Istrianon Limen, Achaion Limen, O(r)dessos)",
   "greek": "Ἰσιακῶν λιμήν",
   "modern": "Odesa (area)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Harbours and anchorages named in the Periplus of Arrian (31) and by Pliny and Ptolemy; small Greek coastal settlements of the 5th-3rd centuries BC have been found under Odesa and on the limans, but none is attested as a town with civic status. Odesa itself was founded in 1794 and is not a continuation of them.",
   "lat": 46.531,
   "lon": 30.7781
  },
  {
   "name": "Kamianske hillfort (Kamenskoe)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Kamianka-Dniprovska (near)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A large Scythian town of the 5th-3rd centuries BC on the lower Dnieper, often taken for the Scythian royal centre; Greek imports only, with no Greek-speaking civic community. The area has been under Russian occupation since 2022.",
   "lat": 47.4764,
   "lon": 34.5186
  },
  {
   "name": "The Late Scythian forts of the lower Dnieper (Znamianka, Havrylivka, Zolota Balka and others)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Native fortified settlements of the 2nd century BC-3rd century AD with Greek imports and some Greek-style buildings; no Greek civic community is attested.",
   "lat": 47.1,
   "lon": 33.8
  },
  {
   "name": "Hygreis and the Agaroi (the north Azov coast in Ptolemy)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Mariupol and Berdiansk (area)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Places and peoples named by Ptolemy on the north coast of the Sea of Azov; their sites are guesses, and no Greek town is known there.",
   "lat": 47.106,
   "lon": 37.6235
  },
  {
   "name": "Kilia (Licostomo)",
   "greek": "Κελλία",
   "modern": "Kiliia",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A Genoese trading post at the mouth of the Danube, with a consul in the 1360s, later Moldavian and Ottoman (1484). Greek merchants were prominent among the traders in the notarial acts of 1360-1361, beside Genoese, Tatars, Armenians, Jews and locals, but no Greek-speaking town community is shown to have been a main part of the population. The medieval town probably stood on the right bank of the Danube (Chilia Veche, Romania) (unchecked).",
   "lat": 45.45,
   "lon": 29.27
  },
  {
   "name": "Oleshye",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Oleshky (area)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A trading place of the Rus' at the Dnieper mouth (11th-13th centuries), visited by Greek merchants; a trading post, not a Greek town. The area has been under Russian occupation since 2022.",
   "lat": 46.62,
   "lon": 32.7
  },
  {
   "name": "Akkerman (Ottoman and Russian town)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Bilhorod-Dnistrovskyi",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "After the Ottoman conquest of 1484 and under Russia (from 1812) the town had a Greek minority among Turks, Tatars, Moldavians, Armenians, Jews, Bulgarians and Russians; Greek was not a main language. Its ancient and medieval Greek phases are in the Tyras entry.",
   "lat": 46.2008,
   "lon": 30.3501
  },
  {
   "name": "Odesa (Odessa)",
   "greek": "Ὀδησσός",
   "modern": "Odesa",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Still out. The counts found give totals only (2,349 or 2,360 in 1795; 3,455 in the census of 1797; about 9,000 in 1803); a division of 300 Greek and Albanian soldiers was settled in 1795, and Italians alone were said to be about 800 in 1797. No source seen shows the Greeks as a quarter of the town or as a main language beside one other.",
   "lat": 46.4825,
   "lon": 30.7233
  },
  {
   "name": "Kherson",
   "greek": "Χερσών",
   "modern": "Kherson",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Founded in 1778 by decree of Catherine II and named after Chersonesos, the first town of the 'Greek project'. Greek merchants and settlers lived there (emigrants from the Aegean islands settled there in the 1790s, and an 1880 gazetteer names Ukrainians, Greeks and Jews as its main people), but in 1897 Greek was not among its main mother tongues (Russian 47.2%, Yiddish 29.1%, Ukrainian 19.6%, Polish 1.7%, German 0.7%). Minority-only: left out.",
   "lat": 46.6354,
   "lon": 32.6169
  },
  {
   "name": "Nikopol",
   "greek": "Νικόπολις",
   "modern": "Nikopol",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Greek name given in 1782 to the former Cossack crossing of Nikitin Rog (briefly called Slavianske); no Greek-speaking majority is recorded (unchecked). A Greek name is not enough.",
   "lat": 47.5667,
   "lon": 34.4
  },
  {
   "name": "Ovidiopol",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Ovidiopol",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A fortress and town founded in 1793 with a Greco-Latin name ('Ovid's town'); its people were Russians, Ukrainians and others, not Greek speakers (unchecked).",
   "lat": 46.2443,
   "lon": 30.4455
  },
  {
   "name": "Melitopol",
   "greek": "Μελιτόπολις",
   "modern": "Melitopol",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Named Melitopol ('honey town') in 1842; a Russian, Ukrainian and Jewish town with no Greek-speaking majority (unchecked). Under Russian occupation since 2022.",
   "lat": 46.8489,
   "lon": 35.3675
  },
  {
   "name": "Berdiansk",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Berdiansk",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A port founded from 1827 (town 1841) on the site of a Nogai settlement; Greeks from the Mariupol district lived there as a minority beside Russians, Ukrainians, Jews and others (1897: 26,496 people, 3,306 of them Jews) (unchecked: the Greek share). Under Russian occupation since 27 February 2022.",
   "lat": 46.7584,
   "lon": 36.8081
  },
  {
   "name": "Mykolaiv",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Mykolaiv",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A shipyard town founded in 1789; Greek merchants had a large share of its trade in the 19th century, but they were a small minority of its people (unchecked: the share).",
   "lat": 46.975,
   "lon": 31.9946
  },
  {
   "name": "Ochakiv",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Ochakiv",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The Ottoman fortress of Özi, taken by Russia in 1788; Greeks were at most a small minority (unchecked).",
   "lat": 46.6127,
   "lon": 31.5466
  },
  {
   "name": "Izmail",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Izmail",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "An Ottoman fortress town, Russian from 1812 (again 1878); Greeks were a small minority beside Russians, Ukrainians, Moldavians, Bulgarians and Jews (unchecked).",
   "lat": 45.3517,
   "lon": 28.8364
  },
  {
   "name": "Tiraspol",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Tiraspol",
   "country": "Moldova",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Outside the area (Moldova, the Transnistrian region). Founded in 1792 with a Greek name ('town on the Tyras'); no Greek-speaking majority (unchecked).",
   "lat": 46.84,
   "lon": 29.63
  },
  {
   "name": "The Greek villages of the Mariupol district (Sartana, Velykyi Yanisol, Staryi Krym and others)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "About twenty villages founded in 1779-1780 by the Greeks moved from the Crimea: twelve settled by Greek speakers (Rumeic) and ten by Turkic speakers (Urum), according to the Encyclopedia of Ukraine; later counts give 18 Greek-speaking and 15 Urum villages. They were villages, not towns, before 1923 (Mariupol was the district's only town), so they are shown as presence points.",
   "lat": 47.17,
   "lon": 37.68
  },
  {
   "name": "Panskoye (Panskoe I)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "near Chornomorske (Tarkhankut)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A Greek fortified rural settlement of the Tarkhankut peninsula (4th-3rd c. BC), in the territory of Chersonesos; a village, not a town.",
   "lat": 45.5497,
   "lon": 32.7946
  },
  {
   "name": "Belyaus, Chaika and the other forts of the north-west Crimea",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Donuzlav and Yevpatoria area",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Fortified farmsteads and strongholds of the Chersonesite and Late Scythian periods; no civic status.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Zenonos Chersonesos",
   "greek": "Ζήνωνος Χερσόνησος",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Known only from Ptolemy; a small Bosporan settlement on the north coast of the Kerch peninsula, with no evidence of civic status.",
   "lat": 45.4705,
   "lon": 36.3485
  },
  {
   "name": "Parthenion",
   "greek": "Παρθένιον",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Strabo calls it a village (kome) on the Kerch strait.",
   "lat": 45.3678,
   "lon": 36.6202
  },
  {
   "name": "Porthmion",
   "greek": "Πορθμίον",
   "modern": "near Zhukivka (Kerch)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A small fortified Bosporan settlement at the narrows of the strait; Strabo calls it a village (unchecked). No civic evidence.",
   "lat": 45.4039,
   "lon": 36.5846
  },
  {
   "name": "Herakleion",
   "greek": "Ἡράκλειον",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A small settlement on the Kerch strait (Strabo, Pliny) whose site is not securely located; no civic evidence.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Iluraton",
   "greek": "Ἰλούρατον",
   "modern": "near Ivanivka (Kerch)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A Bosporan fortress of the 1st-3rd c. AD with a garrison settlement; a fort, not a town.",
   "lat": 45.2857,
   "lon": 36.2921
  },
  {
   "name": "Uzunlar rampart",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Bosporan defensive earthwork across the Kerch peninsula, not a settlement.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Kazeka",
   "greek": "Καζέκα",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A harbour and settlement of the Bosporan coast named by Arrian; no civic status.",
   "lat": 45.0236,
   "lon": 35.8437
  },
  {
   "name": "Scythian Neapolis",
   "greek": "Νεάπολις",
   "modern": "Simferopol",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "The capital of the Late Scythian kingdom (3rd c. BC-3rd c. AD). Greek inscriptions, a Greek-style mausoleum and Greek craftsmen are attested, but they were made by or for the court and Greek residents; there is no Greek civic community and the town's people were Scythians.",
   "lat": 44.9423,
   "lon": 34.1202
  },
  {
   "name": "Charax",
   "greek": "Χάραξ",
   "modern": "Cape Ai-Todor (Haspra)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Roman garrison fort (1st-3rd c. AD).",
   "lat": 44.4307,
   "lon": 34.1283
  },
  {
   "name": "Lampas",
   "greek": "Λαμπάς",
   "modern": "Malyi Mayak / Biyuk-Lambat",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Taurian landing place in the periplus texts and later a Greek Orthodox village of the south coast (medieval Lambadas); a village, not a town.",
   "lat": 44.6011,
   "lon": 34.35
  },
  {
   "name": "Athenaion (Skythotauron Limen)",
   "greek": "Ἀθήναιον",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A harbour of the south-east coast in the anonymous Periplus; Pleiades places it at Sudak, which is entered separately as Sougdaia.",
   "lat": 44.8488,
   "lon": 34.9711
  },
  {
   "name": "Symbolon Limen",
   "greek": "Συμβόλων λιμήν",
   "modern": "Balaklava",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The ancient Taurian harbour at Balaklava (Strabo 7.4.2); a harbour, not a Greek town. The later Greek town of Balaklava is entered separately (window B).",
   "lat": 44.502,
   "lon": 33.5987
  },
  {
   "name": "Kalamita (Inkerman)",
   "greek": "Καλαμίτα",
   "modern": "Inkerman",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "The port fortress of Theodoro with cave monasteries and Greek inscriptions; a fortress and harbour, not a town with its own civic life.",
   "lat": 44.6137,
   "lon": 33.6103
  },
  {
   "name": "Eski-Kermen",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A fortified cave town of the 6th-13th c. with Greek graffiti and churches, destroyed in the late 13th c.; no evidence of civic status or a recorded name.",
   "lat": 44.611,
   "lon": 33.738
  },
  {
   "name": "Chufut-Kale (Kyrk-Yer)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "near Bakhchysarai",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "An Alan fortress, then a Tatar seat and a Karaite town (Karaites spoke a Turkic language); the see of Phoullai is sometimes placed here, but no Greek-speaking town is shown.",
   "lat": 44.741,
   "lon": 33.927
  },
  {
   "name": "Funa",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "near Luchyste (Alushta)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A fortress of Theodoro (1420s); a fort.",
   "lat": 44.768,
   "lon": 34.373
  },
  {
   "name": "Aloustos (Alushta)",
   "greek": "Ἀλουστον",
   "modern": "Alushta",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A fort built under Justinian (Procopius, Buildings 3.7) and the Genoese Lusta; its Greek-speaking people lived in a village round the fort until 1778. Not a town in its own right.",
   "lat": 44.6771,
   "lon": 34.4095
  },
  {
   "name": "Gorzouvitai (Gurzuf)",
   "greek": "Γορζουβῖται",
   "modern": "Gurzuf",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A fort built under Justinian (Procopius) and a Greek village of the south coast to 1778 (its people founded Urzuf near Mariupol (unchecked)); a village, not a town.",
   "lat": 44.5528,
   "lon": 34.2875
  },
  {
   "name": "Partenit",
   "greek": "Παρθενῖται",
   "modern": "Partenit",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Greek village and the monastery of St John of Gothia (8th c.) with Greek inscriptions; a village.",
   "lat": 44.58,
   "lon": 34.34
  },
  {
   "name": "Yalta (Ialita, Etalita)",
   "greek": "Ἰάλιτα",
   "modern": "Yalta",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A Greek village and Genoese landing place to 1778 (240 Greeks in the 1778 returns); refounded as a Russian town (1838); in the 19th-20th c. Greek was not a main language (Greeks a small minority) (unchecked).",
   "lat": 44.495,
   "lon": 34.166
  },
  {
   "name": "Cembalo (Genoese Balaklava)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Balaklava",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A Genoese fortress (1357-1475) with Orthodox inhabitants; no evidence was found that Greek was a main language of the town. The later Greek town of the battalion is entered as Balaklava (window B).",
   "lat": 44.4995,
   "lon": 33.5995
  },
  {
   "name": "Solkhat (Stary Krym)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Staryi Krym",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "The Golden Horde's and the early khans' capital in the Crimea, a Tatar town with a large Armenian community; 109 Greeks left in 1778. Greek was not a main language.",
   "lat": 45.029,
   "lon": 35.088
  },
  {
   "name": "Kefe (Ottoman Kaffa) as a separate town",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Feodosia",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Merged into the Theodosia entry as a phase.",
   "lat": 45.0461,
   "lon": 35.3788
  },
  {
   "name": "Bosporos (medieval Kerch)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Kerch",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Merged into the Panticapaeum entry as a phase.",
   "lat": 45.351,
   "lon": 36.4686
  },
  {
   "name": "Cherson / Korsun",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Sevastopol",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Merged into the Chersonesos entry as a phase.",
   "lat": 44.6111,
   "lon": 33.4923
  },
  {
   "name": "Bakhchysarai",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Bakhchysarai",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "The khans' capital, a Tatar town. Its Christian quarter (1,619 'Greeks' in the 1778 returns) was a minority and, like the other inland Crimean Orthodox, largely Tatar-speaking (Urum) by the 18th c. (unchecked); the minority and Urum rules both apply.",
   "lat": 44.751,
   "lon": 33.862
  },
  {
   "name": "Karasubazar (Bilohirsk)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Bilohirsk",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A Tatar trading town with Armenian and Greek (1,004 in 1778) minorities; the Greeks were probably Tatar-speaking (Urum) (unchecked). Greek was not a main language.",
   "lat": 45.057,
   "lon": 34.602
  },
  {
   "name": "Gözleve / Yevpatoria",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Yevpatoria",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Still out. A Tatar and Karaite port town that passed to Russia in 1783; its Orthodox had been moved to the Azov in 1778, and no count of Greek speakers in the new Russian town was found (unchecked: Greeks a small minority).",
   "lat": 45.2,
   "lon": 33.36
  },
  {
   "name": "Sevastopol",
   "greek": "Σεβαστούπολις",
   "modern": "Sevastopol",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Still out. A naval base founded in 1783 with a Greek name; Greek sailors and officers served in the fleet and the Greek battalion lived at nearby Balaklava, but no count shows Greek as a main language of the town (Greeks 2.3% of the city area in 1921). A Greek name is not enough.",
   "lat": 44.616,
   "lon": 33.525
  },
  {
   "name": "Simferopol",
   "greek": "Συμφερούπολις",
   "modern": "Simferopol",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Founded in 1784 beside Tatar Ak-Mechet with a Greek name; a Russian and Tatar town where Greeks were a small minority (unchecked).",
   "lat": 44.952,
   "lon": 34.102
  },
  {
   "name": "Yenikale",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Kerch (Yenikale)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Not a separate town: Kerch is the site of Panticapaeum, and its modern Greek community is that entry's later phase. The Archipelago settlers are documented (the town was resettled in 1775 with 1,236 military and civilian people, Greeks among them; the Greek regiment moved from Kerch-Yenikale to Balaklava in 1784; the Greek community of Kerch and Yenikale numbered 605 people in 1801: Arsh 1969), but no total for the town at that time was found, so it cannot be shown that Greek was a main language of the small town even c. 1775-1810. Yenikale itself was a fortress with a suburb.",
   "lat": 45.364,
   "lon": 36.623
  },
  {
   "name": "Feodosia (Russian town, from 1784)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Feodosia",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Russian port town in which Greeks were a minority; its Greek community is a phase of the Theodosia entry, not a separate town.",
   "lat": 45.0461,
   "lon": 35.3788
  },
  {
   "name": "Kerch (Russian town, from 1774)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Kerch",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Greeks were a minority (1,202, 3.5% in 1926); counted as a phase of the Panticapaeum entry.",
   "lat": 45.351,
   "lon": 36.4686
  },
  {
   "name": "Old Chersonesos (Strabo's 'palaia Chersonesos')",
   "greek": "παλαιὰ Χερσόνησος",
   "modern": "Mayachnyi peninsula, Sevastopol",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Strabo (7.4.2) names an 'old Chersonesos, now in ruins' near the city; it is a fortified site of Chersonesos' own territory, not a separate city (unchecked: the location).",
   "lat": 44.58,
   "lon": 33.39
  },
  {
   "name": "Phoullai",
   "greek": "Φοῦλλαι",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A medieval bishop's see of the Crimea, united with Sougdaia in the late 11th c.; its town has not been located with certainty (Chufut-Kale and other sites have been proposed), so it cannot be mapped.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Tepsen (Koktebel)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Koktebel",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "An early medieval settlement with a large basilica (8th-10th c.) whose ancient or medieval name is not known (unchecked); not shown to be a town.",
   "lat": 44.96,
   "lon": 35.24
  },
  {
   "name": "Korokondame",
   "greek": "Κοροκονδάμη",
   "modern": "Cape Tuzla (Taman peninsula)",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Strabo (11.2.8-9) calls Korokondame a village (kome) at the mouth of the Kerch strait, after which the lake Korokondamitis was named; the site at Cape Tuzla is mostly washed away and known chiefly from its cemetery. No civic evidence was found.",
   "lat": 45.2046,
   "lon": 36.6144
  },
  {
   "name": "Tyrambe",
   "greek": "Τυράμβη",
   "modern": "near Peresyp / Golubitskaya, Temryuksky District",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A Bosporan settlement on the Azov shore (6th c. BC to 3rd c. AD); Strabo (11.2.4) gives only a distance, and Ptolemy's listing of it among towns (unchecked) is the only hint of town status. No civic evidence found.",
   "lat": 45.3448,
   "lon": 37.1306
  },
  {
   "name": "Achilleion (Achilleiou Kome)",
   "greek": "Ἀχίλλειον",
   "modern": "Taman peninsula (unlocated, near the strait)",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A village with a temple of Achilles at the narrows of the strait (Strabo 11.2.6, 11.2.8: 'the village Achilleium'). A sanctuary village, not a city.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Kimmerikon / Cimmerium (Asian side)",
   "greek": "Κιμμερικόν",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Strabo's 'Cimmerian village' on the Maeotis (11.2.4) is a village; the town Kimmerikon 'formerly a city on a peninsula' (11.2.5) is usually placed at Opuk in the Crimea (a Crimean entry). Pliny's 'Cimmerium' at the mouth of the strait is unlocated.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Apatouron",
   "greek": "Ἀπάτουρον",
   "modern": "Taman peninsula (near Phanagoria?)",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The sanctuary of Aphrodite Apatouros (Strabo 11.2.10), not a town.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Stratokleia",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Named only by Pliny (NH 6.18) (unchecked) among the towns of the Asian Bosporus; unlocated and with no other evidence.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Bata / Patous (Novorossiysk)",
   "greek": "Βατά / Πάτους",
   "modern": "Novorossiysk",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Ps.-Scylax 72 lists 'Patous' among the Hellenic cities of the Sindoi; many equate it with Bata, others with Patraeus on the Taman peninsula. Strabo (11.2.14) calls Bata 'a village and harbour', and no Greek town has been found at Novorossiysk, so Ps.-Scylax's Patous is counted under Patraeus, which is entered.",
   "lat": 44.7338,
   "lon": 37.7773
  },
  {
   "name": "Semibratnee gorodishche (Labrys?)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Semibratnee gorodishche near Varenikovskaya, Anapa district",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A large fortified Sindian town on the Kuban (5th-3rd c. BC), often taken for the Sindian capital (Labrys?). It has Greek-style walls, Greek imports and perhaps the Sindian coinage with Greek legends (ΣΙΝΔΩΝ), but no positive evidence of a resident Greek-speaking civic community; the Sindian coins may have been struck at Sindikos Limen (Gorgippia).",
   "lat": 45.1417,
   "lon": 37.5769
  },
  {
   "name": "Raevskoe gorodishche",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "near Raevskaya, Novorossiysk",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A fortified Sindo-Maeotian town of the Hellenistic period with Greek-style fortifications and imports; no evidence of a Greek-speaking community.",
   "lat": 44.8384,
   "lon": 37.5484
  },
  {
   "name": "Elizavetovka (Elizavetovskoe gorodishche)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Elizavetovskaya, Azov district, Rostov Oblast",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A large Scythian town in the Don delta (5th-3rd c. BC) with a Greek trading quarter of the 4th-3rd c. BC (Greek houses, a Greek cemetery). The Greeks were merchants inside a native town, an emporion without civic status; its trade passed to Tanais in the 3rd c. BC.",
   "lat": 47.1648,
   "lon": 39.4687
  },
  {
   "name": "Taganrog ancient settlement (Kremnoi?)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Taganrog (submerged, Rostov Oblast)",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Still out. No count of the town's Greeks for 1780-1840 was found (the 1782 and 1797 counts were not reached; the study of Sifneou and Harlaftis describes the Greek merchant community's economic dominance, the 'Greek Kingdom' of V. Sleptsov, not its share of the townspeople). In 1897 the whole Don Host oblast had only 2,255 speakers of Greek, at most about 4% of Taganrog. A Russian town with an influential Greek minority.",
   "lat": 47.2085,
   "lon": 38.9415
  },
  {
   "name": "Kobyakovo gorodishche",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Rostov-on-Don",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Maeotian native town of the Roman period on the Don; Greek imports only.",
   "lat": 47.2468,
   "lon": 39.8512
  },
  {
   "name": "Alopekia",
   "greek": "Ἀλωπεκία",
   "modern": "Don delta (unlocated)",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "An island with a mixed trading settlement 100 stadia from Tanais (Strabo 11.2.3); not a city.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Palaia Achaia",
   "greek": "Παλαιὰ Ἀχαΐα",
   "modern": "near Tuapse",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A place-name of the later periploi on the Achaean coast; the Achaei were a native people (the Argonaut origin in Strabo 11.2.12 is legend). No town evidence.",
   "lat": 44.0925,
   "lon": 39.0633
  },
  {
   "name": "Nikopsis",
   "greek": "Νίκοψις",
   "modern": "near Novomikhailovsky (Tuapse district) or Novy Afon (Abkhazia); disputed",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A fort and episcopal centre of Zichia (6th c. onward) whose site is disputed. A see in a Zichian (Circassian) land is not evidence of a Greek-speaking town; no Greek civic community is attested.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Mamai-Kala (Sochi)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Sochi",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A late Roman and medieval fort on the Zichian coast; no evidence of a Greek town.",
   "lat": 43.6291,
   "lon": 39.7035
  },
  {
   "name": "Hypanis (polis)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Kuban (unlocated)",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A 'polis Hypanis' named by Pliny or Ptolemy on the Kuban (unchecked); unlocated, no other evidence.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Copa (Kopa, Lo Copa)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Slavyansk-na-Kubani? (Krasnodar Krai)",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Genoese trading place on the Kuban (14th-15th c.) in Circassian land; no Greek-speaking community is attested.",
   "lat": 45.2601,
   "lon": 38.126
  },
  {
   "name": "Mapa (Anapa) under Genoa",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Anapa",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Still out. An Ottoman fortress town until 1828-29, then a Russian town; in 1926 49.6% Russian, 32.7% Ukrainian, 5.7% Greek. A small Greek minority.",
   "lat": 44.8941,
   "lon": 37.31
  },
  {
   "name": "Mavrolaco (Gelendzhik) under Genoa",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Gelendzhik",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Still out. The 1926 shares (45.4% Russian, 25.0% Ukrainian, 20.7% Greek) are given without saying whether they are by nationality or by language; the 1926 census asked both, and such town shares are usually by nationality (unchecked). Either way the Greeks were the third of three main groups and below a quarter, so the town was not a bilingual Greek-Russian town by the line. A large Pontic Greek minority.",
   "lat": 44.5682,
   "lon": 38.0237
  },
  {
   "name": "Tana (Azov)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Azov, Rostov Oblast",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "The Venetian and Genoese colony at the Don mouth (1330s-1475), refounded beside the Golden Horde town of Azak. Its people were Italians, Tatars, Alans, Russians, Armenians and others; Greeks appear among them, but only as a minority, so the town fails the language test.",
   "lat": 47.0863,
   "lon": 39.425
  },
  {
   "name": "Sarkel (Belaya Vezha)",
   "greek": "Σάρκελ",
   "modern": "under the Tsimlyansk reservoir, Rostov Oblast",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A brick fortress built for the Khazars c. 833-840 by engineers sent by the emperor Theophilos under Petronas Kamateros (Constantine Porphyrogenitus, De administrando imperio 42); a Khazar garrison town, later the Rus' Belaya Vezha (965 to the early 12th c.). Greek builders came and went; no Greek-speaking community lived there.",
   "lat": 47.7,
   "lon": 42.25
  },
  {
   "name": "Elizavetinskoe gorodishche",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Elizavetinskaya, near Krasnodar",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Maeotian native town on the Kuban (5th-3rd c. BC) with rich Greek imports; no Greek-speaking community attested.",
   "lat": 45.0456,
   "lon": 38.8046
  },
  {
   "name": "Aborake",
   "greek": "Ἀβοράκη",
   "modern": "Taman peninsula or Kuban (unlocated)",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Named by Strabo or Ptolemy among the places of Sindike (unchecked); unlocated, no evidence of a Greek town.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Portus Pisanus (Taganrog)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Taganrog",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A short-lived Pisan trading station of the 13th c. on the Taganrog cape; no Greek community.",
   "lat": 47.2085,
   "lon": 38.9415
  },
  {
   "name": "Hieros Limen (Arrian) / Nikopsis coast stations",
   "greek": "Ἱερὸς λιμήν",
   "modern": "Novorossiysk bay?",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Harbours and stations of Arrian's Periplus (AD 131) on the Zichian coast; no town or Greek community attested.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Zichia (the see of the Zichians)",
   "greek": "Ζηχία",
   "modern": "the coast from Anapa to Tuapse",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Zichia was a church province of the Zichians (Circassians) from the 6th c.; its see moved to Tamatarcha in the mid-9th c. A Greek-rite see over a Circassian people is not evidence of Greek-speaking towns on the Zichian coast; Tamatarcha itself is entered under Hermonassa.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Taganrog",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Taganrog, Rostov Oblast",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Greek settlers came from 1775 (veterans and refugees of the Russian Archipelago expedition (unchecked)); the Greek church was begun in 1781 and served in Greek and Russian; Taganrog had a Greek magistracy (unchecked); and in the 1780s-1830s its Greek merchant community (Varvakis, Alferaki and others) so dominated the town's economic and social life that the writer V. Sleptsov called it a 'Greek Kingdom' (Sifneou and Harlaftis 2012). No figure shows Greek speakers as a main part of the townspeople even then [the town's early counts were not seen], and in 1897 the whole Don Host oblast, Taganrog included, counted only 2,255 people of Greek mother tongue, so at most about 4% of Taganrog's 51,000 people spoke Greek. A Russian town with a Greek minority.",
   "lat": 47.2167,
   "lon": 38.9167
  },
  {
   "name": "Rostov-on-Don",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Rostov-on-Don",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A Russian town (fortress from 1749, town 1797) with a Greek merchant community and church; Greek speakers were a small minority (Don oblast 2,255 Greek speakers in 1897).",
   "lat": 47.2357,
   "lon": 39.7015
  },
  {
   "name": "Novorossiysk",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Novorossiysk",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Russian port town from 1838; in 1897, 931 people of Greek mother tongue (5.51%). A Greek minority town.",
   "lat": 44.7239,
   "lon": 37.7686
  },
  {
   "name": "Tuapse",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Tuapse",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "In 1897 a small town of about 1,392 people, 189 of them (13.58%) of Greek mother tongue; Russian and other languages dominated. Greek minority only.",
   "lat": 44.1,
   "lon": 39.0833
  },
  {
   "name": "Sochi",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Sochi",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "In 1897 only 26 people of Greek mother tongue in the town (1.92%); the Pontic Greek villages around Sochi and Adler are a presence point.",
   "lat": 43.5853,
   "lon": 39.7231
  },
  {
   "name": "Gelendzhik (Russian town)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Gelendzhik",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Cossack stanitsa from 1864, town from 1915; in 1926 the population was 45.4% Russian, 25.0% Ukrainian and 20.7% Greek. A large Greek minority, but not a main language of most townspeople.",
   "lat": 44.5617,
   "lon": 38.0786
  },
  {
   "name": "Anapa (Russian town)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Anapa",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Russian from 1828-29. In 1926 the town was 49.6% Russian, 32.7% Ukrainian, 5.7% Greek and 3.9% Armenian (Wikipedia, Gorgippia/Anapa). A Greek minority only.",
   "lat": 44.8941,
   "lon": 37.31
  },
  {
   "name": "Krymsk (stanitsa Krymskaya)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Krymsk",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Founded in 1858 as the Cossack fortress and stanitsa of Krymskaya; from 27 February 1930 to 1932 the first centre of the Greek national district (whose centre then moved to Nizhne-Bakanskaya). The Greeks lived mainly in the district's villages; no figure shows Greek as a main language of the stanitsa itself (unchecked). Entered as a presence point (the Greek villages of Krymsk district).",
   "lat": 44.9333,
   "lon": 38.0
  },
  {
   "name": "Yekaterinodar (Krasnodar)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Krasnodar",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Cossack capital of the Kuban from 1793; a Greek minority only.",
   "lat": 45.0355,
   "lon": 38.9753
  },
  {
   "name": "Taman (Russian stanitsa)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Taman",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Black Sea Cossack stanitsa from 1792; no Greek community. The ancient and medieval city is entered as Hermonassa.",
   "lat": 45.2167,
   "lon": 36.7167
  },
  {
   "name": "Archaeopolis (Nokalakevi, Tsikhegoji)",
   "greek": "Ἀρχαιόπολις",
   "modern": "Nokalakevi",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Still out, as a close call. Procopius calls it the first and greatest city of Lazica, but it was the Laz royal town: Greek there is attested only for the Roman garrison and the church, with no Greek-speaking townspeople. Petra stays in because it was an imperial foundation (Petra Pia Iustiniana, Novel 28 of 535) built as a city by the general John Tzibus, with Roman officials and traders and a bishop: a Roman town on Laz land, not a Laz town that became Greek. The two calls are consistent; Petra's inclusion is itself uncertain.",
   "lat": 42.3572,
   "lon": 42.1939
  },
  {
   "name": "Rhodopolis (Vardtsikhe)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Vartsikhe",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Lazic town and fort in the Rioni plain (Procopius, Wars 8.13) and a see under Phasis in the 7th-c. Notitia 1; no evidence of Greek-speaking residents beyond garrison and clergy. A Laz town with a Greek liturgy.",
   "lat": 42.1499,
   "lon": 42.7305
  },
  {
   "name": "Apsaros (Gonio)",
   "greek": "Ἄψαρος",
   "modern": "Gonio",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Roman fort of the 60s AD, rebuilt under Trajan and Hadrian, with five cohorts in Arrian's time (Periplus 6); Pliny 6.12 calls it a castellum. Procopius (Wars 8.2.14) says it had once been a populous city with a theatre and hippodrome, but excavation shows a fort with an extramural settlement and no civic institutions. Garrison town; it borders the Turkey set (Athenai, Rhizaion, Trapezus are there). In the Middle Ages Gonio (Gonia) was a fortress; whether it was held by the Empire of Trebizond is unclear (unchecked), and no Greek-speaking town community is attested there before the Ottoman conquest (1547) (unchecked).",
   "lat": 41.5733,
   "lon": 41.5737
  },
  {
   "name": "Pichvnari",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Pichvnari",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Greek settlement and Greek necropolis of the 5th-4th c. BC beside a Colchian one (east-oriented burials, Charon's obols, Chian and Attic wares): Greek residents, but no name, no civic status and no source calling it a polis. A Greek trading settlement, perhaps dependent on Phasis or Sinope. Checked again for this set: unchanged.",
   "lat": 41.8495,
   "lon": 41.7772
  },
  {
   "name": "Eshera (Esherskoye Gorodishche)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Eshera",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Fortified settlement 9 km from Sukhumi with Greek imports and fragments of a 4th-c. BC Greek decree or agreement on bronze from its largest building. It is best read as part of Dioskourias (some see it as the town's civic centre) and is counted under that entry, not as a city of its own.",
   "lat": 43.0446,
   "lon": 40.9343
  },
  {
   "name": "Vani",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Vani",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Colchian elite centre and temple-town (8th c. to mid-1st c. BC), perhaps Pliny's Surium ('Souris' on a Greek bronze inscription from the site). Greek imports, a 4th-c. BC signet ring with the Greek name Dedatos, Greek texts on bronze and Greek graffiti show that the Colchian elite used Greek, and Greek craftsmen may have worked there, but no Greek-speaking civic community is attested. Destroyed c. 150 BC and again in the mid-1st c. BC (Pharnaces II, 49 BC, or Mithridates of Pergamon, 47 BC, are suggested).",
   "lat": 42.0838,
   "lon": 42.5015
  },
  {
   "name": "Mtskheta and Armazi (Harmozike)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Mtskheta",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Royal capital of Iberia. Greek inscriptions are those of the court and of Rome: Vespasian's building inscription for King Mithridates (AD 75), the Greek-Aramaic epitaph of Serapitis (2nd c. AD), inscribed gems. Greek was the language of the court and officials only; no resident Greek-speaking community is attested.",
   "lat": 41.8388,
   "lon": 44.6748
  },
  {
   "name": "Uplistsikhe",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Rock-cut town and temple complex of Kartli; no Greek civic or resident community attested.",
   "lat": 41.9679,
   "lon": 44.1493
  },
  {
   "name": "Kotais (Kutaisi)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Kutaisi",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Lazic fort (Kotaision in Procopius and Agathias); the identification with the Kytaia of Greek myth is a legend. Not a Greek city.",
   "lat": 42.2637,
   "lon": 42.7058
  },
  {
   "name": "Sarapana (Shorapani)",
   "greek": "Σαράπανα",
   "modern": "Shorapani",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Fort at the border of Lazica and Iberia (Strabo 11.2.17; Procopius); not a city.",
   "lat": 42.1008,
   "lon": 43.0661
  },
  {
   "name": "Skandis (Skande)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Skande",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Fort at the border of Lazica and Iberia (Procopius, Wars 2.29, 8.13); not a city.",
   "lat": 42.3023,
   "lon": 43.0766
  },
  {
   "name": "Zigana (Gudava)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Gudava",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "See of Lazica (suffragan of Phasis in Notitia 1), usually placed at Gudava in the Ochamchire district (Ptolemy's Siganeon, Pleiades 857385); a church of the Apsilians and Laz with a Greek liturgy. No Greek-speaking townspeople attested.",
   "lat": 42.6313,
   "lon": 41.5048
  },
  {
   "name": "Saisina",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "See of Lazica under Phasis (Notitia 1); unlocated; no evidence of a Greek-speaking community.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Tracheia / Anakopia (New Athos)",
   "greek": "Ἀνακουπία",
   "modern": "New Athos",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Fortress of Abasgia, later a seat of the Abasgian rulers; not a Greek city. Anakopia passed to the emperors in 1033 (unchecked), and 11th-c. seals name a 'strategos of Soterioupolis and Anakopia' (Seibt and Jordanov 2006): an imperial frontier command with a garrison and officials, not a Greek-speaking town. The people were Abkhaz.",
   "lat": 43.0946,
   "lon": 40.8081
  },
  {
   "name": "Tsibilium (Tsebelda)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Tsebelda",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Mountain fortress of the Apsilians (Agathias); its rich cemeteries are native (Pleiades 857366). Not a city.",
   "lat": 43.029,
   "lon": 41.2949
  },
  {
   "name": "Bathys Limen (Batumi)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Batumi",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Harbour and Roman fort (Pliny 6.12; Arrian); Hellenistic settlement with Greek imports, but no civic status attested.",
   "lat": 41.6433,
   "lon": 41.6614
  },
  {
   "name": "Nitike / Stennitike (Gagra area)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Gagra",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A landmark and tribal name in Arrian's Periplus, not a city.",
   "lat": 43.3144,
   "lon": 40.2569
  },
  {
   "name": "Nikopsis",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Archbishopric of Zichia (Notitia 1), usually placed at the Nechepsukho mouth near Novomikhailovsky, Krasnodar Krai (an Abkhaz tradition places it at New Athos). Outside the area.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Onogouris (Saint Stephen)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Fort near Archaeopolis in the Lazic war of 541-562 (Agathias, book 3); not a city.",
   "lat": 42.31,
   "lon": 42.28
  },
  {
   "name": "Leukothea, sanctuary of Phrixos (Moschike)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Sanctuary in the Moschian mountains (Strabo 11.2.17); the founder story of Phrixos is a legend. Not a city.",
   "lat": 41.72,
   "lon": 43.17
  },
  {
   "name": "Inland towns of Colchis in Ptolemy (Mechlessos, Madia, Sarake, Surium, Zadris)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Names in Ptolemy's list of Colchis (5.10) (unchecked); unlocated (Surium is sometimes placed at Vani) and without any evidence of Greek residents or civic status.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Tsandripsh",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Tsandripsh",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Site in Abkhazia (Gantiadi) with a large 6th-c. basilica, said to have been the seat of the Sanigai princes; no Greek town or civic community is known.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Nesos, Telephis, Ukimerion and the other forts of the Lazic war",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Strongholds of Lazica fought over by Rome and Persia in 541-562 (Procopius, Wars 8; Agathias): forts, not cities, and no Greek-speaking townspeople attested.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Bichvinta (Pitsunda)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Pitsunda",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The Georgian name of Pityus; counted under Pityus, not a separate city.",
   "lat": 43.1616,
   "lon": 40.3333
  },
  {
   "name": "Sebastopolis (Sukhumi)",
   "greek": "Σεβαστόπολις",
   "modern": "Sukhumi",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Still out. The censuses agree: Greeks 14.3% in 1897 (1,143 of 7,998), 10.7% in 1926, 11.3% in 1939. The 28% for 1922 (2,490 of 8,793) comes from a community author whose source is not given; the page cited for it did not show the figure when checked. Its total is close to 1897's, while the 1926 census counted 21,568 people only four years later, so the two counts probably cover different areas. Even at 28% the Greeks would have been one of four or five groups (Russians, Georgians, Armenians, Abkhaz and others), not one of two main languages. The censuses are the more reliable.",
   "lat": 42.9983,
   "lon": 41.0112
  },
  {
   "name": "Artaxata (Artashat)",
   "greek": "Ἀρτάξατα",
   "modern": "Artashat",
   "country": "Armenia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Royal capital of Armenia founded by Artaxias I in the 180s-170s BC (Strabo 11.14.6; Plutarch, Lucullus 31, with the story of Hannibal's advice). Greek was used by the court (Greek inscriptions and coins of the Artaxiad kings), but no Greek-speaking civic community is attested. Not a Greek city.",
   "lat": 39.885,
   "lon": 44.567
  },
  {
   "name": "Armavir (Armauira)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Armavir",
   "country": "Armenia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Urartian and Orontid centre with Greek inscriptions of the 3rd-2nd c. BC on rock (verses, a calendar text) (unchecked): court and elite use of Greek, no Greek-speaking community.",
   "lat": 40.103,
   "lon": 43.987
  },
  {
   "name": "Garni",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Garni",
   "country": "Armenia",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Royal fortress with a Graeco-Roman temple and a Greek building inscription of King Tiridates (unchecked); court use of Greek, not a Greek city.",
   "lat": 40.112,
   "lon": 44.73
  },
  {
   "name": "Kabalaka (Qabala)",
   "greek": "Χαβάλα",
   "modern": "Qabala",
   "country": "Azerbaijan",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Capital of Caucasian Albania (Pliny 6.29 'Cabalaca'; Ptolemy); no Greek-speaking community attested.",
   "lat": 40.981,
   "lon": 47.845
  },
  {
   "name": "Ani",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Ani (ruins)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Armenian royal capital (Kars province); under the emperors in Constantinople 1045-1064 with an imperial governor and garrison, but its people spoke Armenian. Not a Greek city.",
   "lat": 40.5075,
   "lon": 43.5728
  },
  {
   "name": "Kars (medieval)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Kars",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Armenian (Bagratid) capital of Vanand, ceded to the emperors in 1064/1065 shortly before the Seljuk conquest (unchecked); Armenian-speaking. Not a Greek city in window A.",
   "lat": 40.6085,
   "lon": 43.0975
  },
  {
   "name": "Bourzo (Borçka)",
   "greek": "Βουρζώ",
   "modern": "Borçka",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "A",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Imperial frontier fortress on the Çoruh, seat of a 'strategos of Soterioupolis or Bourzo' in the Escorial Taktikon (970s), identified with Borçka by Oikonomides and Baumgartner: a fort and military command, not a Greek town.",
   "lat": 41.3608,
   "lon": 41.6772
  },
  {
   "name": "New Athos (Novy Afon) monastery",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "New Athos",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "B",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Monastery founded in 1875 by Russian monks of St Panteleimon on Mount Athos; Russian, not Greek-speaking. The Greek villages of the area are covered by the Abkhazia presence point.",
   "lat": 43.0906,
   "lon": 40.8139
  },
  {
   "name": "Tetritskaro",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Tetritskaro",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "B",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "District town of Kvemo Kartli with Greek villages around it, mostly Turkish-speaking (Urum): Tsintskaro was settled by Turkish-speaking Greeks in 1813 (Aklaev; 1814 in the Georgian archives); the town itself was mainly Georgian and Armenian and had only a Greek minority (unchecked). A minority-only town; the villages are presence points.",
   "lat": 41.5442,
   "lon": 44.4611
  },
  {
   "name": "Akhtala (Madan)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Akhtala",
   "country": "Armenia",
   "window": "B",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Pontic Greek miners from Gümüşhane (Argyroupolis), about 800 families by one account, came from 1763 at the invitation of King Erekle II of Kartli-Kakheti and built a silver works (1763) and copper works (1770). Greek was the language of the mining community, but Akhtala was a mine and a village (69 inhabitants in 1897, 140 in 1926; an urban-type settlement only from 1939). Presence point, not a town.",
   "lat": 41.1508,
   "lon": 44.7647
  },
  {
   "name": "Alaverdi",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Alaverdi",
   "country": "Armenia",
   "window": "B",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Copper mines worked by Greek miners from the 1760s-1770s and again under the French company from 1887; still the largest Greek community in Armenia. But Alaverdi became a town only in 1938, and its townspeople were mainly Armenian; Greeks were a minority. Presence point.",
   "lat": 41.0975,
   "lon": 44.6581
  },
  {
   "name": "Shamlugh",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Shamlugh",
   "country": "Armenia",
   "window": "B",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Copper mine and works of the Akhtala Greeks (copper works from the 1770s; worked by the Compagnie Française des Mines d'Akhtala 1887-1914). A mining settlement, recorded with the Akhtala presence point.",
   "lat": 41.1625,
   "lon": 44.7306
  },
  {
   "name": "Gadabay (Kedabek)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Gadabay",
   "country": "Azerbaijan",
   "window": "B",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Copper mine worked from 1855 by Ottoman-subject Greek entrepreneurs (with Armenians), sold to the Siemens brothers in April 1864; Greeks then worked beside Azerbaijanis, Russians, Germans and others until 1914. A mining settlement with a Greek minority, not a Greek town. Presence point.",
   "lat": 40.5656,
   "lon": 45.8161
  },
  {
   "name": "Batumi (Batum), 1878-1921",
   "greek": "Βατούμ",
   "modern": "Batumi",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "B",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Port town under Russia from 1878 with a Pontic Greek community (Greek school from 1868, Greek consulate 1908-1910, 1,660 Greeks of 14,803 inhabitants (11.2%) in 1886; about 3,500 in 1907 by a contemporary estimate, when the town had about 30,000 people), and the port through which the Greeks of the Kars oblast left in 1919-1921. Greeks were about a tenth of the town, behind Armenians, Russians and Georgians; its main languages were Georgian, Russian, Armenian and Turkish. Minority-only (window B).",
   "lat": 41.6168,
   "lon": 41.6367
  },
  {
   "name": "Sukhumi (Sukhum), 1867-1993",
   "greek": "Σουχούμ",
   "modern": "Sukhumi",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "B",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Pontic Greeks settled in and around Sukhum from 1867-1868; Greek merchants led the Sukhum Hellenic Society and built two theatres (1911-1912). By the censuses Greeks were 1,143 of 7,998 (14.3%) in 1897, 2,298 of 21,568 (10.7%) in 1926 and 4,990 of 44,299 (11.3%) in 1939, behind Russians and Georgians (a community author gives 2,490 of 8,793, about 28%, for 1922). A minority throughout; recorded as a presence point.",
   "lat": 43.0015,
   "lon": 41.0234
  },
  {
   "name": "Kars, 1878-1918",
   "greek": "Κάρς",
   "modern": "Kars",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "B",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Capital of the Russian Kars oblast. Greeks were 322 of 3,939 (8.2%) in 1886 and 733 of 20,805 (3.5%) in the 1897 census, against 10,332 Armenians and 5,478 Russians (Lynch similarly counted over 300 Greeks among about 4,000 civilians in 1893); the Greeks of the oblast lived mainly in its villages. Minority-only.",
   "lat": 40.6085,
   "lon": 43.0975
  },
  {
   "name": "Sarıkamış, 1878-1918",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Sarıkamış",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "B",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Russian garrison and railway town of the Kars oblast with a Greek community (Greeks put at 10-15% of the people of the oblast's towns), surrounded by Greek villages such as Yeniköy (Neochori). Minority-only.",
   "lat": 40.3309,
   "lon": 42.5904
  },
  {
   "name": "Ardahan, 1878-1918",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Ardahan",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "B",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Okrug town of the Kars oblast; Greeks a minority of 10-15% (as for Kars and Sarıkamış); the Greek villages lay on the Göle plateau to the south. Minority-only.",
   "lat": 41.1105,
   "lon": 42.7022
  },
  {
   "name": "Kağızman and Oltu, 1878-1918",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Kağızman; Oltu",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "B",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Okrug towns of the Kars oblast with Muslim and Armenian majorities and few Greeks (unchecked); the Orthodox villages of the Oltu okrug are a presence point.",
   "lat": 40.15,
   "lon": 43.13
  },
  {
   "name": "Artvin, 1878-1921",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Artvin",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "B",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Okrug town of the Batum oblast under Russia, mainly Armenian (largely Catholic) and Muslim Georgian; no significant Greek community found (unchecked).",
   "lat": 41.1828,
   "lon": 41.8183
  },
  {
   "name": "Stavropol",
   "greek": "Σταυρούπολις",
   "modern": "Stavropol",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "B",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Founded in 1777 as a fortress of the Azov-Mozdok line with a Greek name ('city of the cross'), but settled by Russian soldiers and Cossacks; there was no Greek-speaking population of any size. A Greek name only.",
   "lat": 45.0428,
   "lon": 41.9734
  },
  {
   "name": "Vladikavkaz",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Vladikavkaz",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "B",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Russian fortress town (1784) with a Greek community that grew with refugees from the Kars oblast after 1918 (several thousand Greeks in the late 20th c.); always a small minority. Presence point.",
   "lat": 43.0367,
   "lon": 44.6678
  },
  {
   "name": "Tbilisi (Tiflis)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Tbilisi",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "window": "B",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Capital of Georgia with a Greek community from the 19th c. (Greek consulate from 1900; about 21,700 Greeks in 1989), a small minority. Presence point.",
   "lat": 41.7151,
   "lon": 44.8271
  },
  {
   "name": "The towns of the Caucasian Mineral Waters (Yessentuki, Pyatigorsk, Kislovodsk)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Yessentuki; Pyatigorsk; Kislovodsk",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "B",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Spa towns of Stavropol krai with Greek communities that grew in the 20th c. and after 1990 with Greeks from Georgia, Abkhazia, Armenia and Kazakhstan; small minorities. Presence point.",
   "lat": 44.04,
   "lon": 42.86
  },
  {
   "name": "Chrysopolis",
   "greek": "Χρυσόπολις",
   "modern": "Üsküdar (İstanbul)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "The port and village of Chalcedon on the Bosporus (Xenophon, Hell. 1.1.22: fortified by Alcibiades as a toll station), never a polis or a medieval see. Ottoman Üsküdar was a Turkish town with Greek and Armenian quarters, part of Istanbul: a minority, and counted with Chalcedon and Constantinople.",
   "lat": 41.0206,
   "lon": 29.0129
  },
  {
   "name": "Hieron (Zeus Ourios)",
   "greek": "Ἱερόν",
   "modern": "Anadolu Kavağı / Rumeli Kavağı (İstanbul)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A sanctuary of Zeus Ourios at the Black Sea mouth of the Bosporus, with a customs post and the later Yoros castle; not a town.",
   "lat": 41.179,
   "lon": 29.094
  },
  {
   "name": "Bosporus villages (Therapeia, Mega Revma, Neochorion, Stenia and others)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Tarabya, Arnavutköy, Yeniköy, İstinye (İstanbul)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Villages and suburbs of Constantinople, Greek-speaking until the 1950s-1960s; they are part of the city and are recorded as a presence point, not as separate cities.",
   "lat": 41.13,
   "lon": 29.05
  },
  {
   "name": "Philea",
   "greek": "Φιλέα",
   "modern": "Karaburun (Arnavutköy, İstanbul)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A medieval coastal fortress near Derkos (Pleiades 'Philia'); later a Greek village. Not a city or see.",
   "lat": 41.3419,
   "lon": 28.6796
  },
  {
   "name": "Salmydessos",
   "greek": "Σαλμυδησσός",
   "modern": "Kıyıköy area (Kırklareli)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The coast of the Thracian Thynoi (Hdt. 4.93; Xen. Anab. 7.5); the town of that name is usually placed at Midye and is part of the Medea record. No Greek polis is attested for it.",
   "lat": 41.4532,
   "lon": 28.3655
  },
  {
   "name": "Thynias (Thrace)",
   "greek": "Θυνιάς",
   "modern": "İğneada (Kırklareli)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Thracian coastal place and cape of the Thynoi, near İğneada; not a Greek polis. The Ottoman-era village of İğneada is not a town.",
   "lat": 41.88,
   "lon": 27.986
  },
  {
   "name": "Kalpe",
   "greek": "Κάλπης λιμήν",
   "modern": "Kerpe (Kandıra, Kocaeli)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A harbour where Xenophon thought of founding a city (Anab. 6.4); no city was founded. A harbour only.",
   "lat": 41.1435,
   "lon": 30.1965
  },
  {
   "name": "Psillion",
   "greek": "Ψίλλιον",
   "modern": "Ağva area (Şile, İstanbul)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "An anchorage at the mouth of the Psilis river (Arrian, Periplus); not a town.",
   "lat": 41.1336,
   "lon": 29.8472
  },
  {
   "name": "Rhoe and Artane",
   "greek": "Ῥόη, Ἀρτάνη",
   "modern": "Şile coast (İstanbul)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Anchorages of the Bithynian Thracian coast (Arrian, anonymous Periplus); not towns.",
   "lat": 41.17,
   "lon": 29.6
  },
  {
   "name": "Chele / Şile",
   "greek": "Χηλή",
   "modern": "Şile (İstanbul)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A medieval fortified harbour (Chele), not a see; in Ottoman times a kaza seat whose kaza had 6,447 Greeks of 16,770 people (Ottoman census 1881/82-1893, per Wikipedia), about 38%. The town itself may have had a Greek majority, but no town-level figure was found, so it is left out as a minority case; its Greeks are a presence point.",
   "lat": 41.1757,
   "lon": 29.6125
  },
  {
   "name": "Parthenia / Bartın",
   "greek": "Παρθενία",
   "modern": "Bartın",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Parthenia is only a place near the Parthenios river mouth in antiquity; Ottoman Bartın was a Turkish town with a Greek Orthodox minority (a community head, Gavril Efendi, signed a petition in 1919: TÜBA, Local History of the National Struggle 7). A minority-only town.",
   "lat": 41.6315,
   "lon": 32.339
  },
  {
   "name": "Sandarake",
   "greek": "Σανδαράκη",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "An anchorage east of Heraclea in Arrian's Periplus (unchecked); not a town.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Thymena, Aigialos, Klimax, Timolaion",
   "greek": "Θύμηνα, Αἰγιαλός, Κλῖμαξ, Τιμολαῖον",
   "modern": "Cide-Doğanyurt coast (Kastamonu)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Villages and anchorages of the Paphlagonian coast (Arrian, anonymous Periplus, Ptolemy); none is called a city.",
   "lat": 41.95,
   "lon": 33.1
  },
  {
   "name": "Stephane / Ayancık",
   "greek": "Στεφάνη",
   "modern": "Ayancık (İstefan), Sinop",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Ancient Stephane was a harbour (Arrian; anonymous Periplus). Ottoman İstefan/Ayancık was a kaza seat; Pontic Greek-speaking Orthodox villages lay near by (Yukarıköy, 493 people in 1911), but the language and share of the town's own Orthodox are not known, so it is left out as a probable minority case.",
   "lat": 41.9523,
   "lon": 34.5396
  },
  {
   "name": "Potamoi",
   "greek": "Ποταμοί",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "An anchorage or district of the Paphlagonian coast in the periplus literature (Pleiades has only a rough point); not a city.",
   "lat": 41.5,
   "lon": 34.5
  },
  {
   "name": "Zagora",
   "greek": "Ζάγωρα",
   "modern": "Yakakent area (Samsun)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A road station or anchorage between Sinope and the Halys (Zagora/Zacoria, Barrington 87 A3); not a city.",
   "lat": 41.6777,
   "lon": 35.4111
  },
  {
   "name": "Lepte / Syrias (İnce Burun)",
   "greek": "Λεπτή ἄκρα",
   "modern": "İnce Burun (Sinop)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A cape; not a settlement.",
   "lat": 42.0968,
   "lon": 34.9452
  },
  {
   "name": "Kastamonu (Kastamon)",
   "greek": "Κασταμών",
   "modern": "Kastamonu",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A medieval fortress of the Komnenian family (retaken by John II in 1132-1133), never a see; Turkish from the later 12th c. and the Candarid capital. It had an Orthodox minority in the Ottoman period whose language was not established. Not a Greek city.",
   "lat": 41.3877,
   "lon": 33.7501
  },
  {
   "name": "Boyabat",
   "greek": "Μποϊβάτ",
   "modern": "Boyabat (Sinop)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "An Ottoman kaza seat with an Orthodox community of unknown size and language (Pontus gazetteer). A Turkish town; left out.",
   "lat": 41.4689,
   "lon": 34.7667
  },
  {
   "name": "Safranbolu (Kıranköy)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Safranbolu (Karabük)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Ottoman Safranbolu had an Orthodox quarter (Kıranköy) whose people were Turkish-speaking (unchecked); the kaza had 3,326 Greeks of 52,523 people (Ottoman census 1881/82-1893, per Wikipedia), a minority in any case; Turkish-speaking Orthodox do not make a Greek-speaking town. It may also be the site of Dadybra (see that city).",
   "lat": 41.25,
   "lon": 32.69
  },
  {
   "name": "Zonguldak",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Zonguldak",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A coal town founded in the mid-19th c.; its Christians were a minority among the miners and traders; not a Greek town.",
   "lat": 41.456,
   "lon": 31.79
  },
  {
   "name": "Sürmene (Sourmena)",
   "greek": "Σούρμενα",
   "modern": "Sürmene",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Still out. Sürmene was a kaza of the sancak of Trabzon in the 16th c. (TDV, 'Trabzon'), but no register figures for the town or the kaza were found (the TDV encyclopedia has no article on Sürmene, and its 'Trabzon' article gives figures for the city only). What describes the town shows a Christian minority: 30 Greek families in the Çarşıbaşı quarter in 1913-14, against 9,762 Greek Orthodox and 57,698 Muslims in the kaza in 1914, and the district was not overwhelmingly Greek-speaking: Romeyka is reported only in some Muslim villages round the town and at Köprübaşı. If a source showed most of the kaza's Muslims speaking Greek, as in Of, Sürmene would qualify by the same rule. A close call.",
   "lat": 40.9105,
   "lon": 40.1141
  },
  {
   "name": "Athinai (Pazar)",
   "greek": "Ἀθῆναι",
   "modern": "Pazar",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Still out. A kaza seat whose Muslims spoke Laz; 171 Greek Orthodox in a kaza of 50,496 in 1914 (about 400 in 1919, a Greek advocacy figure). Neither a Greek town nor in a Greek-speaking district.",
   "lat": 41.1802,
   "lon": 40.8866
  },
  {
   "name": "Elevi (Görele)",
   "greek": "Ἐλεβή",
   "modern": "Görele",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Still out. A kaza of the sancak of Trabzon in the 16th c. (TDV, 'Trabzon'); no register figures for the town were found (the TDV encyclopedia has no article on Görele). Later evidence shows a Christian minority: 120 Greek families in 1913-14; 1,648 Greek Orthodox and 42,823 Muslims in the kaza in 1914; no Greek-speaking Muslims are reported. Unlike Tirebolu, no register shows it as a Christian town.",
   "lat": 41.0308,
   "lon": 39.0031
  },
  {
   "name": "Bafra (Pafra)",
   "greek": "Πάφρα",
   "modern": "Bafra",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A large Orthodox community (2,822 in the town in 1911; 30,838 Greek Orthodox in the kaza in 1914), but it spoke Turkish (Greek consular census of 1911, Kitromilides & Alexandris 1984). Turkish-speaking Orthodox: does not meet the language test.",
   "lat": 41.5679,
   "lon": 35.9031
  },
  {
   "name": "Alaçam (Alatsam)",
   "greek": "Ἀλάτσαμ",
   "modern": "Alaçam",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Turkish-speaking Orthodox (1,516 in 1911, Greek consular census); does not meet the language test. Deported in June-September 1921.",
   "lat": 41.6079,
   "lon": 35.5976
  },
  {
   "name": "Çarşamba (Tsartsamba)",
   "greek": "Τσαρσαμπά",
   "modern": "Çarşamba",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Turkish-speaking Orthodox (1,273 in 1911, Greek consular census), and a minority (3,948 Greek Orthodox, 54,353 Muslims and 10,820 Armenians in the kaza in 1914). The medieval see of Limnia nearby is a separate entry.",
   "lat": 41.1989,
   "lon": 36.7219
  },
  {
   "name": "Terme",
   "greek": "Τέρμε",
   "modern": "Terme",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Turkish-speaking Orthodox and a small minority (277 in 1911, Greek consular census; 967 Greek Orthodox in the kaza in 1914). Ancient Themiskyra is a separate entry.",
   "lat": 41.2092,
   "lon": 36.9739
  },
  {
   "name": "Ordu (modern town)",
   "greek": "Κοτύωρα",
   "modern": "Ordu",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Not a separate entry: the 19th-century town is the second phase of the Cotyora entry. Its Greeks were a minority (2,626 Rum of 13,728 in the kaza centre in 1878).",
   "lat": 40.9778,
   "lon": 37.8905
  },
  {
   "name": "Çaykara (Katochor, Kadahor)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Çaykara",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "The centre of the Romeyka-speaking upper Of valley, but a village of the Of district until 1925, a bucak from 1925 and a district only from 1 June 1947 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87aykara; Küre Ansiklopedisi). Not a town before 1923. Recorded as a presence point.",
   "lat": 40.7475,
   "lon": 40.2415
  },
  {
   "name": "Tonya",
   "greek": "Τόνια",
   "modern": "Tonya",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Romeyka-speaking Muslims (Islamized by the late 17th c.), but a nahiye of the kaza of Vakfıkebir, not a town, before 1923 (unchecked). Recorded as a presence point.",
   "lat": 40.884,
   "lon": 39.2849
  },
  {
   "name": "Dernekpazarı",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Dernekpazarı",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A market village of the Of valley with Romeyka-speaking Muslims (7 of 12 villages, Mackridge 1987), not a town before 1923 (a district since 1990 (unchecked)). Recorded as a presence point.",
   "lat": 40.8,
   "lon": 40.24
  },
  {
   "name": "Vakfıkebir",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Vakfıkebir",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A kaza seat with almost no Greeks (13 Greek Orthodox in the kaza in 1914).",
   "lat": 41.046,
   "lon": 39.277
  },
  {
   "name": "Hyssou Limen (Sousourmaina, Araklı)",
   "greek": "Ὕσσου λιμήν",
   "modern": "Araklı",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Roman harbour fort (Arrian: a garrison (unchecked)) and the medieval Sousourmaina; never a polis or a see. Pleiades 857291.",
   "lat": 40.9424,
   "lon": 40.0394
  },
  {
   "name": "Hermonassa (Pontus)",
   "greek": "Ἑρμώνασσα",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Strabo 12.3.17 calls it a 'moderate settlement' (κατοικία), not a city (unchecked). Pleiades 857159.",
   "lat": 41.0342,
   "lon": 39.5534
  },
  {
   "name": "Ischopolis",
   "greek": "Ἰσχόπολις",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Strabo (12.3, p. 548) says it was in ruins; Ptolemy (5.6.5) lists it only by name and position. The -polis name is not evidence of a Greek city, and no Greek institutions or residents are attested. Pleiades 857172; https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ischopolis.",
   "lat": 40.938,
   "lon": 38.195
  },
  {
   "name": "Liviopolis",
   "greek": "Λιβιόπολις",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Named by Pliny as an oppidum (unchecked: the passage), with no evidence of civic status or of its people; probably a Roman-period place. Pleiades 857212.",
   "lat": 41.0689,
   "lon": 39.1982
  },
  {
   "name": "Kordyle",
   "greek": "Κορδύλη",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A harbour in the periploi; no civic status. Pleiades 857199.",
   "lat": 41.0816,
   "lon": 39.4967
  },
  {
   "name": "Philokaleia",
   "greek": "Φιλοκάλεια",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A harbour in Arrian's Periplus; no civic status. Pleiades 857278.",
   "lat": 41.0344,
   "lon": 38.985
  },
  {
   "name": "Koralla",
   "greek": "Κόραλλα",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A coastal place in Arrian's Periplus; no civic status. Pleiades 857196.",
   "lat": 41.0751,
   "lon": 39.1654
  },
  {
   "name": "Argyria",
   "greek": "Ἀργυρία",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A coastal place (perhaps a mining landing) in Arrian's Periplus; no civic status. Pleiades 857043.",
   "lat": 41.0056,
   "lon": 38.8699
  },
  {
   "name": "Zephyrion (Pontus)",
   "greek": "Ζεφύριον",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A cape and harbour (Ps.-Scylax 86; Arrian); no civic status. Pleiades 857383.",
   "lat": 40.9647,
   "lon": 38.6525
  },
  {
   "name": "Kissa",
   "greek": "Κίσσα",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A coastal place in the periploi in Laz country; no civic status. Pleiades 857188.",
   "lat": 41.3774,
   "lon": 41.4032
  },
  {
   "name": "Ophis (ancient)",
   "greek": "Ὄφις",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "In Arrian the river Ophis, the boundary of the Kolchoi; no ancient town. The later town of Of is a separate entry.",
   "lat": 40.938,
   "lon": 40.2643
  },
  {
   "name": "Ameletos / Camila",
   "greek": "Ἀμέλητος",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A coastal place in the periploi; no civic status. Pleiades 857020.",
   "lat": 41.1054,
   "lon": 37.3949
  },
  {
   "name": "Chadisia",
   "greek": "Χαδισία",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Called a polis of the Leukosyroi (the native 'White Syrians') by Hecataeus via Stephanus (unchecked); no evidence of Greek speakers. Pleiades 857079.",
   "lat": 41.2881,
   "lon": 36.5755
  },
  {
   "name": "Sideropolis",
   "greek": "Σιδηρόπολις",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "No such town found in Pleiades or in the periploi for this coast; not established.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Archabis (Arhavi), Hopa",
   "greek": "Ἄρχαβις",
   "modern": "Arhavi",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Roman-period harbours and forts in Laz country; the modern towns were Laz-speaking, with 44 Greek Orthodox in the kaza of Hopa in 1914.",
   "lat": 41.298,
   "lon": 41.34
  },
  {
   "name": "Tokat (Dazimon, Dokeia)",
   "greek": "Δαζιμών",
   "modern": "Tokat",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Window A: Dazimon was a medieval fortress-town of the Armeniac theme that took over from Comana; no see or civic institutions are recorded for it (Pleiades 857105). Window B: the seat of the metropolitan of Neocaesarea, but its Orthodox spoke Turkish: Ioannidis (1870) counts '400 houses of Turkophone Greeks'. A Turkish-speaking Orthodox town, so not Greek-speaking.",
   "lat": 40.3234,
   "lon": 36.5521
  },
  {
   "name": "Merzifon",
   "greek": "Μερζιφούντα",
   "modern": "Merzifon",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "The 475 Orthodox of 1911 are marked Turkish-speaking in the Greek consular census (Kitromilides & Alexandris 1984, Table VI). Not a Greek-speaking town; the Greek students of Anatolia College were mostly from elsewhere (unchecked).",
   "lat": 40.875,
   "lon": 35.4633
  },
  {
   "name": "Havza (Thermai Phazemoniton)",
   "greek": "Θερμαὶ Φαζημωνιτῶν",
   "modern": "Havza",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Ancient spa of the Phazemonitis, not a city (Pleiades 857351). The 293 Orthodox of 1911 are marked Turkish-speaking (Kitromilides & Alexandris 1984, Table VI).",
   "lat": 40.9706,
   "lon": 35.6622
  },
  {
   "name": "Mesudiye (Hamidiye, Melet)",
   "greek": "Μεσουντιέ",
   "modern": "Mesudiye",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "An Orthodox-majority kaza seat, but Turkish-speaking: c. 1,500 of c. 2,000 inhabitants were Turkish-speaking Orthodox, with only a few Greek speakers (Encyclopedia of Pontic Hellenism, via the Virtual Genocide Memorial).",
   "lat": 40.4545,
   "lon": 37.7735
  },
  {
   "name": "Erbaa (Herek)",
   "greek": "Έρμπαγα",
   "modern": "Erbaa",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Kaza seat with many Orthodox villages round it (30,000 Greeks in the kaza is a Greek advocacy figure of 1919-22); no source states the language of the town's Orthodox, and its Armenians spoke Turkish.",
   "lat": 40.6689,
   "lon": 36.5675
  },
  {
   "name": "Ardasa (Torul)",
   "greek": "Άρδασσα",
   "modern": "Torul",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A Trapezuntine castle (Ardassa, 1355) and the Ottoman kaza seat of a strongly Greek district (2,300 houses in 1857: 72% Greek, 20% crypto-Christian, 9% Muslim, acting British consul, via pontosworld), but the town itself is said to have had forty Muslim and five Christian families before the exchange (pontosworld, unsourced). Recorded as a presence point for the district's Pontic Greek villages.",
   "lat": 40.5566,
   "lon": 39.2925
  },
  {
   "name": "Şiran (Garatza)",
   "greek": "Γάρατζα",
   "modern": "Şiran",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Ottoman kaza seat near Cheriana; no evidence on the language of its own Orthodox, and some of Cheriana's Greek villages spoke Turkish by 1870 (Ioannidis). Covered by the Cheriana entry.",
   "lat": 40.19,
   "lon": 39.1236
  },
  {
   "name": "Kelkit",
   "greek": "Κελκίτ",
   "modern": "Kelkit",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Ottoman kaza seat; no source on the speech of its Orthodox was found.",
   "lat": 40.1268,
   "lon": 39.4342
  },
  {
   "name": "Bayburt (Paipert, Baiberdon)",
   "greek": "Παϊπέρτ",
   "modern": "Bayburt",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A medieval fortress (Baiberdon; Pleiades 857322 Sinoria/Baiberdon) and an Ottoman town with Armenian and Muslim people; no evidence of a Greek-speaking civic community in either window. Christians of the district left with the Russian army in 1829-30 (unchecked).",
   "lat": 40.2569,
   "lon": 40.2285
  },
  {
   "name": "Zara",
   "greek": "Ζάρα",
   "modern": "Zara",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Listed among the Orthodox places of the eparchy of Kolonia, but no figures or evidence of language for the town were found.",
   "lat": 39.8978,
   "lon": 37.7583
  },
  {
   "name": "Refahiye (Kerçenis)",
   "greek": "Ρεφαγιά",
   "modern": "Refahiye",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Orthodox villages of the district were forcibly Turkified and deported to the Sivas area in the war (Valavanis 1925); no evidence of a Greek-speaking town.",
   "lat": 39.8932,
   "lon": 38.7661
  },
  {
   "name": "Kemaliye (Eğin)",
   "greek": "Ἔγιν",
   "modern": "Kemaliye",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Its 1,400 Orthodox spoke Armenian, 'as do the villages around' (Ioannidis 1870). Not Greek-speaking.",
   "lat": 39.2621,
   "lon": 38.4963
  },
  {
   "name": "Gümüşhacıköy and Gümüş Madeni",
   "greek": "Γκιουμούς-μαντέν",
   "modern": "Gümüşhacıköy",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A silver-mining place in the metropolis of Amaseia, perhaps the 'Greek town of Metallion-Sim' of 1921, but no figures or language evidence were found; the nearby Amasya Orthodox spoke Turkish.",
   "lat": 40.8402,
   "lon": 35.1733
  },
  {
   "name": "Akdağmadeni",
   "greek": "Άκνταγ Μαντέν",
   "modern": "Akdağmadeni",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A mining town settled by Chaldian (Pontic Greek) miners from Gümüşhane, but it lies in Yozgat province, outside this set's area (central Anatolia, set 16).",
   "lat": 39.6609,
   "lon": 35.8824
  },
  {
   "name": "Euchaneia (Theodoroupolis)",
   "greek": "Εὐχάνεια",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Renamed Theodoroupolis by John I Tzimiskes in 972; unlocated, and its relation to Euchaita is unresolved (Oikonomides 1986, via en.wikipedia).",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Tzanicha (Tzantzakon)",
   "greek": "Τζάνιχα",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Medieval fortress of Chaldia near Gümüşhane (Pleiades 857365); no civic community recorded.",
   "lat": 40.5026,
   "lon": 39.4273
  },
  {
   "name": "Phiara",
   "greek": "Φίαρα",
   "modern": "Yenihan (Yıldızeli)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A place of Armenia I in the Barrington Atlas (Pleiades 629054); no evidence that it was a city or see was found (unchecked).",
   "lat": 39.8641,
   "lon": 36.5946
  },
  {
   "name": "Kainon Chorion",
   "greek": "Καινὸν χωρίον",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Mithridatic treasure fortress (Strabo 12.3.31), not a town.",
   "lat": 40.7821,
   "lon": 36.852
  },
  {
   "name": "Dasteira",
   "greek": "Δάστειρα",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Mithridatic fortress near Pompey's Nicopolis, not a town.",
   "lat": 40.1547,
   "lon": 38.1688
  },
  {
   "name": "Danae, Sauronisena, Anniaca, Speluncis and other road stations",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Road stations of the Pontic and Armenian roads in the Barrington Atlas, not towns.",
   "lat": 40.3856,
   "lon": 37.4447
  },
  {
   "name": "Gordoserba",
   "greek": "Γορδόσερβα",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A see of Bithynia under the metropolis of Nicaea (Ps.-Epiphanius c. 640; bishop Isidore at the Council in Trullo, 691-692), but its site is unknown. The proposed places (Juliopolis/Gordou Kome on the Sangarius, now in Ankara province; the Sangarius district of Gordos; Servochoria near Nicomedia) all lie outside this set's area, and the province given before (Bolu) is not supported by any of them. It cannot be put on the map.",
   "lat": 40.4,
   "lon": 30.2
  },
  {
   "name": "Nizhny Arkhyz (the see of the metropolis of Alania)",
   "greek": "Ἀλανία",
   "modern": "Nizhny Arkhyz",
   "country": "Russia",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The Zelenchuk churches at Nizhny Arkhyz (Karachay-Cherkessia) are thought to have been the cathedral of the diocese of Alania (10th-13th c.), and the site is tentatively identified as the medieval capital of Alania; the churches are tied to the mission of Patriarch Nicholas Mystikos. The Zelenchuk inscription (941 or 963) is written in Greek letters but in the Alanic (early Ossetic) language. Greek was the language of the church and its clergy, not of the townspeople. Also outside the set's area for the ancient and medieval cities (the North Caucasus republics are included only for the Pontic Greeks).",
   "lat": 43.68,
   "lon": 41.46
  },
  {
   "name": "Kamacha (Kemah), also Daranalis",
   "greek": "Κάμαχα",
   "modern": "Kemah",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A fortress-town on the upper Euphrates (Armenian Gamakh, also called Ani). It was a see of the church of Constantinople from the 7th c. (George, bishop 'of Daranalis or Camachus', at the councils of 681 and 692; bishop Sisinnius at a synod of 1029) and was made a metropolis by Leo VI with five to eight suffragans, and the emperors garrisoned it. No Greek-speaking townspeople are attested: Greek was the language of the see and the garrison in an Armenian town. Set 16 left it out for the same reason. Pleiades 874322 (Ani/Kemah) and 874445 (Daranalis).",
   "lat": 39.6028,
   "lon": 39.0356
  },
  {
   "name": "Tephrike (Divriği)",
   "greek": "Τεφρική",
   "modern": "Divriği",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The capital of the Paulician principality, taken in 878 (872 or 879 in other datings) during the eastern campaigns of Basil I and razed; its Paulicians were resettled in the Balkans or sent to fight in southern Italy. It was later an imperial frontier post (11th-c. seals of an episkeptites of Tephrike) and then the seat of the Mengücek emirs (unchecked: the emirs). Its people were Paulicians and Armenians; no Greek-speaking civic community or see with a Greek-speaking flock is attested.",
   "lat": 39.371,
   "lon": 38.114
  },
  {
   "name": "Syspiritis (İspir)",
   "greek": "Συσπιρῖτις",
   "modern": "İspir",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A district and fortress (Armenian Sper) of the Armenian and Georgian lands of Tao, later Saltukid and Ottoman; no Greek-speaking town is attested (unchecked). Pleiades 857341.",
   "lat": 40.5519,
   "lon": 41.0482
  },
  {
   "name": "Ameria (the sanctuary of Men Pharnakou)",
   "greek": "Ἀμερία",
   "modern": "Ardıçlı (formerly Agustu)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The temple estate of Men Pharnakou and Selene at Ameria near Kabeira (Strabo 12.3.31), probably set up by Pharnakes I in the 2nd c. BC; Strabo calls it a village-town with many temple slaves (unchecked: the wording). A sanctuary estate, not a city. Pleiades 857022.",
   "lat": 40.6335,
   "lon": 36.9769
  },
  {
   "name": "Palakion and the other Late Scythian towns of the Crimea (Ust-Alma, Bulganak, Kermen-Kyr)",
   "greek": "Παλάκιον",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Native fortified towns of the Late Scythian kingdom of the Crimea (2nd c. BC-3rd c. AD). Like Scythian Neapolis they have Greek imports, Greek-style buildings and a few Greek inscriptions, but no Greek-speaking civic community. Palakion (Strabo 7.4.7) was a fort named after the Scythian king Palakos; its placing at Ust-Alma is proposed (Vysotskaya 1994) but not accepted by the Barrington Atlas. Pleiades 229578.",
   "lat": 44.8438,
   "lon": 33.5887
  },
  {
   "name": "Towns known only by name from Pliny and Ptolemy (Dobruja coast: Eumenia, Parthenopolis, Gerania; between the Danube and the Dniester: Aepolium; Taurica: Hermisium, Tamyrake, Lagyra)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Names in Pliny (NH 4.44 lists Eumenia, Parthenopolis and Gerania, where the Pygmies were said to have lived, as lost towns of the Dobruja coast; NH 4.82-86 for Aepolium and Hermisium) and in Ptolemy (Tamyrake, Lagyra) (unchecked: the passages). None has a secure site or any evidence of a Greek civic community, so none can be mapped. Pleiades 222057, 222139, 216815 (Gerania, placed by the Barrington Atlas near Cape Shabla), 226510, 857707, 229593, 226674.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Heracleea (Enisala) and Stratonis (Tuzla)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Enisala; Tuzla",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Enisala is a medieval fortress (13th-14th c., Genoese or Wallachian) on Lake Razelm, sometimes linked with a Heraclea of the Dobruja coast (unchecked); Stratonis (Tuzla) a settlement of the Roman period. Neither is attested as a town with Greek civic institutions.",
   "lat": 44.885,
   "lon": 28.83
  },
  {
   "name": "The other forts and vici of Roman Scythia (Cius, Altina, Ad Stoma, Ad Salices, Aliobrix, Thalamonium, Buteridava and the villages of Histria's territory)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Gârliciu; Oltina; Sfântu Gheorghe?; Orlivka (Ukraine); Nufăru",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Forts of the Danube frontier and rural villages (vici), Latin-speaking or mixed, not Greek towns; the larger limes towns (Noviodunum, Troesmis, Dinogetia, Axiopolis, Capidava and others) are already listed as left out.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Markellai (Karnobat), Aetos (Aytos) and Provaton (Provadia)",
   "greek": "Μάρκελλαι; Ἀετός; Προβάτον",
   "modern": "Karnobat; Aytos; Provadia",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Medieval frontier fortresses between the Bulgarian state and Constantinople (Markellai: the battles of 756 and 792) (unchecked); no evidence of Greek-speaking towns at any of them.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Kavarna (Ottoman and modern town)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Kavarna",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Destroyed by the Ottomans in 1397 and rebuilt by the early 17th c. as a Christian settlement and grain port. Its Christians in 1877 were Bulgarians and Gagauz (Turkish-speaking Orthodox), who rose against the bashi-bazouks and Circassians (the Kavarna massacre). No evidence of a Greek-speaking majority was found: the same case as Balchik. The ancient city is entered as Bizone.",
   "lat": 43.4333,
   "lon": 28.3333
  },
  {
   "name": "Malko Tarnovo (Tırnovacık)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Malko Tarnovo",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The chief town of the Bulgarian Strandzha, Ottoman Tırnovacık in the Edirne vilayet: 1,200 Bulgarian Exarchist families and 80 Bulgarian Catholic families before the Balkan Wars (L. Miletich, 1918). In Bulgaria from 25 October 1913. A Bulgarian town, not a Greek one.",
   "lat": 41.979,
   "lon": 27.525
  },
  {
   "name": "Chalybia",
   "greek": "Χαλυβία",
   "modern": "Kale (Mesudiye)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Not a town of the Empire of Trebizond: Chalybia was the Greek name, in the documents of the time, of the Turkmen beylik of Hacıemir (capital at Kale near Mesudiye, Ordu), a rival of Trebizond that besieged it in 1348 and was annexed by the Ottomans in 1427.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Kenchrina, Golacha, Sorogaina and Chalaiou (castles and polichnia of Chaldia)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Castles and small fortified places (polichnia) of the Empire of Trebizond in Chaldia, with no see and no evidence of a town; set 16 left them out for the same reason, following Bryer and Winfield (1985).",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Çorum and Sungurlu (Ottoman towns)",
   "greek": "Τσορούμ; Σουγγουρλού",
   "modern": "Çorum; Sungurlu",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Ottoman kaza seats with small Orthodox communities under the metropolis of Caesarea (Sungurlu: 30 households in 1873). The language of their Orthodox is not recorded, but the Orthodox of this region were mostly Turkish-speaking. In 1917 both were places to which Greeks deported from Samsun were sent; over 500 deportees died at Sungurlu (the Austrian consul Kwiatkowski, via the Virtual Genocide Memorial). Not Greek-speaking towns. The ancient cities of the province are entered as Euchaita and Pimolisa.",
   "lat": 40.5489,
   "lon": 34.9533
  },
  {
   "name": "Kovanlık (Ekseronda?) and Ayvacık (Menağri)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Kovanlık (Bulancak, Giresun); Ayvacık (Samsun)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Orthodox villages within the kazas of Giresun and Çarşamba before 1923 (Ayvacık is today a district centre); they were not towns then, and no source on the language of their Orthodox was found. At most presence points.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Bizye (Vize), Saranta Ekklisies (Kırklareli) and the other inland towns of Eastern Thrace",
   "greek": "Βιζύη; Σαράντα Ἐκκλησίαι",
   "modern": "Vize; Kırklareli",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Outside this set's area: they lie inland, away from the Black Sea coast of Thrace (Medeia, Derkos, Philea and Thynias are covered here). Ancient and medieval Bizye belongs to set 16 (Turkey).",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Brăila and Galați",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Brăila; Galați",
   "country": "Romania",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Outside this set's area (Danube ports upstream of Tulcea county). Both had large Greek merchant communities in the 19th c., but as minorities in Romanian towns (unchecked).",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Gelonos (the Bilsk hillfort?)",
   "greek": "Γελωνός",
   "modern": "Bilsk (Poltava oblast), if the identification is right",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Herodotus (4.108) says the Geloni, who lived in the wooden city of Gelonos among the Budini, 'are by their origin Greeks, who left their trading ports to settle among the Budini' and 'speak a language half Greek and half Scythian'. The identification with the Bilsk hillfort is a hypothesis, the place is outside the set's area, and there is no evidence of Greek speech beyond Herodotus' story.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Eupatorion and Ktenous (the forts of Diophantos near Chersonesos)",
   "greek": "Εὐπατόριον; Κτενοῦς",
   "modern": "Sevastopol area",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A fort built by Mithridates' general Diophantos and a harbour inside the territory of Chersonesos (Strabo 7.4.7; the Diophantos decree, IOSPE I2 352) (unchecked); forts, not towns.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "The other cave towns of south-west Crimea (Bakla, Tepe-Kermen, Kyz-Kermen, Syuren)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "window": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Medieval fortified hill settlements of the land of Gothia whose people were Christians of the Greek rite; small fortified villages and refuges, without a see or civic status. Mangup (Doros), Eski-Kermen and Chufut-Kale are entered separately (unchecked).",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  }
 ],
 "presence_points": [
  {
   "place": "Kosti",
   "greek": "Κωστή",
   "other_names": "Kosti (Bulgarian Кости)",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "admin1": "Burgas Province",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 42.05,
   "lon": 27.78,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "old local population (Ottoman register of 1498: 22 Christian households)",
   "from": 1828,
   "until": 1914,
   "until_text": "Described as a Greek village in the Russo-Turkish war of 1828-29, with a dialect far from that of the coastal towns. It passed from the Ottoman Empire to Bulgaria in 1913, and its Greeks then moved to Greek Macedonia (Meliki, Veroia, Kerkini, Strymoniko, Agia Eleni, Mavrolefki, Langadas).",
   "fate": "Emigration to Greece after the cession of 1913; Bulgarian refugees settled in their place.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1898,
     "figure": 185,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "185 Greek and 25 Bulgarian houses (statistics of 1897-1898, cited by English Wikipedia)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosti,_Burgas_Province",
    "https://www.strandja.bg/en/info/75-Kosti-en"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Greek community of Burgas",
   "greek": "Πύργος",
   "other_names": "Burgas, Pyrgos",
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "admin1": "Burgas Province",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 42.4975,
   "lon": 27.47,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "town quarter",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "settlers from the Greek towns of the gulf (Anchialos, Sozopolis, Mesembria)",
   "from": 1829,
   "until": 1930,
   "until_text": "Greeks from Anchialos, Sozopolis and Mesembria were among the first settlers of Ottoman Burgas and dominated its grain trade in the late 19th c. They did not leave en masse after 1906, but emigrated gradually in the 1920s under the Greek-Bulgarian voluntary exchange (A. Lyberatos).",
   "fate": "Emigration to Greece in the 1920s; the rest assimilated.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1829,
     "figure": 116,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "116 Greek Orthodox houses, about 40% of the town (Russian source, Enecholm 1830, cited by A. Lyberatos)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "b118",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://cities.blacksea.gr/en/burgas/3-2-1-1/"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Greek community of Tulcea",
   "greek": "Τούλτσα",
   "other_names": "Tulcea, Tulça",
   "country": "Romania",
   "admin1": "Tulcea County",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 45.1787,
   "lon": 28.805,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "town quarter",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "merchants and seamen from the Greek lands and the Black Sea ports",
   "from": 1840,
   "until": 1960,
   "until_text": "Greek merchants, shipowners and shipbuilders (a shipyard of 1847 was Greek-owned) formed a minority in a very mixed Danube town. The community shrank in the 20th c. (unchecked: the date); a small community today has run Greek classes for children since 2000.",
   "fate": "Emigration and assimilation in the 20th c.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1878,
     "figure": 324,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "L. Dima, Istro-Pontica 2 (town of 17,518)"
    },
    {
     "year": 1907,
     "figure": 1233,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "Prefect I. C. Atanasiu's report, cited by L. Dima (another count gives 1,305)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://tulcealibrary.ro/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Istro_Pontica_2_14-Ligia-Dima-Populat%CC%A6ia-oras%CC%A6ului-Tulcea.-Un-adeva%CC%86rat-mozaic-etnic-si-cultural.pdf"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Mariupol (the Greek community of the city)",
   "greek": "Μαριούπολη",
   "other_names": "Pavlovsk (1778); Zhdanov (1948-1989)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Donetsk oblast",
   "disputed": "under Russian occupation since 2022",
   "lat": 47.0951,
   "lon": 37.5413,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "town quarter",
   "language": "mixed",
   "origin": "Crimean Christians moved by order of Catherine II in 1778, mostly Urums (Turkic-speaking) from Bakhchisaray, Mairum, Kefe, Karasubazar, Kezlev and Balaklava (Ponomaryova); Rumei (Greek-speaking) from the villages later",
   "from": 1780,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "The community continues, but its old languages have almost gone: in 2001 the city had 21,923 Greeks, of whom only 4.65% gave Greek as their mother tongue (93.7% Russian). Its size since the siege and occupation of 2022 is unknown.",
   "fate": "A Greek town by privilege 1780-1859; a Russian-speaking port with a Greek minority from the late 19th century. In 1937-1938 the NKVD's 'Greek operation' (Yezhov's directive of 11 December 1937; arrests from 15-17 December) struck the Azov Greeks: over 3,000 Greeks were shot in Donetsk oblast alone, 96-97% of those arrested (figures given to Ukrinform, 2020); the Greek national districts, schools, press and the Mariupol Greek theatre were closed in 1937-1938. The Rumeic poet Georgis Kostoprav, editor of the Greek newspaper Kolechtivistis, was shot in Mariupol on 14 February 1938. In 2022 the Greek consul general, Manolis Androulakis, the last EU diplomat in the city, left in mid-March and reached Athens on 20 March; more than 150 Greek citizens and ethnic Greeks were evacuated and at least 10 ethnic Greeks had been killed in the Mariupol area by then (Greek foreign ministry, via Reuters). The writer Natalia Harakoz, 86, died in a basement shelter in the city in May 2022 (Al Jazeera).",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1823,
     "figure": 2825,
     "basis": "count by nationality (Greeks of 3,354 townspeople)",
     "source": "Ponomaryova 2015"
    },
    {
     "year": 1897,
     "figure": 1590,
     "basis": "census by mother tongue (Greek; Turkish 922, of 31,116)",
     "source": "Ponomaryova 2015; Encyclopedia of Ukraine"
    },
    {
     "year": 1926,
     "figure": 4170,
     "basis": "census by nationality (10.1% of 41,300; figure derived)",
     "source": "Encyclopedia of Ukraine"
    },
    {
     "year": 2001,
     "figure": 21923,
     "basis": "census by nationality (4.65% of them with Greek as mother tongue, about 1,000)",
     "source": "Ukrainian census of 2001, via Wikipedia and Balabanov 2014"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "b116",
   "grade": "A",
   "sources": [
    "I. Ponomaryova, 'I Mariupoli sta teli tou 18ou kai ton 19o aiona', in Oi Ellines tis Azofikis, 18os - arches 20ou aiona (Athens, Institute for Neohellenic Research (unchecked: eds. E. Sifneos and G. Harlaftis, 2015)), ch. 13 https://argolikivivliothiki.gr/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/ce97-ce9cceb1cf81ceb9cebfcf8dcf80cebfcebbceb7-cf83cf84ceb1-cf84ceadcebbceb7-cf84cebfcf85-18cebfcf85-cebaceb1ceb9-cf84cebfcebd-19cebf-ceb1ceb9cf8ecebdceb1.pdf",
    "Encyclopedia of Ukraine, 'Mariupol' (1897 and 1926 figures) https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pages%5CM%5CA%5CMariupol.htm",
    "K. V. Balabanov, 'Etnicheskii faktor v formirovanii polikulturnogo obshchestva: opyt Priazovya' (2014), pp. 268-271 (2001 census) https://repository.mu.edu.ua/jspui/bitstream/123456789/507/1/etnich_faktor.pdf",
    "O. O. Demidko, 'Teatralne mystetstvo pivnichnopryazovskykh grekiv v istorychnii retrospektyvi', Visnyk Mariupolskoho derzhavnoho universytetu, ser. Filosofiia 8 (2014) https://repository.mu.edu.ua/jspui/bitstream/123456789/2877/1/teatralne_mystetstvo_grekiv.pdf",
    "Wikipedia, 'Georgis Kostoprav' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgis_Kostoprav",
    "Ukrinform, 'Hretska Atlantyda', 20 July 2020 https://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric-regions/3066092-grecka-atlantida.html",
    "Reuters, ''What I saw, I hope no one will ever see' says Greek diplomat returning from Mariupol', 20 March 2022 (via Arab News) https://www.arabnews.com/node/2046536/amp",
    "Al Jazeera, 'How Russia's war has harmed Ukraine's ethnic Greek minority', 19 July 2022 https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/7/19/how-russia-decimated-mariupols-greek-diaspora"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Sartana",
   "greek": "Σαρτανά",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Donetsk oblast",
   "disputed": "under Russian occupation since 2022",
   "lat": 47.17,
   "lon": 37.68,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Rumeic (Mariupol Greek)",
   "origin": "settlers from Sartana in the Crimea (135 first settlers), 1780",
   "from": 1780,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Rumeic is still spoken: the village theatre performs in the local Rumeic dialect (2020).",
   "fate": "Centre of a Greek national district in the 1920s-1938. Shelled in 2014-2015. In the air strikes of late February 2022 diaspora Greeks were killed in Sartana (Greek foreign ministry). In 1937-1938 the NKVD's 'Greek operation' (Yezhov's directive of 11 December 1937; arrests from 15-17 December) struck the Azov Greeks: over 3,000 Greeks were shot in Donetsk oblast alone, 96-97% of those arrested (figures given to Ukrinform, 2020); the Greek national districts, schools, press and the Mariupol Greek theatre were closed in 1937-1938.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 2020,
     "figure": 10500,
     "basis": "estimate (all residents; about 70% held to be descendants of the settlers)",
     "source": "Ukrinform 2020"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Ukrinform, 'Hretska Atlantyda', 20 July 2020 https://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric-regions/3066092-grecka-atlantida.html",
    "Wikipedia (ru), 'Greki Priazovya' (1778 figures; 1926 and 1989 language shares) https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Греки_Приазовья",
    "https://www.mfa.gr/missionsabroad/en/ukraine-en/news2/statement-by-the-ministry-of-foreign-affairs-regarding-the-killing-by-air-of-four-diaspora-greeks-in-the-village-of-sartana-in-eastern-ukraine-2.html"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Chermalyk",
   "greek": "Τσερμαλίκ",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Donetsk oblast",
   "disputed": "under Russian occupation since 2022",
   "lat": 47.315,
   "lon": 37.8061,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Rumeic (Mariupol Greek)",
   "origin": "Crimean Greeks, 1779",
   "from": 1779,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Rumeic is still spoken ('the Roumei village', 2020). Occupied since 2022 (unchecked).",
   "fate": "In 1937-1938 the NKVD 'Greek operation' (Yezhov's directive no. 50215 of 11 December 1937) struck the Azov Greeks: about 5,000 Greeks arrested and over 3,000 shot in Donetsk oblast (Ukrinform 2020); up to 6,500 arrested in Stalino oblast, 96% of them shot (D. Lubinets, Ukraine's human-rights commissioner, 2020); Greek schools, the Greek theatre of Mariupol (1932-1937) and the Greek press were closed.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 2001,
     "figure": 1908,
     "basis": "census by mother tongue",
     "source": "Ukrainian census of 2001: total population, not Greek speakers (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chermalyk)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chermalyk",
    "Lechner, 'Greeks keep their languages, culture alive in Ukraine', Kyiv Post, 12 May 2020 https://archive.kyivpost.com/article/opinion/op-ed/john-lechner-greeks-keep-their-languages-culture-alive-in-ukraine.html",
    "Kisilier, 'O proiskhozhdenii rumeiskogo yazyka' https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/o-proishozhdenii-rumeyskogo-yazyka/pdf"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Staryi Krym",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Esky Krym",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Donetsk oblast",
   "disputed": "under Russian occupation since 2022",
   "lat": 47.16,
   "lon": 37.5,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Urum (Turkish)",
   "origin": "settlers from Eski Kırım (Staryi Krym) in the Crimea, 1780",
   "from": 1780,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "An Urum (Turkic-speaking) village of the Oghuz dialect group (Ponomaryova 2014); Baranova's fieldwork on the Turkic-speaking Greeks was done there (about 6,500 residents, 2000s). In four Urum villages surveyed (Manhush, Staryi Krym, Staromlynivka, Hranitne) 72% called themselves Greeks, 19% Urums and 9% 'Greek Tatars' (Ponomaryova 2014).",
   "fate": "In 1937-1938 the NKVD's 'Greek operation' (Yezhov's directive of 11 December 1937; arrests from 15-17 December) struck the Azov Greeks: over 3,000 Greeks were shot in Donetsk oblast alone, 96-97% of those arrested (figures given to Ukrinform, 2020); the Greek national districts, schools, press and the Mariupol Greek theatre were closed in 1937-1938.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 2007,
     "figure": 6500,
     "basis": "estimate (all residents)",
     "source": "Baranova 2007"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "I. Ponomaryova, 'The Urums of the North Azov Sea region', Visnyk Mariupolskoho derzhavnoho universytetu 10 (2014) 30-37 https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-urums-of-the-north-azov-sea-region",
    "V. V. Baranova, 'Tyurkoyazychnye greki Priazovya: yazyk i samosoznanie', Etnograficheskoe obozrenie 2007/3, 157-161 https://eo.iea.ras.ru/wp-content/uploads/2007/03/eoarchive_baranova_-2007_3.pdf"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Yalta (Donetsk oblast)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Donetsk oblast",
   "disputed": "under Russian occupation since 2022",
   "lat": 46.96,
   "lon": 37.27,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Rumeic (Mariupol Greek)",
   "origin": "settlers from Yalta in the Crimea, 1780",
   "from": 1780,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "A Rumeic-speaking village: Rumeic songs were recorded there in 1971 (Kisilier); speech today not checked (unchecked).",
   "fate": "In 1937-1938 the NKVD 'Greek operation' (Yezhov's directive no. 50215 of 11 December 1937) struck the Azov Greeks: about 5,000 Greeks arrested and over 3,000 shot in Donetsk oblast (Ukrinform 2020); up to 6,500 arrested in Stalino oblast, 96% of them shot (D. Lubinets, Ukraine's human-rights commissioner, 2020); Greek schools, the Greek theatre of Mariupol (1932-1937) and the Greek press were closed.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Ukrinform, 'Hretska Atlantyda', 20 July 2020 https://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric-regions/3066092-grecka-atlantida.html",
    "Kisilier, 'O proiskhozhdenii rumeiskogo yazyka' https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/o-proishozhdenii-rumeyskogo-yazyka/pdf"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Urzuf",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Primorskoe (Soviet name)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Donetsk oblast",
   "disputed": "under Russian occupation since 2022",
   "lat": 46.9,
   "lon": 37.12,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Rumeic (Mariupol Greek)",
   "origin": "settlers from Gurzuf in the Crimea, 1780",
   "from": 1780,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "A Rumeic-speaking village (unchecked); Ivanova (1976) cites it for the Greek dialects.",
   "fate": "In 1937-1938 the NKVD 'Greek operation' (Yezhov's directive no. 50215 of 11 December 1937) struck the Azov Greeks: about 5,000 Greeks arrested and over 3,000 shot in Donetsk oblast (Ukrinform 2020); up to 6,500 arrested in Stalino oblast, 96% of them shot (D. Lubinets, Ukraine's human-rights commissioner, 2020); Greek schools, the Greek theatre of Mariupol (1932-1937) and the Greek press were closed.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Ivanova, Sovetskaya Etnografiya 1976/2, 43-48 https://eo.iea.ras.ru/wp-content/uploads/1976/02/eoarchive_1976_2_043_ivanova.pdf",
    "Ukrinform, 'Hretska Atlantyda', 20 July 2020 https://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric-regions/3066092-grecka-atlantida.html"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Manhush",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Mangush; Pershotravneve (1946-2016)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Donetsk oblast",
   "disputed": "under Russian occupation since 2022",
   "lat": 47.05,
   "lon": 37.3,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Urum (Turkish)",
   "origin": "settlers from Mangush near Bakhchisaray in the Crimea, 1780",
   "from": 1780,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "An Urum (Turkic-speaking) village (Kipchak-Polovtsian dialect); in a survey of 2001-2007 few residents still spoke Urum.",
   "fate": "In 1937-1938 the NKVD 'Greek operation' (Yezhov's directive no. 50215 of 11 December 1937) struck the Azov Greeks: about 5,000 Greeks arrested and over 3,000 shot in Donetsk oblast (Ukrinform 2020); up to 6,500 arrested in Stalino oblast, 96% of them shot (D. Lubinets, Ukraine's human-rights commissioner, 2020); Greek schools, the Greek theatre of Mariupol (1932-1937) and the Greek press were closed.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Ponomaryova, 'The Urums of the North Azov Sea region', Visnyk Mariupolskoho derzhavnoho universytetu 10 (2014) 30-37 https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-urums-of-the-north-azov-sea-region"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Velyka Novosilka",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Velykyi Yanisol (Bolshoi Yanisol)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Donetsk oblast",
   "disputed": "under Russian occupation since January 2025",
   "lat": 47.8383,
   "lon": 36.835,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "mixed",
   "origin": "Crimean Greeks from Yanisal, Salgir-Yenisal, Ayan and Ozenbash, 1779",
   "from": 1779,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Settled by Greek-speaking people from Yanisol (Bolshoi Yanisal) and Tatar-speaking people from Ozenbash and other Crimean villages; in 2001 only 0.85% of its people gave Greek (Rumeic or Urum) as their mother tongue.",
   "fate": "Captured by Russian forces in late January 2025 (fully by 28 January). In 1937-1938 the NKVD 'Greek operation' (Yezhov's directive no. 50215 of 11 December 1937) struck the Azov Greeks: about 5,000 Greeks arrested and over 3,000 shot in Donetsk oblast (Ukrinform 2020); up to 6,500 arrested in Stalino oblast, 96% of them shot (D. Lubinets, Ukraine's human-rights commissioner, 2020); Greek schools, the Greek theatre of Mariupol (1932-1937) and the Greek press were closed.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 2001,
     "figure": null,
     "basis": "census by mother tongue",
     "source": "0.85% Greek (including Rumeic and Urum), Russian 81.80%, Ukrainian 17.08% (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velyka_Novosilka)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velyka_Novosilka",
    "Ponomaryova, 'The Urums of the North Azov Sea region', Visnyk Mariupolskoho derzhavnoho universytetu 10 (2014) 30-37 https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-urums-of-the-north-azov-sea-region"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Staromlynivka",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Staryi Kermenchyk (to 1946)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Donetsk oblast",
   "disputed": "under Russian occupation since 2022",
   "lat": 47.6975,
   "lon": 36.8256,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Urum (Turkish)",
   "origin": "Crimean Greeks from Kermenchik, 1779",
   "from": 1779,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "An Urum (Turkic-speaking) village (Kipchak-Oghuz dialect); in 2001 only 0.8% gave Greek (Rumeic or Urum) as their mother tongue.",
   "fate": "Centre of a Greek raion 1923-1959; captured by Russian forces on 13 March 2022. In 1937-1938 the NKVD 'Greek operation' (Yezhov's directive no. 50215 of 11 December 1937) struck the Azov Greeks: about 5,000 Greeks arrested and over 3,000 shot in Donetsk oblast (Ukrinform 2020); up to 6,500 arrested in Stalino oblast, 96% of them shot (D. Lubinets, Ukraine's human-rights commissioner, 2020); Greek schools, the Greek theatre of Mariupol (1932-1937) and the Greek press were closed.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 2001,
     "figure": null,
     "basis": "census by mother tongue",
     "source": "0.8% Greek (including Rumeic and Urum), Russian 82.12% (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staromlynivka)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staromlynivka",
    "Ponomaryova, 'The Urums of the North Azov Sea region', Visnyk Mariupolskoho derzhavnoho universytetu 10 (2014) 30-37 https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-urums-of-the-north-azov-sea-region"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Starobesheve",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Beshevo",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Donetsk oblast",
   "disputed": "held by Russian-backed forces since 2014; under Russian occupation since 2022",
   "lat": 47.7532,
   "lon": 38.0316,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Urum (Turkish)",
   "origin": "settlers from Beshevo in the Crimea, 1779",
   "from": 1779,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "An Urum (Turkic-speaking) village (Kipchak-Polovtsian dialect).",
   "fate": "In 1937-1938 the NKVD 'Greek operation' (Yezhov's directive no. 50215 of 11 December 1937) struck the Azov Greeks: about 5,000 Greeks arrested and over 3,000 shot in Donetsk oblast (Ukrinform 2020); up to 6,500 arrested in Stalino oblast, 96% of them shot (D. Lubinets, Ukraine's human-rights commissioner, 2020); Greek schools, the Greek theatre of Mariupol (1932-1937) and the Greek press were closed.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starobesheve",
    "Ponomaryova, 'The Urums of the North Azov Sea region', Visnyk Mariupolskoho derzhavnoho universytetu 10 (2014) 30-37 https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-urums-of-the-north-azov-sea-region"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Hranitne",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Staryi Karan",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Donetsk oblast",
   "disputed": "under Russian occupation since 2022",
   "lat": 47.55,
   "lon": 37.8,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Urum (Turkish)",
   "origin": "settlers from Karan near Balaklava in the Crimea, 1780 (Ukrinform)",
   "from": 1780,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "An Urum (Turkic-speaking) village of the Oghuz-Kipchak dialect group (Ponomaryova 2014); renamed after its granite quarry.",
   "fate": "In February 2022 the Greek foreign ministry said two diaspora Greeks had been killed in Hranitne by Ukrainian soldiers (as summarised in Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Ukraine'). Occupied since 2022 (unchecked). In 1937-1938 the NKVD's 'Greek operation' (Yezhov's directive of 11 December 1937; arrests from 15-17 December) struck the Azov Greeks: over 3,000 Greeks were shot in Donetsk oblast alone, 96-97% of those arrested (figures given to Ukrinform, 2020); the Greek national districts, schools, press and the Mariupol Greek theatre were closed in 1937-1938.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "I. Ponomaryova, 'The Urums of the North Azov Sea region', Visnyk Mariupolskoho derzhavnoho universytetu 10 (2014) 30-37 https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-urums-of-the-north-azov-sea-region",
    "Ukrinform, 'Hretska Atlantyda', 20 July 2020 https://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric-regions/3066092-grecka-atlantida.html",
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Ukraine' (2022 incidents, as summarised there) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Ukraine"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Starohnativka",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Staraya Ignatievka",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Donetsk oblast",
   "disputed": "under Russian occupation since 2022",
   "lat": 47.6,
   "lon": 37.7,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Urum (Turkish)",
   "origin": "Crimean Greeks, 1780",
   "from": 1780,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "An Urum (Turkic-speaking) village (Oghuz-Kipchak dialect). Occupied since 2022 (unchecked).",
   "fate": "In 1937-1938 the NKVD 'Greek operation' (Yezhov's directive no. 50215 of 11 December 1937) struck the Azov Greeks: about 5,000 Greeks arrested and over 3,000 shot in Donetsk oblast (Ukrinform 2020); up to 6,500 arrested in Stalino oblast, 96% of them shot (D. Lubinets, Ukraine's human-rights commissioner, 2020); Greek schools, the Greek theatre of Mariupol (1932-1937) and the Greek press were closed.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Ponomaryova, 'The Urums of the North Azov Sea region', Visnyk Mariupolskoho derzhavnoho universytetu 10 (2014) 30-37 https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-urums-of-the-north-azov-sea-region",
    "Ukrinform, 'Hretska Atlantyda', 20 July 2020 https://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric-regions/3066092-grecka-atlantida.html"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Komar, Bohatyr and Ulakly",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Donetsk oblast",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 47.88,
   "lon": 36.95,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Urum (Turkish)",
   "origin": "Crimean Greeks, 1780",
   "from": 1780,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Urum (Turkic-speaking) villages north of Velyka Novosilka (Bohatyr and Ulakly Kipchak-Oghuz, Komar Oghuz-Kipchak); located only roughly; control since 2022 not checked.",
   "fate": "In 1937-1938 the NKVD 'Greek operation' (Yezhov's directive no. 50215 of 11 December 1937) struck the Azov Greeks: about 5,000 Greeks arrested and over 3,000 shot in Donetsk oblast (Ukrinform 2020); up to 6,500 arrested in Stalino oblast, 96% of them shot (D. Lubinets, Ukraine's human-rights commissioner, 2020); Greek schools, the Greek theatre of Mariupol (1932-1937) and the Greek press were closed.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Ponomaryova, 'The Urums of the North Azov Sea region', Visnyk Mariupolskoho derzhavnoho universytetu 10 (2014) 30-37 https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-urums-of-the-north-azov-sea-region"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Starolaspa",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Laspi",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Donetsk oblast",
   "disputed": "held by Russian-backed forces since 2014; under Russian occupation since 2022",
   "lat": 47.68,
   "lon": 38.0,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Urum (Turkish)",
   "origin": "settlers from Laspi in the Crimea, 1780",
   "from": 1780,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "An Urum (Turkic-speaking) village (Oghuz-Kipchak dialect). Held by Russian-backed forces since 2014 (unchecked).",
   "fate": "In 1937-1938 the NKVD 'Greek operation' (Yezhov's directive no. 50215 of 11 December 1937) struck the Azov Greeks: about 5,000 Greeks arrested and over 3,000 shot in Donetsk oblast (Ukrinform 2020); up to 6,500 arrested in Stalino oblast, 96% of them shot (D. Lubinets, Ukraine's human-rights commissioner, 2020); Greek schools, the Greek theatre of Mariupol (1932-1937) and the Greek press were closed.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Ponomaryova, 'The Urums of the North Azov Sea region', Visnyk Mariupolskoho derzhavnoho universytetu 10 (2014) 30-37 https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-urums-of-the-north-azov-sea-region"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Bugas (Buhas)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Donetsk oblast",
   "disputed": "under Russian occupation since 2022",
   "lat": 47.62,
   "lon": 37.55,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Rumeic (Mariupol Greek)",
   "origin": "Crimean Greeks, 1780",
   "from": 1780,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "A Rumeic-speaking village (unchecked). Occupied since 2022 (unchecked).",
   "fate": "In 1937-1938 the NKVD 'Greek operation' (Yezhov's directive no. 50215 of 11 December 1937) struck the Azov Greeks: about 5,000 Greeks arrested and over 3,000 shot in Donetsk oblast (Ukrinform 2020); up to 6,500 arrested in Stalino oblast, 96% of them shot (D. Lubinets, Ukraine's human-rights commissioner, 2020); Greek schools, the Greek theatre of Mariupol (1932-1937) and the Greek press were closed.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": []
  },
  {
   "place": "Anadol",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Donetsk oblast",
   "disputed": "under Russian occupation since 2022",
   "lat": 47.6,
   "lon": 37.45,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "settlers from the Pontus, 1826",
   "from": 1826,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "The one village of Pontic Greek speakers among the Azov Greeks, settled from the Pontus in 1826. Occupied since 2022 (unchecked).",
   "fate": "In 1937-1938 the NKVD 'Greek operation' (Yezhov's directive no. 50215 of 11 December 1937) struck the Azov Greeks: about 5,000 Greeks arrested and over 3,000 shot in Donetsk oblast (Ukrinform 2020); up to 6,500 arrested in Stalino oblast, 96% of them shot (D. Lubinets, Ukraine's human-rights commissioner, 2020); Greek schools, the Greek theatre of Mariupol (1932-1937) and the Greek press were closed.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariupolitan_Greek_language"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Odesa (the Greek community)",
   "greek": "Ὀδησσός",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Odesa oblast",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 46.4825,
   "lon": 30.7233,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "town quarter",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "Greek merchants, sailors and refugees (among them refugees from the Chios massacre of 1822), from 1794",
   "from": 1794,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "A Greek merchant community from the city's founding; the Filiki Eteria was founded here in 1814; 5,086 Greek speakers in 1897. A Greek community still exists, but continuity of Greek speech in it has not been checked.",
   "fate": "Hit by the NKVD 'Greek operation' of 1937-1938 (unchecked); emigration to Greece after 1990 (unchecked).",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1897,
     "figure": 5086,
     "basis": "census by mother tongue",
     "source": "Russian census of 1897 (1.26% of 403,815), via https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odesa"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odesa",
    "Encyclopedia of Ukraine, 'Greeks' https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pages%5CG%5CR%5CGreeks.htm"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Greek villages of the south coast before 1778",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Yalta, Gurzuf, Partenit, Lambat, Alushta, Kuchuk-Lambat, Derekoy, Mukhalatka and others",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Autonomous Republic of Crimea",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "lat": 44.6,
   "lon": 34.25,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "The medieval Greek-speaking Orthodox of the south coast (Gothia and the Genoese 'Captainate of Gothia')",
   "from": null,
   "until": 1778,
   "until_text": "The Orthodox villagers left for the Azov in 1778.",
   "fate": "Removed to the north coast of the Sea of Azov in 1778 by order of Catherine II, organised by Suvorov; several of their villages near Mariupol carry the Crimean names (Yalta, Urzuf) and speak Rumeic (Mariupol Greek) (unchecked).",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1778,
     "figure": 240,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "Suvorov's returns, as summarised in Wikipedia (Yalta only)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eviction_of_Christians_from_the_Crimea_(1778)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Christian quarter of Bakhchysarai and the Uspensky monastery (Mariam-dere)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Mariampol (the Greek settlement at the monastery) (unchecked)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Autonomous Republic of Crimea",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "lat": 44.742,
   "lon": 33.893,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "town quarter",
   "language": "mixed",
   "origin": "Orthodox townspeople of the khans' capital; the seat of the metropolitans of Gothia and Kefe",
   "from": null,
   "until": 1778,
   "until_text": "Metropolitan Ignatius and the community left in 1778.",
   "fate": "Removed to the Azov in 1778; most were probably Tatar-speaking (Urum) (unchecked).",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1778,
     "figure": 1619,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "Suvorov's returns, as summarised in Wikipedia"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eviction_of_Christians_from_the_Crimea_(1778)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Greeks of Karasubazar before 1778",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Autonomous Republic of Crimea",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "lat": 45.057,
   "lon": 34.602,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "town quarter",
   "language": "Urum (Turkish)",
   "origin": "Orthodox townspeople of a Tatar trading town",
   "from": null,
   "until": 1778,
   "until_text": "Removed in 1778.",
   "fate": "Removed to the Azov in 1778; language probably Tatar (Urum) (unchecked).",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1778,
     "figure": 1004,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "Suvorov's returns, as summarised in Wikipedia"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eviction_of_Christians_from_the_Crimea_(1778)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Laki",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Goryanka (1948)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Autonomous Republic of Crimea",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "lat": 44.627,
   "lon": 33.922,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "A medieval Orthodox village of Theodoro; resettled after 1778 by Greek officers of Stefan Mavromichalis's detachment brought by Count A. Orlov",
   "from": null,
   "until": 1944,
   "until_text": "Burned by the German occupiers in 1942 for helping the partisans; its Greeks were deported on 27 June 1944; the village disappeared from the register in 1960.",
   "fate": "Burned in 1942 (16 civilians shot); deported 27 June 1944; renamed Goryanka in 1948 and abandoned by 1960.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1778,
     "figure": 412,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "voicecrimea.com.ua (removal of 1778)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "https://culture.voicecrimea.com.ua/en/445-meters-above-the-level-of-loneliness/"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Greek battalion villages between Balaklava and Yalta",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Kadykovka, Kamary, Karan and other villages (unchecked)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Sevastopol",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "lat": 44.49,
   "lon": 33.65,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "Families of the Greek (Balaklava) battalion: Archipelago Greeks and Albanians, settled 1784 in Balaklava and seven villages between Balaklava and Yalta",
   "from": 1784,
   "until": 1944,
   "until_text": "Deported on 27 June 1944.",
   "fate": "Deported by the NKVD on 27 June 1944.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1904,
     "figure": 1707,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "76.2% of 2,240 in Balaklava with Kadykovka (Inslav volume, 2013)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://inslav.ru/sites/default/files/editions/2013_greki_balaklavy_i_sevastopolja.pdf",
    "https://eo.iea.ras.ru/wp-content/uploads/1948/02/eoarchive_1948_2_156_derzhavin.pdf"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Greek community of Sevastopol",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Sevastopol",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "lat": 44.616,
   "lon": 33.525,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "town quarter",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "Greek officers, sailors and merchants of the Black Sea fleet's base, with the Balaklava Greeks",
   "from": 1783,
   "until": 1944,
   "until_text": "Deported on 27 June 1944.",
   "fate": "Deported by the NKVD on 27 June 1944.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1921,
     "figure": null,
     "basis": "census by mother tongue",
     "source": "2.3% of the Sevastopol city area (Inslav volume, 2013); absolute figure not given"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "b030",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://inslav.ru/sites/default/files/editions/2013_greki_balaklavy_i_sevastopolja.pdf"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Greeks of Kerch and Yenikale (Archipelago settlers)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Autonomous Republic of Crimea",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "lat": 45.36,
   "lon": 36.5,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "town quarter",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "Greeks of the Archipelago and the Morea who had fought for Russia in 1768-1774, settled in 1775 (some formed the Greek battalion stationed there until 1783)",
   "from": 1775,
   "until": 1944,
   "until_text": "Deported on 27 June 1944.",
   "fate": "Deported by the NKVD on 27 June 1944.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1926,
     "figure": 1202,
     "basis": "census by mother tongue",
     "source": "Encyclopedia of Ukraine, Kerch (1926: Greeks 3.5%)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "b020",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/pages%5CK%5CE%5CKerch.htm",
    "https://inslav.ru/sites/default/files/editions/2013_greki_balaklavy_i_sevastopolja.pdf"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Taganrog: the Greek community",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Russia",
   "admin1": "Rostov Oblast",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 47.2167,
   "lon": 38.9167,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "town quarter",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "Greek veterans and refugees of the Russian Archipelago expedition (1770-1774), settled at Taganrog from 1775-1776, later merchants from the islands and the Peloponnese (unchecked)",
   "from": 1775,
   "until": 1938,
   "until_text": "Greek-speaking settlers and merchants from 1775 (unchecked); the Greek church (begun 1781) held services in Greek and Russian and kept a parish school from 1862; by 1897 the whole Don Host oblast counted only 2,255 people of Greek mother tongue, so most Taganrog Greeks had shifted to Russian. The church was closed by the Soviet authorities in 1938 and demolished soon after; a Greek-descended community lives on in the town.",
   "fate": "Gradual shift to Russian through the 19th c.; the Greek magistracy (from the 1780s (unchecked)) was abolished in the 19th c. (unchecked). 1937-38: arrests in the NKVD's national operations, which took in the Soviet Greeks from December 1937; 29 May 1942: 1,402 Greeks (562 of them children under 16) deported from Krasnodar Krai on Stalin's order; 1944: a further 8,300 Greeks deported from Krasnodar Krai and Rostov Oblast together (GKO decree 5984ss of 2 June 1944 and follow-up orders, carried out under I. Serov); June 1949: 4,396 Greeks deported from Krasnodar Krai to Kazakhstan in Operation Volna (USSR Council of Ministers decree 2214-856ss of 29 May 1949, against Greek and Turkish citizens and former Greek citizens); restrictions lifted by MVD order 0402 of 25 September 1956; large emigration to Greece after 1990. Figures from Wikipedia, 'Deportation of the Soviet Greeks', which draws on Soviet archival publications.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1897,
     "figure": 2255,
     "basis": "census by mother tongue",
     "source": "1897 census, Don Host oblast total (Taganrog city figure not seen), via Wikipedia 'Don Host Oblast'"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, Don Host Oblast, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Host_Oblast",
    "Wikipedia, Greek Church and Greek School (Taganrog), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Church_and_Greek_School_(Taganrog)",
    "E. Sifneou and G. Harlaftis, The Greek merchant community of Taganrog, 1780s-1830s (2012), https://helios.eie.gr/helios/handle/10442/15016",
    "Wikipedia, Deportation of the Soviet Greeks, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Soviet_Greeks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Novorossiysk: the Greek community",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Russia",
   "admin1": "Krasnodar Krai",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 44.7239,
   "lon": 37.7686,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "town quarter",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greek settlers from the Ottoman Empire (the Trebizond area) from the 1860s-1870s (unchecked)",
   "from": 1865,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "A Greek community still lives in the town, much reduced by the deportations of 1942-1949 and by emigration after 1990; how many still speak Pontic Greek is not known.",
   "fate": "1937-38: arrests in the NKVD's national operations, which took in the Soviet Greeks from December 1937; 29 May 1942: 1,402 Greeks (562 of them children under 16) deported from Krasnodar Krai on Stalin's order; 1944: a further 8,300 Greeks deported from Krasnodar Krai and Rostov Oblast together (GKO decree 5984ss of 2 June 1944 and follow-up orders, carried out under I. Serov); June 1949: 4,396 Greeks deported from Krasnodar Krai to Kazakhstan in Operation Volna (USSR Council of Ministers decree 2214-856ss of 29 May 1949, against Greek and Turkish citizens and former Greek citizens); restrictions lifted by MVD order 0402 of 25 September 1956; large emigration to Greece after 1990. Figures from Wikipedia, 'Deportation of the Soviet Greeks', which draws on Soviet archival publications.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1897,
     "figure": 931,
     "basis": "census by mother tongue",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Black Sea Governorate (1897 census tables), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_Governorate (5.51% of the town)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, Black Sea Governorate (1897 census tables), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_Governorate",
    "Wikipedia, Deportation of the Soviet Greeks, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Soviet_Greeks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Tuapse: the Greek community",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Russia",
   "admin1": "Krasnodar Krai",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 44.1,
   "lon": 39.0833,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "town quarter",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greek settlers from the Ottoman Empire, late 19th c. (unchecked)",
   "from": 1870,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Greek speakers were 13.6% of the small town in 1897; a reduced community survives.",
   "fate": "1937-38: arrests in the NKVD's national operations, which took in the Soviet Greeks from December 1937; 29 May 1942: 1,402 Greeks (562 of them children under 16) deported from Krasnodar Krai on Stalin's order; 1944: a further 8,300 Greeks deported from Krasnodar Krai and Rostov Oblast together (GKO decree 5984ss of 2 June 1944 and follow-up orders, carried out under I. Serov); June 1949: 4,396 Greeks deported from Krasnodar Krai to Kazakhstan in Operation Volna (USSR Council of Ministers decree 2214-856ss of 29 May 1949, against Greek and Turkish citizens and former Greek citizens); restrictions lifted by MVD order 0402 of 25 September 1956; large emigration to Greece after 1990. Figures from Wikipedia, 'Deportation of the Soviet Greeks', which draws on Soviet archival publications.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1897,
     "figure": 189,
     "basis": "census by mother tongue",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Black Sea Governorate (1897 census tables), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_Governorate (13.58% of 1,392)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, Black Sea Governorate (1897 census tables), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_Governorate",
    "Wikipedia, Deportation of the Soviet Greeks, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Soviet_Greeks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Gelendzhik: the Greek community",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Russia",
   "admin1": "Krasnodar Krai",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 44.5617,
   "lon": 38.0786,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "town quarter",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greek settlers from the Ottoman Empire, late 19th c. (unchecked)",
   "from": 1870,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "20.7% of the population was Greek in 1926; a reduced community survives.",
   "fate": "1937-38: arrests in the NKVD's national operations, which took in the Soviet Greeks from December 1937; 29 May 1942: 1,402 Greeks (562 of them children under 16) deported from Krasnodar Krai on Stalin's order; 1944: a further 8,300 Greeks deported from Krasnodar Krai and Rostov Oblast together (GKO decree 5984ss of 2 June 1944 and follow-up orders, carried out under I. Serov); June 1949: 4,396 Greeks deported from Krasnodar Krai to Kazakhstan in Operation Volna (USSR Council of Ministers decree 2214-856ss of 29 May 1949, against Greek and Turkish citizens and former Greek citizens); restrictions lifted by MVD order 0402 of 25 September 1956; large emigration to Greece after 1990. Figures from Wikipedia, 'Deportation of the Soviet Greeks', which draws on Soviet archival publications.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1926,
     "figure": null,
     "basis": "census (nationality)",
     "source": "Soviet census of 1926 via Wikipedia 'Gelendzhik': 20.7% Greek, 45.4% Russian, 25.0% Ukrainian (absolute figure not given)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, Gelendzhik, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gelendzhik",
    "Wikipedia, Deportation of the Soviet Greeks, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Soviet_Greeks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Greek villages of the Black Sea Governorate (Novorossiysk, Tuapse and Sochi districts)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Russia",
   "admin1": "Krasnodar Krai",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 44.45,
   "lon": 38.4,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greek settlers from the Ottoman Empire (mostly the Trebizond and Gümüşhane areas) after the Circassian expulsion of 1864, in several waves to the 1910s, with refugees from the Pontus during and after the deportations of 1916-1923 (unchecked)",
   "from": 1865,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Rural Pontic Greek villages along the coast and in the valleys behind it; the deportations of 1942-1949 and emigration after 1990 emptied many of them, but Greek communities remain. The villages are not located one by one here.",
   "fate": "1937-38: arrests in the NKVD's national operations, which took in the Soviet Greeks from December 1937; 29 May 1942: 1,402 Greeks (562 of them children under 16) deported from Krasnodar Krai on Stalin's order; 1944: a further 8,300 Greeks deported from Krasnodar Krai and Rostov Oblast together (GKO decree 5984ss of 2 June 1944 and follow-up orders, carried out under I. Serov); June 1949: 4,396 Greeks deported from Krasnodar Krai to Kazakhstan in Operation Volna (USSR Council of Ministers decree 2214-856ss of 29 May 1949, against Greek and Turkish citizens and former Greek citizens); restrictions lifted by MVD order 0402 of 25 September 1956; large emigration to Greece after 1990. Figures from Wikipedia, 'Deportation of the Soviet Greeks', which draws on Soviet archival publications.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1897,
     "figure": 5969,
     "basis": "census by mother tongue",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Black Sea Governorate (1897 census tables), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_Governorate (10.38% of the governorate; of these 931 in Novorossiysk, 189 in Tuapse and 26 in Sochi, leaving about 4,800 in the villages)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, Black Sea Governorate (1897 census tables), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_Governorate",
    "Wikipedia, Deportation of the Soviet Greeks, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Soviet_Greeks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Krasnaya Polyana and the Greek villages of Sochi and Adler",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Romanovsk (Krasnaya Polyana, c. 1898-1920s) (unchecked)",
   "country": "Russia",
   "admin1": "Krasnodar Krai",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 43.6789,
   "lon": 40.2056,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greek settlers from the Ottoman Empire (by 1878) (unchecked: the origin)",
   "from": 1878,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Greeks settled at Krasnaya Polyana by 1878, when they founded its parish; mass expulsions of Greeks from Sochi in 1949; a Greek community survives (the church of St Charalambos was rebuilt 1992-2003).",
   "fate": "1937-38: arrests in the NKVD's national operations, which took in the Soviet Greeks from December 1937; 29 May 1942: 1,402 Greeks (562 of them children under 16) deported from Krasnodar Krai on Stalin's order; 1944: a further 8,300 Greeks deported from Krasnodar Krai and Rostov Oblast together (GKO decree 5984ss of 2 June 1944 and follow-up orders, carried out under I. Serov); June 1949: 4,396 Greeks deported from Krasnodar Krai to Kazakhstan in Operation Volna (USSR Council of Ministers decree 2214-856ss of 29 May 1949, against Greek and Turkish citizens and former Greek citizens); restrictions lifted by MVD order 0402 of 25 September 1956; large emigration to Greece after 1990. Figures from Wikipedia, 'Deportation of the Soviet Greeks', which draws on Soviet archival publications.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1897,
     "figure": 26,
     "basis": "census by mother tongue",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Black Sea Governorate (1897 census tables), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Sea_Governorate (Sochi town only, 1.92%)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Tonkosti.ru, Храм Св. Харлампия в Красной Поляне, https://tonkosti.ru/Храм_Св._Харлампия_в_Красной_Поляне",
    "Vokrug Sveta, Потомки эллинов, https://www.vokrugsveta.ru/vs/potomki-ellinov-id580650/",
    "Wikipedia, Deportation of the Soviet Greeks, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Soviet_Greeks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Krymsk district: the Greek villages and the Greek national district",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "stanitsa Krymskaya",
   "country": "Russia",
   "admin1": "Krasnodar Krai",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 44.93,
   "lon": 38.0,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greek settlers from the Ottoman Empire, late 19th and early 20th c. (unchecked)",
   "from": 1870,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Pontic Greek villages around Krymskaya. The Greek national district ('Greek Autonomous District') was set up by the Azov-Black Sea krai executive on 27 February 1930, with its centre first at Krymskaya and from 1932 at Nizhne-Bakanskaya; it was abolished and renamed Krymsky District in 1938 (or on 6 March 1939; the sources differ), at the end of the first wave of repression against the Soviet Greeks. Greeks still live in the district.",
   "fate": "1937-38: arrests in the NKVD's national operations, which took in the Soviet Greeks from December 1937; 29 May 1942: 1,402 Greeks (562 of them children under 16) deported from Krasnodar Krai on Stalin's order; 1944: a further 8,300 Greeks deported from Krasnodar Krai and Rostov Oblast together (GKO decree 5984ss of 2 June 1944 and follow-up orders, carried out under I. Serov); June 1949: 4,396 Greeks deported from Krasnodar Krai to Kazakhstan in Operation Volna (USSR Council of Ministers decree 2214-856ss of 29 May 1949, against Greek and Turkish citizens and former Greek citizens); restrictions lifted by MVD order 0402 of 25 September 1956; large emigration to Greece after 1990. Figures from Wikipedia, 'Deportation of the Soviet Greeks', which draws on Soviet archival publications.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, Greek Autonomous District, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Autonomous_District",
    "Wikipedia, Krymsk, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krymsk",
    "Wikipedia, Greeks in Russia, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Russia",
    "Wikipedia, Deportation of the Soviet Greeks, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Soviet_Greeks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Anapa and its villages: the Greek community",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Russia",
   "admin1": "Krasnodar Krai",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 44.8941,
   "lon": 37.31,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greek settlers from the Ottoman Empire (unchecked)",
   "from": 1870,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "A Greek community in Anapa and nearby villages from the late 19th c. (unchecked); reduced by the deportations of 1942-1949; a community remains.",
   "fate": "1937-38: arrests in the NKVD's national operations, which took in the Soviet Greeks from December 1937; 29 May 1942: 1,402 Greeks (562 of them children under 16) deported from Krasnodar Krai on Stalin's order; 1944: a further 8,300 Greeks deported from Krasnodar Krai and Rostov Oblast together (GKO decree 5984ss of 2 June 1944 and follow-up orders, carried out under I. Serov); June 1949: 4,396 Greeks deported from Krasnodar Krai to Kazakhstan in Operation Volna (USSR Council of Ministers decree 2214-856ss of 29 May 1949, against Greek and Turkish citizens and former Greek citizens); restrictions lifted by MVD order 0402 of 25 September 1956; large emigration to Greece after 1990. Figures from Wikipedia, 'Deportation of the Soviet Greeks', which draws on Soviet archival publications.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1926,
     "figure": null,
     "basis": "census (nationality)",
     "source": "Soviet census of 1926 via Wikipedia 'Gorgippia': 5.7% Greek in Anapa town (absolute figure not given)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "b038",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, Gorgippia (Anapa), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorgippia",
    "Wikipedia, Deportation of the Soviet Greeks, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Soviet_Greeks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Sameba (Santa), Tsalka municipality",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Santa (the Pontic village founded in 1832; the identification with Sameba is probable, not confirmed)",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "admin1": "Kvemo Kartli",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.5997,
   "lon": 44.0058,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "The first Greek-speaking settlers came to Tsalka in 1830-1831 and founded Santa in 1832 (Aklaev), from a village of the same name in the Trebizond vilayet (Wikipedia)",
   "from": 1832,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Still inhabited, with a small Greek remnant (72% of 236 people in 2002; 693 people in 2014, most of them newcomers).",
   "fate": "In Aklaev's survey (1980s) 93.5% and 80.6% of white- and blue-collar respondents in the Greek-speaking villages (Santa and Neon Kharaba) spoke Greek freely, and most also spoke Turkish. Shrank by emigration to Greece and Russia after 1989.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 2002,
     "figure": 236,
     "basis": "census (total; 72% Greek)",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Sameba, Georgia"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "A",
   "sources": [
    "A. R. Aklaev, survey of the Greeks of Tsalka district, Sovetskaya etnografiya 1988/5, 60-71 (pp. 61-65) https://eo.iea.ras.ru/wp-content/uploads/1988/05/eoarchive_1988_5_060_aklaev.pdf",
    "Wikipedia, 'Sameba, Georgia' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sameba,_Georgia",
    "Wikipedia, 'Tsalka language' (after Eloeva 2002, Popov 2016, Sideri 2017) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsalka_language"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Pontic Greek villages of Trialeti (Gyumbat, Garson, Neon Kharaba)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "admin1": "Kvemo Kartli",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.6,
   "lon": 44.05,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greeks, 1854-1855 (Aklaev)",
   "from": 1854,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Pontic Greeks settled in Trialeti in 1854-1855 (Aklaev); over 80% of the villagers surveyed in Neon Kharaba in the 1980s spoke Greek freely. Probably emptied by emigration after 1990 (unchecked); the villages were not located one by one.",
   "fate": "Emigration to Greece and Russia after 1989 (unchecked).",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "A",
   "sources": [
    "A. R. Aklaev, survey of the Greeks of Tsalka district, Sovetskaya etnografiya 1988/5, 60-71 (pp. 61-65) https://eo.iea.ras.ru/wp-content/uploads/1988/05/eoarchive_1988_5_060_aklaev.pdf"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Urum villages of the Tsalka plateau",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Tsalka district (Trialeti); among them Beshtasheni and Imera; the town of Tsalka (formerly Barmaksyz) is a city record",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "admin1": "Kvemo Kartli",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.6,
   "lon": 44.09,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Urum (Turkish)",
   "origin": "Orthodox Greeks from Gümüşhane and Maden (May 1830), Başköy in the Erzurum vilayet (July 1830) and other sancaks of Erzurum, who followed the Russian army after the war of 1828-1829 (18 villages with 642 families by the end of 1831; Eloeva 2002; '7,000 Greeks from Turkey' founding 18 villages in Trialeti in 1830, Janova and Kukchishvili 2017)",
   "from": 1830,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "A small, mostly elderly Greek remnant (Greeks about 7% of the municipality in 2014 and 6.9% in 2021).",
   "fate": "In Aklaev's survey no one in the Urum villages spoke Greek freely (17-24% 'with difficulty'); Georgia's national Greek schools (36 in 1926/27) were closed in the late 1930s. After 1989 most emigrated to Greece (Thessaloniki, Greek Macedonia) and southern Russia (Stavropol and Krasnodar, the Caucasian Mineral Waters); Georgians from Svaneti and Adjara were settled in the district in 1997-2006.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1831,
     "figure": 642,
     "basis": "families (settler lists)",
     "source": "Eloeva 2002, via Wikipedia, Tsalka language"
    },
    {
     "year": 1926,
     "figure": 20000,
     "basis": "estimate: of 24,000 Greeks of Tiflis and its area, 20,000 Turkish-speaking",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Urums"
    },
    {
     "year": 1979,
     "figure": 30800,
     "basis": "Soviet census (Greeks, 62.5% of 49,300 in Tsalka district; 24 of its 39 villages Greek)",
     "source": "Aklaev 1988"
    },
    {
     "year": 2002,
     "figure": 4589,
     "basis": "Georgian census (Greeks of Tsalka district, of 20,888)",
     "source": "Akopyan and Ermakov"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "b117",
   "grade": "A",
   "sources": [
    "A. R. Aklaev, survey of the Greeks of Tsalka district, Sovetskaya etnografiya 1988/5, 60-71 (pp. 61-65) https://eo.iea.ras.ru/wp-content/uploads/1988/05/eoarchive_1988_5_060_aklaev.pdf",
    "Wikipedia, 'Tsalka language' (after Eloeva 2002, Popov 2016, Sideri 2017) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsalka_language",
    "G. Janova and M. Kukchishvili, 'Greeks in South Georgia and their dialect', in Les langues et leurs territoires: entre conflit et cohabitation (Human Sciences Monograph Series 19, 2017), 494-511 https://www.erudit.org/fr/livres/serie-monographique-en-sciences-humaines/les-langues-et-leurs-territoires-entre-conflit-et-cohabitation/5420co.pdf",
    "Wikipedia, 'Urums' (1926: 24,000 Greeks of Tiflis and its area, 20,000 of them Turkish-speaking) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urums",
    "V. Z. Akopyan and V. P. Ermakov, 'Rol pravoslavnoi tserkvi v etnogeneze subetnicheskoi gruppy grekov-urumov', Pyatigorsk State University (2002 census: 4,589 Greeks in Tsalka district) https://roii.ru/dialogue/66/roii-dialogue-66_21.pdf",
    "Wikipedia, 'Tsalka Municipality' (census figures for the town and municipality, 1923-2021) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsalka_Municipality",
    "Wikipedia, 'Tsalka' (eco-migrants 1997-2006; 2014 ethnic shares) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsalka"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Urum villages of Dmanisi district",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "admin1": "Kvemo Kartli",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.33,
   "lon": 44.2,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Urum (Turkish)",
   "origin": "Greeks from north-western vilayets of Erzurum who renamed the villages after their old homes (1830s)",
   "from": 1830,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "A few elderly Greeks remain (unchecked)",
   "fate": "Emigration to Greece and Russia after 1990.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "'The Greeks of Georgia: migration and socioeconomic problems', cyberleninka.ru, https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-greeks-of-georgia-migration-and-socioeconomic-problems",
    "Georgian Encyclopedia, 'Greeks in Georgia', https://georgianencyclopedia.ge/en/form_eng/474"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Tsintskaro (Tetritskaro municipality)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "admin1": "Kvemo Kartli",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.5,
   "lon": 44.5,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Urum (Turkish)",
   "origin": "Turkish-speaking Greeks from Anatolia, 1813 (Aklaev; 1814 in the Georgian archives, Badashvili)",
   "from": 1813,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "An Urum (Turkish-speaking) Greek village; the Turkish-speaking Greeks of the Tsalka plateau are partly descended from its settlers of 1813 (Aklaev). A few elderly Greek residents remain (unchecked).",
   "fate": "Emigration after 1989 (unchecked).",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "A. R. Aklaev, survey of the Greeks of Tsalka district, Sovetskaya etnografiya 1988/5, 60-71 (pp. 61-65) https://eo.iea.ras.ru/wp-content/uploads/1988/05/eoarchive_1988_5_060_aklaev.pdf",
    "N. Badashvili, Greeks in Georgia (2nd half of the 19th c. - beginning of the 20th c.), National Archives of Georgia, Tbilisi 2023 https://archive.gov.ge/storage/files/doc/berdznebi_sakartveloshi_small_arasabechdi_versia.pdf"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Pontic Greek villages of Tetritskaro district (Praga, Ivanovka)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "admin1": "Kvemo Kartli",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.55,
   "lon": 44.4,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greeks, 1854-1855 (Aklaev)",
   "from": 1854,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Pontic Greeks settled at Praga and Ivanovka in Tetritskaro district in 1854-1855 (Aklaev). Present state not checked (unchecked).",
   "fate": "Emigration after 1989 (unchecked).",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "A. R. Aklaev, survey of the Greeks of Tsalka district, Sovetskaya etnografiya 1988/5, 60-71 (pp. 61-65) https://eo.iea.ras.ru/wp-content/uploads/1988/05/eoarchive_1988_5_060_aklaev.pdf"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Tsikhisjvari (Borjomi municipality)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "admin1": "Samtskhe-Javakheti",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.73,
   "lon": 43.28,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "unknown",
   "origin": "Part of about 200 Greek families settled in Tsikhisjvari and Mikeltsminda in the 1830s",
   "from": 1830,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Small remnant (unchecked)",
   "fate": "Emigration after 1990 (unchecked).",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "'The Greeks of Georgia: migration and socioeconomic problems', cyberleninka.ru, https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-greeks-of-georgia-migration-and-socioeconomic-problems"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Mikeltsminda (Akhaltsikhe municipality)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "admin1": "Samtskhe-Javakheti",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.63,
   "lon": 43.05,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "unknown",
   "origin": "Part of about 200 Greek families settled in Tsikhisjvari and Mikeltsminda in the 1830s",
   "from": 1830,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Small remnant (unchecked)",
   "fate": "Emigration after 1990 (unchecked).",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "'The Greeks of Georgia: migration and socioeconomic problems', cyberleninka.ru, https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-greeks-of-georgia-migration-and-socioeconomic-problems"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Greek villages of Marneuli district",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "admin1": "Kvemo Kartli",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.4,
   "lon": 44.8,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "unknown",
   "origin": "Descendants of the Greek miners of Akhtala and Alaverdi (from 1763); the start date is an estimate (unchecked)",
   "from": 1800,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Few left after the 1990s",
   "fate": "Most emigrated to Greece, above all Thessaloniki, in the mid-1990s.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Caucasus Greeks' (Mikhailidis and Athanasiadis; Koromela; Xanthopoulou-Kyriakou), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus_Greeks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Tbilisi (Tiflis) Greek community",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "admin1": "Tbilisi",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.7151,
   "lon": 44.8271,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "town quarter",
   "language": "mixed",
   "origin": "Greek merchants and craftsmen from the 19th c. (start date an estimate), later Greeks from Tsalka, Abkhazia and Adjara",
   "from": 1800,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Still present: 3,792 Greeks in 2002; seat of the Union of Greeks in Georgia",
   "fate": "Greek consulate from 1900; mass emigration to Greece and Russia after 1989.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1989,
     "figure": 21670,
     "basis": "derived from the census share (21.6% of Georgia's 100,324 Greeks)",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Greeks in Georgia"
    },
    {
     "year": 2002,
     "figure": 3792,
     "basis": "Georgian census",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Greeks in Georgia"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Georgia', https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Georgia",
    "N. Badashvili, Greeks in Georgia (2nd half of the 19th c. - beginning of the 20th c.), National Archives of Georgia, Tbilisi 2023, https://archive.gov.ge/storage/files/doc/berdznebi_sakartveloshi_small_arasabechdi_versia.pdf"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Batumi Greek community",
   "greek": "Βατούμ",
   "other_names": "Batum",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "admin1": "Adjara",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.6168,
   "lon": 41.6367,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "town quarter",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Greek traders before 1878 (Greek school from 1868); Pontic Greeks from 1878-1881; refugees from Kars in 1920",
   "from": 1868,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "A small community remains (587 Greeks in 2002, 289 in 2014)",
   "fate": "Greek consulate 1908-1910; in 1919-1921 the port of departure for about 53,000 Greeks from the Kars oblast and elsewhere; emigration in the 1920s-30s, deportations of 1949 (unchecked) and emigration after 1990.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1886,
     "figure": 1660,
     "basis": "family lists (11.2% of 14,803)",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Batumi"
    },
    {
     "year": 1907,
     "figure": 3500,
     "basis": "contemporary estimate (Georgian archives)",
     "source": "Badashvili 2023"
    },
    {
     "year": 2002,
     "figure": 587,
     "basis": "Georgian census",
     "source": "ru.wikipedia, Batumi"
    },
    {
     "year": 2014,
     "figure": 289,
     "basis": "Georgian census",
     "source": "ru.wikipedia, Batumi"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "N. Badashvili, Greeks in Georgia (2nd half of the 19th c. - beginning of the 20th c.), National Archives of Georgia, Tbilisi 2023, https://archive.gov.ge/storage/files/doc/berdznebi_sakartveloshi_small_arasabechdi_versia.pdf",
    "S. Topalidis, 'A Brief History of Kars in North-East Turkiye', Pontos World (Lynch 1901; Lazaridis 1988; Sagir 2021; Pratsinakis; Vergeti), https://mail.pontosworld.com/index.php/history/sam-topalidis/943-a-brief-history-of-kars",
    "Wikipedia, 'Batumi' (1886 table), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batumi",
    "Wikipedia (ru), 'Batumi', https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Батуми"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Dagva (Kobuleti municipality)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "admin1": "Adjara",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.8,
   "lon": 41.83,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greeks after the war of 1877-1878 (from 1881)",
   "from": 1881,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Small remnant (unchecked)",
   "fate": "Emigration after 1990 (unchecked).",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "'The Greeks of Georgia: migration and socioeconomic problems', cyberleninka.ru, https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-greeks-of-georgia-migration-and-socioeconomic-problems"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Sukhumi Greek community",
   "greek": "Σουχούμ",
   "other_names": "Sukhum",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "admin1": "Abkhazia",
   "disputed": "outside the Georgian government's control since 1993; recognised as independent by Russia and a few states; regarded as part of Georgia by most states",
   "lat": 43.0015,
   "lon": 41.0234,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "town quarter",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greeks from the Trebizond vilayet from 1867-1868",
   "from": 1867,
   "until": 1993,
   "until_text": "Most of the remaining Greeks were evacuated by Greece in August 1993; a few hundred remain",
   "fate": "Sukhum Hellenic Society and two theatres funded by Greek merchants (Samuridi, Aloizi), 1911-1912; Greek pedagogical college, newspaper and theatre closed in 1938; deportation of June 1949; evacuation by the Greek state ('Operation Golden Fleece', 15-18 Aug 1993, 1,013 people by ship to Alexandroupolis) during the war of 1992-1993.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1897,
     "figure": 1143,
     "basis": "Russian census (14.3% of 7,998)",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Sukhumi"
    },
    {
     "year": 1922,
     "figure": 2490,
     "basis": "count of 30 Nov 1922 (of 8,793 inhabitants), as given by a community author",
     "source": "Kesanidis"
    },
    {
     "year": 1926,
     "figure": 2298,
     "basis": "Soviet census (10.7% of 21,568)",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Sukhumi"
    },
    {
     "year": 1939,
     "figure": 4990,
     "basis": "Soviet census (11.3% of 44,299)",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Sukhumi"
    },
    {
     "year": 1959,
     "figure": 3141,
     "basis": "Soviet census (4.9%)",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Sukhumi"
    },
    {
     "year": 1979,
     "figure": 7069,
     "basis": "Soviet census (6.5%)",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Sukhumi"
    },
    {
     "year": 2011,
     "figure": 645,
     "basis": "census of the de facto authorities (1.0%)",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Sukhumi"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "b041",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Sukhumi' (census table), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukhumi",
    "Kh. Kesanidis, 'Repression of Greeks in Abkhazia' (community author), https://abkhazworld.substack.com/p/repression-of-greeks-in-abkhazia",
    "Great Russian Encyclopedia, 'Sukhum', https://bigenc.ru/c/sukhum-764a21",
    "Wikipedia, 'Operation Golden Fleece', https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Golden_Fleece"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Greek villages of Abkhazia",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Sukhumi, Gulripshi, Gudauta, Gagra and Ochamchire districts",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "admin1": "Abkhazia",
   "disputed": "outside the Georgian government's control since 1993; recognised as independent by Russia and a few states; regarded as part of Georgia by most states",
   "lat": 43.0,
   "lon": 41.1,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greeks from the Ottoman Empire, the first village (Pervinka) founded in 1868; settlement continued to 1921",
   "from": 1868,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "About 1,380 Greeks in all Abkhazia in 2011 (de facto census)",
   "fate": "Greek schools, newspaper and theatre closed in 1938; in 1937-1938 2,184 people were arrested and 786 shot in Abkhazia, mostly Abkhaz and Greeks (figure of a community author); in mid-June 1949 (the villages surrounded at night; 14-19 June per Ionidi) the Greeks were deported to South Kazakhstan and Dzhambul: 4,474 families or 21,837 Greeks from Abkhazia (Gegia 2020; Ionidi gives about 27,000 people of all groups, Pachulia 28,289), under Politburo protocol 69 of 17 May 1949 and MGB order 00525 of 2 June 1949; restrictions lifted on 27 March 1956 and some returned; nearly all left during and after the war of 1992-1993.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1886,
     "figure": 2149,
     "basis": "family lists",
     "source": "WP Demographics of Abkhazia"
    },
    {
     "year": 1897,
     "figure": 5393,
     "basis": "Russian census",
     "source": "WP Demographics of Abkhazia"
    },
    {
     "year": 1926,
     "figure": 14045,
     "basis": "Soviet census",
     "source": "WP Demographics of Abkhazia"
    },
    {
     "year": 1939,
     "figure": 34621,
     "basis": "Soviet census (11.1% of Abkhazia)",
     "source": "WP Demographics of Abkhazia"
    },
    {
     "year": 1959,
     "figure": 9101,
     "basis": "Soviet census",
     "source": "WP Demographics of Abkhazia"
    },
    {
     "year": 1989,
     "figure": 14664,
     "basis": "Soviet census",
     "source": "WP Demographics of Abkhazia"
    },
    {
     "year": 1949,
     "figure": 21837,
     "basis": "deported Greeks (4,474 families), MGB figures",
     "source": "Gegia 2020"
    },
    {
     "year": 2011,
     "figure": 1380,
     "basis": "census of the de facto authorities",
     "source": "WP Demographics of Abkhazia"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Demographics of Abkhazia' (census table 1886-2011), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Abkhazia",
    "G. Gvantseladze, 'The Presence of Greeks and the Greek Language in the Abkhazian ASSR (20th-30th c.)' (2022), https://yearbook.openjournals.ge/index.php/kly/article/view/6972",
    "Kh. Kesanidis, 'Repression of Greeks in Abkhazia' (community author), https://abkhazworld.substack.com/p/repression-of-greeks-in-abkhazia",
    "E. G. Gegia, Caucasian Science Bridge 3.3 (2020) 10-17, citing N. N. Ionidi, 1949 (Sukhum 2006), https://csb.sfedu.ru/index.php/csbjournal/article/download/42/49/87",
    "deportation.org.ua, 'Deportations of Pontian Greeks in 1949' (Politburo protocol 69 of 17 May 1949; MGB order 00525 of 2 June 1949), https://deportation.org.ua/deportations-of-pontian-greeks-in-1949/",
    "Wikipedia, 'Operation Golden Fleece', https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Golden_Fleece"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Shroma (Mikhailovka, Kuma)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Mikhailovka; Kuma",
   "country": "Georgia",
   "admin1": "Abkhazia",
   "disputed": "outside the Georgian government's control since 1993; recognised as independent by Russia and a few states; regarded as part of Georgia by most states",
   "lat": 43.07,
   "lon": 41.12,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greek settlers, later 19th c.; the year is an estimate (unchecked)",
   "from": 1870,
   "until": 1993,
   "until_text": "Abandoned by its Greeks by 1993 (unchecked)",
   "fate": "Deportation of 1949 and the war of 1992-1993 (unchecked).",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Kh. Kesanidis, 'Repression of Greeks in Abkhazia' (community author), https://abkhazworld.substack.com/p/repression-of-greeks-in-abkhazia"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Akhtala (Madan) mines",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Armenia",
   "admin1": "Lori",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.1508,
   "lon": 44.7647,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "mining settlement",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Miners from Gümüşhane (Argyroupolis), about 800 families by one account, invited by King Erekle II of Kartli-Kakheti (1763)",
   "from": 1763,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "A few Greek families remain in the Akhtala area",
   "fate": "Silver works 1763, copper works 1770 (Akhtala, then Shamlugh); the mines passed to the Compagnie Française des Mines d'Akhtala (1887-1914). Most descendants emigrated to Greece in the 1990s.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1897,
     "figure": 69,
     "basis": "Russian census (total population of Akhtala)",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Akhtala"
    },
    {
     "year": 1926,
     "figure": 140,
     "basis": "Soviet census (total)",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Akhtala"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Akhtala', https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akhtala",
    "Hetq, on the Greeks of Madan and Akhtala, https://hetq.am/en/article/20180",
    "Wikipedia, 'Caucasus Greeks' (Mikhailidis and Athanasiadis; Koromela; Xanthopoulou-Kyriakou), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus_Greeks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Madan (Lori)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Armenia",
   "admin1": "Lori",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.11,
   "lon": 44.68,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Descendants of the Akhtala and Alaverdi miners (Greek miners in the area from 1763; the village's own foundation date is not established)",
   "from": 1763,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "24 Greeks, mostly elderly, at the time of the report",
   "fate": "Greek school (now ruined) and church; emigration to Greece from 1992.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1990,
     "figure": 800,
     "basis": "estimate (village 'exclusively' Greek)",
     "source": "Hetq"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Hetq, on the Greeks of Madan and Akhtala, https://hetq.am/en/article/20180"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Alaverdi Greek community",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Armenia",
   "admin1": "Lori",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.0975,
   "lon": 44.6581,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "mining settlement",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Greek miners of the Akhtala works (1760s-1770s); later miners under the French company (1887)",
   "from": 1770,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Still the largest Greek community in Armenia, much reduced",
   "fate": "Emigration to Greece and Russia after 1990.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Armenia' (census table), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Armenia",
    "Hetq, on the Greeks of Madan and Akhtala, https://hetq.am/en/article/20180"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Yaghdan",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Armenia",
   "admin1": "Lori",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.0,
   "lon": 44.6,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greeks; foundation date not established (19th c.?) (unchecked)",
   "from": 1800,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Described as the last remaining Greek village in Armenia",
   "fate": "Emigration after 1990.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Armenia' (census table), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Armenia"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Hankavan",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Armenia",
   "admin1": "Kotayk",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.63,
   "lon": 44.48,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greek miners; date of settlement not established (19th c.?) (unchecked)",
   "from": 1850,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "A Greek church; a small community (unchecked)",
   "fate": "Emigration after 1990.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Armenia' (census table), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Armenia"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Gadabay (Kedabek) copper mines",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Kedabek",
   "country": "Azerbaijan",
   "admin1": "Gadabay",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.5656,
   "lon": 45.8161,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "mining settlement",
   "language": "unknown",
   "origin": "Ottoman-subject Greek mining entrepreneurs (permission from Viceroy N. N. Muravyov, 1855); Greek workers under Siemens",
   "from": 1855,
   "until": 1914,
   "until_text": "The Siemens works closed at the beginning of the First World War; nationalised 1920",
   "fate": "The Greek owners sold the deposit to the Siemens brothers in April 1864; Greeks worked there beside Azerbaijanis, Russians, Germans and others until 1914.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "'The Siemens' Gadabay possession in Transcaucasia', Caucasus History journal, https://caucasushistory.ru/2618-6772/article/download/1771/1648",
    "Wikipedia, 'Siemens brothers copper-smelting plant', https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siemens_brothers_copper-smelting_plant"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Mehmana (Karabakh)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Mekhmana",
   "country": "Azerbaijan",
   "admin1": "Karabakh (Aghdara district)",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.07,
   "lon": 46.43,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "mining settlement",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Miners from Argyroupolis (Gümüşhane), 1820s",
   "from": 1820,
   "until": 1992,
   "until_text": "About 10 Greeks found there in 2015",
   "fate": "Said to have been purely Greek until the fighting of 1992; most moved to Greece (Florina). The account comes from one visitor (S. Kalenteridis) and needs checking.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Greek City Times, 8 Oct 2020 (after S. Kalenteridis, Sputnik Hellas), https://greekcitytimes.com/2020/10/08/unknown-village-artsakh-greeks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Greek villages of the Kars oblast",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Kars; Ardahan",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.6,
   "lon": 42.9,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greeks from Gümüşhane, Trabzon, Erzurum and Nicopolis, and Greeks from Georgia, settled after the Russian annexation (1878)",
   "from": 1878,
   "until": 1921,
   "until_text": "The Kars oblast was returned to the Ottomans by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (3 March 1918); about 50,000 Greeks fled when the Ottoman army took Kars in April 1918 (some 10,000 believed to have died: Petsalis-Diomidis); the rest left during the Armenian-Turkish fighting of 1919-1920, most through Batumi, where the Greek government evacuated about 53,000 people in May 1920 - February 1921 (three quarters from Kars and Ardahan); the Treaty of Kars (13 October 1921) left the area to Turkey (unchecked). They were settled in Greek Macedonia (Kilkis, the mountain villages of Drama and elsewhere)",
   "fate": "About 76-77 villages; most of the people spoke Pontic, some were Turkish-speaking (unchecked). All had left by 1921.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1897,
     "figure": 32593,
     "basis": "Russian census (Greek, 11.2% of the oblast)",
     "source": "ru.wikipedia, Karsskaya oblast"
    },
    {
     "year": 1907,
     "figure": 37456,
     "basis": "Greek count (76 villages)",
     "source": "Lazaridis 1988 via Topalidis"
    },
    {
     "year": 1914,
     "figure": 53700,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "Sagir 2021 via Topalidis"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia (ru), 'Karsskaya oblast' (1897 census), https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Карсская_область",
    "S. Topalidis, 'A Brief History of Kars in North-East Turkiye', Pontos World (Lynch 1901; Lazaridis 1988; Sagir 2021; Pratsinakis; Vergeti), https://mail.pontosworld.com/index.php/history/sam-topalidis/943-a-brief-history-of-kars",
    "Wikipedia, 'Caucasus Greeks' (Mikhailidis and Athanasiadis; Koromela; Xanthopoulou-Kyriakou), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus_Greeks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Kars Greek community",
   "greek": "Κάρς",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Kars",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.6085,
   "lon": 43.0975,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "town quarter",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Stonemasons from Trabzon (1860s) and settlers after 1878",
   "from": 1860,
   "until": 1920,
   "until_text": "The Kars oblast was returned to the Ottomans by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (3 March 1918); about 50,000 Greeks fled when the Ottoman army took Kars in April 1918 (some 10,000 believed to have died: Petsalis-Diomidis); the rest left during the Armenian-Turkish fighting of 1919-1920, most through Batumi, where the Greek government evacuated about 53,000 people in May 1920 - February 1921 (three quarters from Kars and Ardahan); the Treaty of Kars (13 October 1921) left the area to Turkey (unchecked). They were settled in Greek Macedonia (Kilkis, the mountain villages of Drama and elsewhere)",
   "fate": "Left in 1918-1920.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1886,
     "figure": 322,
     "basis": "count (8.2% of 3,939)",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Kars"
    },
    {
     "year": 1893,
     "figure": 300,
     "basis": "estimate ('over 300' of about 4,000 civilians)",
     "source": "Lynch 1901 via Topalidis"
    },
    {
     "year": 1897,
     "figure": 733,
     "basis": "Russian census (3.5% of 20,805; the article's text gives 11.7%)",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Kars"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "S. Topalidis, 'A Brief History of Kars in North-East Turkiye', Pontos World (Lynch 1901; Lazaridis 1988; Sagir 2021; Pratsinakis; Vergeti), https://mail.pontosworld.com/index.php/history/sam-topalidis/943-a-brief-history-of-kars",
    "Wikipedia, 'Kars' (1886 and 1897 tables), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kars"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Vezinköy (Ölçülü)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Ölçülü",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Kars",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.58,
   "lon": 43.15,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Greek stonemasons brought from Trabzon in the 1860s to build the Ottoman bastions of Kars; the only Greek village of Ottoman Kars in 1878",
   "from": 1860,
   "until": 1920,
   "until_text": "The Kars oblast was returned to the Ottomans by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (3 March 1918); about 50,000 Greeks fled when the Ottoman army took Kars in April 1918 (some 10,000 believed to have died: Petsalis-Diomidis); the rest left during the Armenian-Turkish fighting of 1919-1920, most through Batumi, where the Greek government evacuated about 53,000 people in May 1920 - February 1921 (three quarters from Kars and Ardahan); the Treaty of Kars (13 October 1921) left the area to Turkey (unchecked). They were settled in Greek Macedonia (Kilkis, the mountain villages of Drama and elsewhere)",
   "fate": "Chapel of the Prophet Elias (probably before 1872) survives on the hill above the village.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Kars'in Rus yonetimine gectigi 1878 yilinda Rum yerlesimi Vezinkoy ve Peygamber Elias sapeli, https://avesis.istanbul.edu.tr/yayin/3c39dd54-5915-4091-9121-aae9bb7d8635/karsin-rus-yonetimine-gectigi-1878-yilinda-rum-yerlesimi-vezinkoy-ve-peygamber-elias-sapeli"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Mağaracık (Ataköy)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Ataköy",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Kars",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.49,
   "lon": 43.09,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Greeks from the Pontus (Trabzon), after 1878",
   "from": 1878,
   "until": 1920,
   "until_text": "The Kars oblast was returned to the Ottomans by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (3 March 1918); about 50,000 Greeks fled when the Ottoman army took Kars in April 1918 (some 10,000 believed to have died: Petsalis-Diomidis); the rest left during the Armenian-Turkish fighting of 1919-1920, most through Batumi, where the Greek government evacuated about 53,000 people in May 1920 - February 1921 (three quarters from Kars and Ardahan); the Treaty of Kars (13 October 1921) left the area to Turkey (unchecked). They were settled in Greek Macedonia (Kilkis, the mountain villages of Drama and elsewhere)",
   "fate": "Greek chapel of 1879-1918 survives.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1886,
     "figure": 628,
     "basis": "Russian records (68 households)",
     "source": "Sagir 2021"
    },
    {
     "year": 1918,
     "figure": 1300,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "Sagir 2021"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Sagir 2021, 'Kars Magaracik (Atakoy) Rum koyu ve sapeli', Journal of Turkish Studies 16.7, https://avesis.istanbul.edu.tr/yayin/6d884eab-ea3f-4d07-8609-54a66aff130b/kars-magaracik-atakoy-rum-koyu-ve-sapeli"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Yeniköy (Neochori), Sarıkamış",
   "greek": "Νεοχώρι",
   "other_names": "Neochori",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Kars",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.3114,
   "lon": 42.2989,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Crypto-Christian Pontic Greeks from Erzurum, Chaldia and Nicopolis (1878)",
   "from": 1878,
   "until": 1919,
   "until_text": "The villagers left for Kars in September 1919, then Batumi; resettled at Notia (Greek Macedonia) in 1921-1922",
   "fate": "Stone church built 1884.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1913,
     "figure": 1029,
     "basis": "count",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Yenikoy, Sarikamis"
    },
    {
     "year": 1918,
     "figure": 1600,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Yenikoy, Sarikamis"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Yenikoy, Sarikamis', https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeniköy,_Sarıkamış"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Greek villages of the Göle (Kiolia) plateau",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Gole; Kiolia",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Ardahan",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.79,
   "lon": 42.61,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greeks after 1878",
   "from": 1878,
   "until": 1920,
   "until_text": "The Kars oblast was returned to the Ottomans by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (3 March 1918); about 50,000 Greeks fled when the Ottoman army took Kars in April 1918 (some 10,000 believed to have died: Petsalis-Diomidis); the rest left during the Armenian-Turkish fighting of 1919-1920, most through Batumi, where the Greek government evacuated about 53,000 people in May 1920 - February 1921 (three quarters from Kars and Ardahan); the Treaty of Kars (13 October 1921) left the area to Turkey (unchecked). They were settled in Greek Macedonia (Kilkis, the mountain villages of Drama and elsewhere)",
   "fate": "Highland pasture villages.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Caucasus Greeks' (Mikhailidis and Athanasiadis; Koromela; Xanthopoulou-Kyriakou), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus_Greeks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Orthodox villages of the Oltu okrug (Şenkaya, Oltu, Olur)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Merinis, Vafia, Ogdadap, Bardus, Posik, Pancirud, Cermik, Arsenyak, Penek, Toprakkale, Nariman",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Erzurum",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.62,
   "lon": 42.3,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "unknown",
   "origin": "Listed as Orthodox villages of the Kars oblast in the Russian statistical digest of 1886; origin not established",
   "from": 1878,
   "until": 1920,
   "until_text": "The Kars oblast was returned to the Ottomans by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (3 March 1918); about 50,000 Greeks fled when the Ottoman army took Kars in April 1918 (some 10,000 believed to have died: Petsalis-Diomidis); the rest left during the Armenian-Turkish fighting of 1919-1920, most through Batumi, where the Greek government evacuated about 53,000 people in May 1920 - February 1921 (three quarters from Kars and Ardahan); the Treaty of Kars (13 October 1921) left the area to Turkey (unchecked). They were settled in Greek Macedonia (Kilkis, the mountain villages of Drama and elsewhere)",
   "fate": "Their language (Greek, Turkish, or whether they were Greek at all rather than Georgian or Armenian Orthodox) is not established.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Pontus gazetteer v5 (rows G3-N034 to G3-N045), after the Svod statisticheskikh dannykh, Transcaucasia (1886) and Nisanyan, Index Anatolicus"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Sarıkamış Greek community",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Kars",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.3309,
   "lon": 42.5904,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "town quarter",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greeks after 1878",
   "from": 1878,
   "until": 1918,
   "until_text": "The Kars oblast was returned to the Ottomans by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (3 March 1918); about 50,000 Greeks fled when the Ottoman army took Kars in April 1918 (some 10,000 believed to have died: Petsalis-Diomidis); the rest left during the Armenian-Turkish fighting of 1919-1920, most through Batumi, where the Greek government evacuated about 53,000 people in May 1920 - February 1921 (three quarters from Kars and Ardahan); the Treaty of Kars (13 October 1921) left the area to Turkey (unchecked). They were settled in Greek Macedonia (Kilkis, the mountain villages of Drama and elsewhere)",
   "fate": "Greeks put at 10-15% of the town.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Caucasus Greeks' (Mikhailidis and Athanasiadis; Koromela; Xanthopoulou-Kyriakou), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus_Greeks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Ardahan Greek community",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Ardahan",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.1105,
   "lon": 42.7022,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "town quarter",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greeks after 1878",
   "from": 1878,
   "until": 1918,
   "until_text": "The Kars oblast was returned to the Ottomans by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (3 March 1918); about 50,000 Greeks fled when the Ottoman army took Kars in April 1918 (some 10,000 believed to have died: Petsalis-Diomidis); the rest left during the Armenian-Turkish fighting of 1919-1920, most through Batumi, where the Greek government evacuated about 53,000 people in May 1920 - February 1921 (three quarters from Kars and Ardahan); the Treaty of Kars (13 October 1921) left the area to Turkey (unchecked). They were settled in Greek Macedonia (Kilkis, the mountain villages of Drama and elsewhere)",
   "fate": "Greeks put at 10-15% of the town.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Caucasus Greeks' (Mikhailidis and Athanasiadis; Koromela; Xanthopoulou-Kyriakou), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus_Greeks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Greek villages of the Mineralnye Vody area (Sultanovskoye, Nagutskoye, Grecheskoye, Dubovaya Balka)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Sultan; Nogut",
   "country": "Russia",
   "admin1": "Stavropol krai",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 44.35,
   "lon": 42.95,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greeks from the Gümüşhane region (above all Sheria/Herian and Kelkit), many of them miners, who came via Erzurum, Kars, Tsalka, Tbilisi and Vladikavkaz; Sultanovskoye founded 1866, Nagut 1868, Grecheskoye and Dubovaya Balka later",
   "from": 1866,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Greek families remain; the villages are now mixed",
   "fate": "Greeks and Russians formed one village society; Pontic was the family language. Deportations of Greeks to Kazakhstan and Central Asia in the 1940s; partial rehabilitation in March 1956.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Yu. V. Ivanova, review in Etnograficheskoe obozrenie 1999.6, https://eo.iea.ras.ru/wp-content/uploads/1999/06/eoarchive_1999_6_135_ivanova.pdf",
    "Vokrug sveta, 'Potomki ellinov', https://www.vokrugsveta.ru/vs/potomki-ellinov-id580650/"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Vladikavkaz (Ordzhonikidze) Greek community",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Ordzhonikidze",
   "country": "Russia",
   "admin1": "North Ossetia-Alania",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 43.0367,
   "lon": 44.6678,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "town quarter",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greeks on the route from Kars and Tsalka to the Stavropol villages (start date an estimate), and refugees from the Kars oblast after 1918",
   "from": 1880,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Still present (over 3,000 Greeks in the late 1990s)",
   "fate": "",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1999,
     "figure": 3000,
     "basis": "estimate ('over 3,000')",
     "source": "Ivanova 1999"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Yu. V. Ivanova, review in Etnograficheskoe obozrenie 1999.6, https://eo.iea.ras.ru/wp-content/uploads/1999/06/eoarchive_1999_6_135_ivanova.pdf"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Greeks of the Caucasian Mineral Waters (Yessentuki, Pyatigorsk, Kislovodsk)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Russia",
   "admin1": "Stavropol krai",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 44.04,
   "lon": 42.86,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "mixed",
   "origin": "Greeks from Georgia (late 1930s, Thälmann kolkhoz near Yessentuki) and, after 1990, from Georgia, Abkhazia, Armenia and Kazakhstan",
   "from": 1930,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Still present",
   "fate": "",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Vokrug sveta, 'Potomki ellinov', https://www.vokrugsveta.ru/vs/potomki-ellinov-id580650/",
    "Wikipedia, 'Caucasus Greeks' (Mikhailidis and Athanasiadis; Koromela; Xanthopoulou-Kyriakou), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus_Greeks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Greek villages of the Bosporus",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Therapeia (Tarabya), Mega Revma (Arnavutköy), Neochorion (Yeniköy), Stenia (İstinye), Vathyrryax (Beykoz) and others",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "İstanbul",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.11,
   "lon": 29.06,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "the Greek population of Constantinople",
   "from": 330,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Greek-speaking villages and suburbs of Constantinople from late antiquity; exempted from the 1923 exchange; emptied mostly after 1955 and 1964; a few Greek families and parishes remain (unchecked).",
   "fate": "Pogrom of 1955, expulsions of 1964, emigration; a small remnant today.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia: Greeks in Turkey"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Şile and its Greek villages",
   "greek": "Χηλή",
   "other_names": "Chele",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "İstanbul",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.1757,
   "lon": 29.6125,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "medieval Greek population of the coast (unchecked)",
   "from": 1453,
   "until": 1923,
   "until_text": "Greeks of the kaza of Şile; their departure in the exchange of 1923 is from memory (unchecked).",
   "fate": "Left in the exchange of 1923 (unchecked).",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1885,
     "figure": 6447,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "Ottoman census 1881/82-1893 (kaza of Şile, 6,447 Greeks of 16,770), per en.wikipedia Şile"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia: Şile"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Karaburun (Philea)",
   "greek": "Φιλέα",
   "other_names": "Karaburun",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "İstanbul",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.3419,
   "lon": 28.6796,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "medieval Greek population (unchecked)",
   "from": 1453,
   "until": 1922,
   "until_text": "Greek village of the Thracian Black Sea coast (unchecked); left in 1922-1923 with the Greeks of Eastern Thrace.",
   "fate": "Departure of the Greeks of Eastern Thrace, 1922-1923 (unchecked).",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Pleiades 511361"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Prophitis Ilias (Hacıoğlu)",
   "greek": "Προφήτης Ηλίας",
   "other_names": "Hacıoğlu",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Sinop",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.9598,
   "lon": 35.0498,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "unknown",
   "from": 1911,
   "until": 1923,
   "until_text": "Pontic Greek-speaking Orthodox village near Sinop.",
   "fate": "Exiled in 1916 (consul Kuckhoff, cited by Travis 2017); children deported 1921 (Morris & Ze'evi 2019: 411); the survivors left in the exchange of 1923-24.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1911,
     "figure": 590,
     "basis": "church survey",
     "source": "1911 Greek consular census, Kitromilides & Alexandris 1984, Table VI, row 231 (via Pontus gazetteer)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Pontus gazetteer (set 17), after Kitromilides & Alexandris 1984, Table VI (1911 Greek consular census)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Karacaköy (Erfelek)",
   "greek": "Γαρατζάκιοϊ",
   "other_names": "Karadja Keuy",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Sinop",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.95267,
   "lon": 34.83071,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "unknown",
   "from": 1911,
   "until": 1923,
   "until_text": "Pontic Greek-speaking Orthodox village.",
   "fate": "Exiled in 1916 (consul Kuckhoff, cited by Travis 2017); children deported 1921 (Morris & Ze'evi 2019: 411); the survivors left in the exchange of 1923-24.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1911,
     "figure": 269,
     "basis": "church survey",
     "source": "1911 Greek consular census, K&A 1984, Table VI, row 232 (via Pontus gazetteer)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Pontus gazetteer (set 17), after Kitromilides & Alexandris 1984, Table VI (1911 Greek consular census)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Yukarıköy (Ayancık)",
   "greek": "Γιοκαρίκιοϊ",
   "other_names": "Yokari Keuy; Yukarımahalle",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Sinop",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.9202,
   "lon": 34.5614,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "unknown",
   "from": 1911,
   "until": 1923,
   "until_text": "Pontic Greek-speaking Orthodox village by Ayancık (İstefan).",
   "fate": "Exiled in 1916 (consul Kuckhoff, cited by Travis 2017); children deported 1921 (Morris & Ze'evi 2019: 411); the survivors left in the exchange of 1923-24.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1911,
     "figure": 493,
     "basis": "church survey",
     "source": "1911 Greek consular census, K&A 1984, Table VI, row 233 (via Pontus gazetteer)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Pontus gazetteer (set 17), after Kitromilides & Alexandris 1984, Table VI (1911 Greek consular census)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Kilise karyesi / Domuzalan and Cevizlidere (Gerze)",
   "greek": "Κλησέκαριεσι, Τζεβιζλίντερε",
   "other_names": "Domouz alan; Djessis dere",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Sinop",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.8036,
   "lon": 35.2011,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "unknown",
   "from": 1911,
   "until": 1923,
   "until_text": "Pontic Greek-speaking Orthodox villages near Gerze (one point: their exact sites are not fixed).",
   "fate": "Exiled in 1916 (consul Kuckhoff, cited by Travis 2017); children deported 1921 (Morris & Ze'evi 2019: 411); the survivors left in the exchange of 1923-24.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1911,
     "figure": 524,
     "basis": "church survey",
     "source": "1911 Greek consular census, K&A 1984, Table VI, rows 234 and 236 (218 + 306; via Pontus gazetteer)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Pontus gazetteer (set 17), after Kitromilides & Alexandris 1984, Table VI (1911 Greek consular census)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Turkish-speaking Orthodox villages of Türkeli",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Yarna, Morza, Tosos, Taista, Helaldı",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Sinop",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.93,
   "lon": 34.37,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Urum (Turkish)",
   "origin": "unknown",
   "from": 1911,
   "until": 1923,
   "until_text": "Orthodox villages whose people spoke Turkish (not Greek); recorded for contrast, near the site of Colussa.",
   "fate": "Exiled in 1916 (consul Kuckhoff, cited by Travis 2017); children deported 1921 (Morris & Ze'evi 2019: 411); the survivors left in the exchange of 1923-24. Turkish-speaking Orthodox (Karamanli-type), not Crimean Urum.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1911,
     "figure": 1207,
     "basis": "church survey",
     "source": "1911 Greek consular census, K&A 1984, Table VI, rows 237-242 (121+341+266+386+93; via Pontus gazetteer)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Pontus gazetteer (set 17), after Kitromilides & Alexandris 1984, Table VI (1911 Greek consular census)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Romeyka-speaking Muslim villages of Çaykara (upper Of valley)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Kadahor, Katochor; Uzungöl (Saracho) and other villages",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Trabzon",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.7475,
   "lon": 40.2415,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "native Greek-speaking population of the upper Of valley, converted to Islam mainly in the 17th c.",
   "from": 1515,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Still spoken today: most residents over 50 speak Romeyka as their mother tongue, in about two dozen Greek-speaking villages (Wikipedia, after Özhan Öztürk 2005 and Schreiber 2015); Mackridge (1987) counted 17 of 21 villages; younger people are shifting to Turkish. The speakers are Muslims continuous with the Christian Greek speakers of the 1515 register.",
   "fate": "Muslims, not exchanged in 1923; the language is fading through shift to Turkish.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "A",
   "sources": [
    "P. Mackridge, BMGS 11 (1987) 115-137 (village counts via Topalidis, 'A History of Ophis (Of) in Pontos')",
    "University of Cambridge news, 2024: https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/last-chance-to-record-archaic-greek-language-heading-for-extinction",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87aykara"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Romeyka-speaking Muslim villages of Dernekpazarı",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Trabzon",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.8,
   "lon": 40.24,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "as for Çaykara",
   "from": 1515,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Still spoken today in 7 of 12 villages (Mackridge 1987); fading.",
   "fate": "Muslims, not exchanged.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "A",
   "sources": [
    "P. Mackridge, BMGS 11 (1987) 115-137 (village counts via Topalidis, 'A History of Ophis (Of) in Pontos')"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Ophitic-speaking villages of the lower Of valley (Christian and Muslim)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Trabzon",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.93,
   "lon": 40.27,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "native population of the Of district",
   "from": 1515,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Before 1923 both Christians and Muslims spoke Ophitic Pontic (Revythiadou 2011, via Wikipedia); the Christians left in 1923 (their Ophitic is still spoken by their descendants at Nea Trapezounta, Pieria); Muslim speakers remain in the district, a minority.",
   "fate": "Christians exchanged 1923; Muslims stayed.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1914,
     "figure": 275,
     "basis": "church survey",
     "source": "Chrysanthos 1933 (families in Söğütlü, Sarayköy, Sivrice, Çatalsöğüt, Çukurova, Yarlı, Bölümlü, Çamlı; set 17 gazetteer)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "b119",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "set 17 Pontus gazetteer (after Chrysanthos 1933)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of,_Trabzon",
    "Chrysanthos, 'I Ekklisia Trapezountos', Archeion Pontou 4-5 (1933): church survey of 1913-14 (via Topalidis, pontosworld.com)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Romeyka-speaking Muslim villages of Sürmene and Köprübaşı (with Beşköy)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Trabzon",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.83,
   "lon": 40.11,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "native Greek speakers of the Sürmene valleys, with settlers from Of in the later 16th c. (Poutouridou 1997), Islamized in the 16th-18th c.",
   "from": 1600,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Spoken today by some Muslims in villages around Sürmene and at Beşköy (Özkan 2013; Topalidis after Sitaridou 2023); fading.",
   "fate": "Muslims, not exchanged.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "S. Topalidis, 'A History of Sürmene, Pontos' (pontosworld.com PDF)",
    "H. Özkan 2013 (Beşköy) [via Wikipedia]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Romeyka-speaking Muslim villages of Tonya",
   "greek": "Τόνια",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Trabzon",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.884,
   "lon": 39.2849,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "native Greek speakers, Muslim by the late 17th c. (Bryer & Winfield 1985)",
   "from": 1600,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Still spoken today; Sitaridou's fieldwork included the Tonya valley (University of Cambridge 2024).",
   "fate": "Muslims, not exchanged.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "University of Cambridge news, 2024: https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/last-chance-to-record-archaic-greek-language-heading-for-extinction",
    "Bryer & Winfield 1985, p. 216 (via set 17 gazetteer)",
    "S. Topalidis, 'A Brief History of Tonya' (pontosworld.com)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Kromni (the Kromni villages)",
   "greek": "Κρώμνη",
   "other_names": "Kurum; Bulutyayla",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Gümüşhane",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.562,
   "lon": 39.5923,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Greek villages of Chaldia, many of them crypto-Christian until the mid-19th c. (unchecked)",
   "from": null,
   "until": 1923,
   "until_text": "exchange of 1923-24",
   "fate": "Exchanged 1923-24.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1857,
     "figure": 724,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "British consular count (houses), via the Pontus gazetteer"
    },
    {
     "year": 1870,
     "figure": 1000,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "Ioannidis 1870 (families)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Pontus gazetteer of set 17, after the CAMS settlement list (Samouilidis 1992) and the British consular count of 1857"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Santa (the seven Santa villages)",
   "greek": "Σάντα",
   "other_names": "Dumanlı",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Gümüşhane",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.6689,
   "lon": 39.8016,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Greek villages of Chaldia; wholly Greek-speaking by the end of the 19th c. (Topalidis after Bryer 1968)",
   "from": 1672,
   "until": 1923,
   "until_text": "deportations of September 1921, then the exchange",
   "fate": "April 1915: 50 men taken to labour battalions; an armed band under Euklidis Kourtidis held the passes from 1916; 6-12 September 1921 Kemalist troops deported the villagers via Hunuz to Erzurum; exchanged 1923-24 (Topalidis).",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1857,
     "figure": 3075,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "British consular count (persons), via the Pontus gazetteer"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Pontus gazetteer of set 17, after the CAMS settlement list (Samouilidis 1992) and the British consular count of 1857",
    "Topalidis, 'Santa, Pontos After 1914', pontosworld.com"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Imera",
   "greek": "Ίμερα",
   "other_names": "Olucak",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Gümüşhane",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.5334,
   "lon": 39.5885,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Greek village of Chaldia with the monastery of St John Prodromos",
   "from": null,
   "until": 1923,
   "until_text": "exchange of 1923-24",
   "fate": "Exchanged 1923-24.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Pontus gazetteer of set 17, after the CAMS settlement list (Samouilidis 1992) and the British consular count of 1857"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Stavrin (the Stavri villages)",
   "greek": "Σταυρίν",
   "other_names": "Uğurtaşı",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Gümüşhane",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.5829,
   "lon": 39.5128,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Greek villages of Chaldia; Stavriot miners later moved to the Akdağ mines (Topalidis 2019 ch. 16)",
   "from": null,
   "until": 1923,
   "until_text": "exchange of 1923-24",
   "fate": "Exchanged 1923-24.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1857,
     "figure": 160,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "British consular count (houses), via the Pontus gazetteer"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Pontus gazetteer of set 17, after the CAMS settlement list (Samouilidis 1992) and the British consular count of 1857"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Yağlıdere villages",
   "greek": "Γιαγλίτερε",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Gümüşhane",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.5442,
   "lon": 39.5267,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Greek villages of Chaldia",
   "from": null,
   "until": 1923,
   "until_text": "exchange of 1923-24",
   "fate": "Exchanged 1923-24.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1857,
     "figure": 119,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "British consular count (houses), via the Pontus gazetteer"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Pontus gazetteer of set 17, after the CAMS settlement list (Samouilidis 1992) and the British consular count of 1857"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Greek villages of Ardasa (Torul) district",
   "greek": "Άρδασσα",
   "other_names": "Torul",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Gümüşhane",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.5566,
   "lon": 39.2925,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Greek villages of Chaldia round the Trapezuntine castle of Ardassa (Panaretos, 1355)",
   "from": 1355,
   "until": 1923,
   "until_text": "exchange of 1923-24",
   "fate": "Exchanged 1923-24.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1857,
     "figure": 2300,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "acting British consul at Trebizond: 2,300 houses in Torul, 72% Greek, 20% crypto-Christian, 9% Muslim (via pontosworld)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://pontosworld.com/index.php/pontus/places/183-ardassa-torul (fetched)",
    "Pontus gazetteer of set 17, after the CAMS settlement list (Samouilidis 1992) and the British consular count of 1857"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Matsouka (Maçka) valley",
   "greek": "Ματσούκα",
   "other_names": "Tzevizlik (Cevizlik), the kaza seat; the Rhodopolis metropolis (from 1863, seat at Livera)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Trabzon",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.8111,
   "lon": 39.6132,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "Pontic Greek",
   "origin": "Greek villages of the Empire of Trebizond's bandon of Matsouka (first named 1223), with the monasteries of Soumela, Vazelon and Peristereota",
   "from": 1223,
   "until": 1923,
   "until_text": "burnings of 1916, killings of 1922, exchange of 1923",
   "fate": "Most of the town burned by autumn 1916 (Mintslov 1923); 17 Greek men beheaded near Maçka in June 1922 (Morris & Ze'evi 2019:421); the valley emptied in the exchange of 1923 (Brendemoen 2002).",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1486,
     "figure": 8930,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "Ottoman register: 8,930 Christians and 30 Muslims in 52 villages (Lowry 1986:128, via Topalidis)"
    },
    {
     "year": 1912,
     "figure": 12224,
     "basis": "church survey",
     "source": "Greek count for the kaza of Maçka (Alexandris 1999:64, via Topalidis)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "b120",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://mail.pontosworld.com/index.php/history/sam-topalidis/951-a-history-of-macka-pontos (fetched)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Greek villages of Cheriana (Şiran)",
   "greek": "Χερίανα",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Gümüşhane",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.239,
   "lon": 39.154,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "mixed",
   "origin": "the Greek enclave of Cheriana (see in the 10th c.); 'many Greek villages, some of them Turcophone' (Ioannidis 1870)",
   "from": 950,
   "until": 1923,
   "until_text": "exchange of 1923-24",
   "fate": "Exchanged 1923-24.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "b106",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "S. Ioannidis, Istoria kai statistiki Trapezountos (Constantinople 1870) p. 252, via the Pontus gazetteer of set 17",
    "Bryer & Winfield 1985 p. 171"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Halva Maden",
   "greek": "Χαλβά-Μαντέν",
   "other_names": "Maden (Bayburt)",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Bayburt",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.1831,
   "lon": 40.4046,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "mining settlement",
   "language": "unknown",
   "origin": "Orthodox mining place in the Bayburt district (CAMS list)",
   "from": null,
   "until": 1923,
   "until_text": "exchange of 1923-24 (unchecked)",
   "fate": "Not recorded.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Pontus gazetteer of set 17, after the CAMS settlement list (Samouilidis 1992) and the British consular count of 1857"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Lahanos (Lakhanas) mines",
   "greek": "Λαχανάς",
   "other_names": "Şahinyuva",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Giresun",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.8453,
   "lon": 38.6881,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "mining settlement",
   "language": "unknown",
   "origin": "Orthodox miners (origin not recorded)",
   "from": null,
   "until": 1916,
   "until_text": "deportation of the Tirebolu district, November 1916 - March 1917",
   "fate": "Named in the Black Book (1922) list of destroyed communities of the kaza of Tripolis.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1916,
     "figure": 900,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "local monograph, via the Pontus gazetteer"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Pontus gazetteer of set 17, after the CAMS settlement list (Samouilidis 1992) and the British consular count of 1857"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Eseli Maden",
   "greek": "Εσελί Μαντέν",
   "other_names": "İsili Maden; Karlıbel",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Giresun",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.8895,
   "lon": 38.9664,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "mining settlement",
   "language": "unknown",
   "origin": "Orthodox miners (origin not recorded)",
   "from": null,
   "until": 1916,
   "until_text": "deportation of the Tirebolu and Görele districts, November 1916 - March 1917",
   "fate": "Named in the Black Book (1922) list of destroyed communities of the kaza of Tripolis.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1916,
     "figure": 900,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "local monograph, via the Pontus gazetteer"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Pontus gazetteer of set 17, after the CAMS settlement list (Samouilidis 1992) and the British consular count of 1857"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Maden (Melet), Mesudiye",
   "greek": "Μαντέν",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Turkey",
   "admin1": "Ordu",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.5022,
   "lon": 37.9313,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "mining settlement",
   "language": "unknown",
   "origin": "Orthodox miners in the eparchy of Kolonia",
   "from": null,
   "until": 1923,
   "until_text": "exiles and killings of 1916-23",
   "fate": "Greeks of the kaza exiled and killed 1916-23 (Virtual Genocide Memorial).",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": null,
     "figure": 741,
     "basis": "church survey",
     "source": "Patriarchate figure, via the Pontus gazetteer"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Pontus gazetteer of set 17, after the CAMS settlement list (Samouilidis 1992) and the British consular count of 1857"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "The Greek villages of the Mariupol district",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "the Mariupol Greek district (1780-1873); the Greek national districts of Sartana, Mangush and Velykyi Yanisol (1920s-1938)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Donetsk oblast",
   "disputed": "under Russian occupation since 2022",
   "lat": 47.35,
   "lon": 37.45,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "group of villages",
   "language": "mixed",
   "origin": "Crimean Christians moved by order of Catherine II, 1778 (Suvorov's figures: 31,386 Christians, of whom 18,395 Greeks; 30,233 counted on 1 January 1779 after the winter on the Samara; many died of disease and hunger)",
   "from": 1779,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "About twenty villages founded in 1779-1780 by the Crimean Greeks, the Rumei (Greek-speaking) and the Urums (Turkic-speaking) in separate villages (Ivanova 1976); Ponomaryova counts 29 villages of Donetsk oblast and one of Zaporizhzhia oblast with Greek populations today. Both languages are endangered: in the Soviet and Ukrainian censuses both groups gave their language as 'Greek', so the split cannot be read from them (Baranova 2007).",
   "fate": "The Greek district's privileges ended between 1859 and 1875. Greek national districts and village councils of the 1920s were abolished in 1938. In 1937-1938 the NKVD's 'Greek operation' (Yezhov's directive of 11 December 1937; arrests from 15-17 December) struck the Azov Greeks: over 3,000 Greeks were shot in Donetsk oblast alone, 96-97% of those arrested (figures given to Ukrinform, 2020); the Greek national districts, schools, press and the Mariupol Greek theatre were closed in 1937-1938. Many villages lie in the area fought over or occupied since 2014 and 2022.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1897,
     "figure": 48270,
     "basis": "census by mother tongue (Greek 19.0% of the uezd's 254,056; Tatar 6.1% and Turkish 2.1% further, many of them Urums; figure derived)",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Mariupol uezd"
    },
    {
     "year": 1926,
     "figure": 104500,
     "basis": "census by nationality (Greeks of the Ukrainian SSR, 83% with Greek as mother tongue)",
     "source": "Wikipedia (ru), Greki Priazovya"
    },
    {
     "year": 1989,
     "figure": 98500,
     "basis": "census by nationality (Greeks of the Ukrainian SSR, 18.5% with Greek as mother tongue)",
     "source": "Wikipedia (ru), Greki Priazovya"
    },
    {
     "year": 2001,
     "figure": 77516,
     "basis": "census by nationality (Greeks of Donetsk oblast)",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Urums"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "I. Ponomaryova, 'I Mariupoli sta teli tou 18ou kai ton 19o aiona', in Oi Ellines tis Azofikis, 18os - arches 20ou aiona (Athens, Institute for Neohellenic Research (unchecked: eds. E. Sifneos and G. Harlaftis, 2015)), ch. 13 https://argolikivivliothiki.gr/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/ce97-ce9cceb1cf81ceb9cebfcf8dcf80cebfcebbceb7-cf83cf84ceb1-cf84ceadcebbceb7-cf84cebfcf85-18cebfcf85-cebaceb1ceb9-cf84cebfcebd-19cebf-ceb1ceb9cf8ecebdceb1.pdf",
    "I. Ponomaryova, 'The Urums of the North Azov Sea region', Visnyk Mariupolskoho derzhavnoho universytetu 10 (2014) 30-37 https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/the-urums-of-the-north-azov-sea-region",
    "Wikipedia, 'Mariupol uezd' (1897 census by mother tongue) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariupol_uezd",
    "Wikipedia (ru), 'Greki Priazovya' (1778 figures; 1926 and 1989 language shares) https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Греки_Приазовья",
    "Yu. V. Ivanova, Sovetskaya etnografiya 1976/2, 43-48 https://eo.iea.ras.ru/wp-content/uploads/1976/02/eoarchive_1976_2_043_ivanova.pdf",
    "V. V. Baranova, 'Tyurkoyazychnye greki Priazovya: yazyk i samosoznanie', Etnograficheskoe obozrenie 2007/3, 157-161 https://eo.iea.ras.ru/wp-content/uploads/2007/03/eoarchive_baranova_-2007_3.pdf",
    "Ukrinform, 'Hretska Atlantyda', 20 July 2020 https://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric-regions/3066092-grecka-atlantida.html"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Maloianysol (Malyi Yanisol)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Malo-Yanisol (from Urum Yeni-Sala, 'new village', per Wikipedia)",
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "admin1": "Donetsk oblast",
   "disputed": "under Russian occupation since 2022",
   "lat": 47.3714,
   "lon": 37.3358,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Rumeic (Mariupol Greek)",
   "origin": "Crimean Greeks, 1780 (Wikipedia)",
   "from": 1780,
   "until": null,
   "until_text": "Birthplace of the Rumeic poet Georgis Kostoprav (1903); his monument there was restored before 2020 (Ukrinform). The village's old language is taken to be Rumeic (unchecked: not confirmed in the sources seen); by 2001 74% of its 2,355 people were Greeks by nationality but only 0.08% gave Greek (Rumeic or Urum) as their mother tongue (94.35% Russian).",
   "fate": "Captured by Russian forces in 2022 (Wikipedia). In 1937-1938 the NKVD's 'Greek operation' (Yezhov's directive of 11 December 1937; arrests from 15-17 December) struck the Azov Greeks: over 3,000 Greeks were shot in Donetsk oblast alone, 96-97% of those arrested (figures given to Ukrinform, 2020); the Greek national districts, schools, press and the Mariupol Greek theatre were closed in 1937-1938.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 2001,
     "figure": 1743,
     "basis": "census by nationality (74% Greek of 2,355; figure derived); Greek mother tongue 0.08%",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Maloianysol"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Wikipedia, 'Georgis Kostoprav' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgis_Kostoprav",
    "Ukrinform, 'Hretska Atlantyda', 20 July 2020 https://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric-regions/3066092-grecka-atlantida.html",
    "Wikipedia, 'Maloianysol' https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maloianysol"
   ]
  }
 ],
 "seats": [
  {
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "unit": "Burgas Province",
   "level": "province (oblast)",
   "seat": "Burgas",
   "seat_native": "Бургас",
   "population": 189014,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "NSI Bulgaria, official estimate at 31 Dec 2024 (via Wikipedia 'List of cities and towns in Bulgaria')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "Pyrgos",
   "lat": 42.505,
   "lon": 27.463
  },
  {
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "unit": "Varna Province",
   "level": "province (oblast)",
   "seat": "Varna",
   "seat_native": "Варна",
   "population": 318737,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "NSI Bulgaria, official estimate at 31 Dec 2024 (via Wikipedia 'List of cities and towns in Bulgaria')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "Odessos",
   "lat": 43.214,
   "lon": 27.915
  },
  {
   "country": "Bulgaria",
   "unit": "Dobrich Province",
   "level": "province (oblast)",
   "seat": "Dobrich",
   "seat_native": "Добрич",
   "population": 69434,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "NSI Bulgaria, official estimate at 31 Dec 2024 (via Wikipedia 'List of cities and towns in Bulgaria')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 43.573,
   "lon": 27.827
  },
  {
   "country": "Romania",
   "unit": "Constanța County",
   "level": "county (județ)",
   "seat": "Constanța",
   "seat_native": "Constanța",
   "population": 263688,
   "pop_year": 2021,
   "pop_source": "INS Romania, 2021 census (via Wikipedia)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "Tomis",
   "lat": 44.173,
   "lon": 28.638
  },
  {
   "country": "Romania",
   "unit": "Tulcea County",
   "level": "county (județ)",
   "seat": "Tulcea",
   "seat_native": "Tulcea",
   "population": 65624,
   "pop_year": 2021,
   "pop_source": "INS Romania, 2021 census (via Wikipedia)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 45.178,
   "lon": 28.804
  },
  {
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "unit": "Odesa Oblast",
   "level": "oblast",
   "seat": "Odesa",
   "seat_native": "Одеса",
   "population": 1010537,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "Ukrstat estimate at 1 Jan 2022 (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Ukraine'); 2001 Ukrainian census in pop_census_2001",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 46.483,
   "lon": 30.723
  },
  {
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "unit": "Mykolaiv Oblast",
   "level": "oblast",
   "seat": "Mykolaiv",
   "seat_native": "Миколаїв",
   "population": 470011,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "Ukrstat estimate at 1 Jan 2022 (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Ukraine'); 2001 Ukrainian census in pop_census_2001",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 46.975,
   "lon": 31.995
  },
  {
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "unit": "Kherson Oblast",
   "level": "oblast",
   "seat": "Kherson",
   "seat_native": "Херсон",
   "population": 279131,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "Ukrstat estimate at 1 Jan 2022 (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Ukraine'); 2001 Ukrainian census in pop_census_2001",
   "disputed": "the part of the oblast east of the Dnipro under Russian occupation since 2022; the city of Kherson was occupied from March to November 2022 and is under Ukrainian control; Russia's claimed annexation (2022) is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 46.635,
   "lon": 32.617
  },
  {
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "unit": "Zaporizhzhia Oblast",
   "level": "oblast",
   "seat": "Zaporizhzhia",
   "seat_native": "Запоріжжя",
   "population": 710052,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "Ukrstat estimate at 1 Jan 2022 (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Ukraine'); 2001 Ukrainian census in pop_census_2001",
   "disputed": "the southern part of the oblast under Russian occupation since 2022; the city of Zaporizhzhia is under Ukrainian control; Russia's claimed annexation (2022) is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 47.839,
   "lon": 35.14
  },
  {
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "unit": "Donetsk Oblast",
   "level": "oblast",
   "seat": "Donetsk",
   "seat_native": "Донецьк",
   "population": 901645,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "Ukrstat estimate at 1 Jan 2022 (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Ukraine'); 2001 Ukrainian census in pop_census_2001",
   "disputed": "the city of Donetsk has been held by Russian-backed forces since 2014 and is under Russian occupation; much of the oblast has been under Russian occupation since 2014 or 2022; Russia's claimed annexation (2022) is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members; the Ukrainian oblast administration has had its temporary seat at Kramatorsk since 2014",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 48.016,
   "lon": 37.803
  },
  {
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "unit": "Autonomous Republic of Crimea",
   "level": "autonomous republic",
   "seat": "Simferopol",
   "seat_native": "Сімферополь",
   "population": 343644,
   "pop_year": 2001,
   "pop_source": "Ukrainian census 2001 (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Ukraine')",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 44.952,
   "lon": 34.102
  },
  {
   "country": "Ukraine",
   "unit": "Sevastopol",
   "level": "city with special status",
   "seat": "Sevastopol",
   "seat_native": "Севастополь",
   "population": 342451,
   "pop_year": 2001,
   "pop_source": "Ukrainian census 2001, city proper (via Wikipedia)",
   "disputed": "annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)",
   "city_on_site": "Chersonesos",
   "lat": 44.605,
   "lon": 33.523
  },
  {
   "country": "Russia",
   "unit": "Rostov Oblast",
   "level": "oblast",
   "seat": "Rostov-on-Don",
   "seat_native": "Ростов-на-Дону",
   "population": 1142162,
   "pop_year": 2021,
   "pop_source": "Rosstat, 2021 all-Russian census (via Wikipedia)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 47.223,
   "lon": 39.71
  },
  {
   "country": "Russia",
   "unit": "Krasnodar Krai",
   "level": "krai",
   "seat": "Krasnodar",
   "seat_native": "Краснодар",
   "population": 1099344,
   "pop_year": 2021,
   "pop_source": "Rosstat, 2021 all-Russian census (via Wikipedia)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 45.035,
   "lon": 38.975
  },
  {
   "country": "Georgia",
   "unit": "Tbilisi",
   "level": "capital city",
   "seat": "Tbilisi",
   "seat_native": "თბილისი",
   "population": 1108717,
   "pop_year": 2014,
   "pop_source": "Geostat, 2014 general population census (Census release 2016, geostat.ge)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 41.716,
   "lon": 44.783
  },
  {
   "country": "Georgia",
   "unit": "Adjara",
   "level": "autonomous republic",
   "seat": "Batumi",
   "seat_native": "ბათუმი",
   "population": 152839,
   "pop_year": 2014,
   "pop_source": "Geostat, 2014 general population census (Census release 2016, geostat.ge)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 41.645,
   "lon": 41.64
  },
  {
   "country": "Georgia",
   "unit": "Abkhazia",
   "level": "autonomous republic",
   "seat": "Sukhumi",
   "seat_native": "სოხუმი / Аҟәа",
   "population": 62914,
   "pop_year": 2011,
   "pop_source": "census held by the de facto Abkhaz authorities, 2011 (via Wikipedia); Georgia's 2014 census was not carried out in Abkhazia (Geostat)",
   "disputed": "outside the Georgian government's control since 1993; recognised as independent by Russia and a few states; regarded as part of Georgia by most states",
   "city_on_site": "Dioskourias",
   "lat": 43.003,
   "lon": 41.016
  },
  {
   "country": "Georgia",
   "unit": "Imereti",
   "level": "region (mkhare)",
   "seat": "Kutaisi",
   "seat_native": "ქუთაისი",
   "population": 147635,
   "pop_year": 2014,
   "pop_source": "Geostat, 2014 general population census (Census release 2016, geostat.ge)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 42.27,
   "lon": 42.7
  },
  {
   "country": "Georgia",
   "unit": "Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti",
   "level": "region (mkhare)",
   "seat": "Zugdidi",
   "seat_native": "ზუგდიდი",
   "population": 42998,
   "pop_year": 2014,
   "pop_source": "Geostat, 2014 general population census (Census release 2016, geostat.ge)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 42.509,
   "lon": 41.871
  },
  {
   "country": "Georgia",
   "unit": "Guria",
   "level": "region (mkhare)",
   "seat": "Ozurgeti",
   "seat_native": "ოზურგეთი",
   "population": 14785,
   "pop_year": 2014,
   "pop_source": "Geostat, 2014 general population census (Census release 2016, geostat.ge)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 41.924,
   "lon": 42.007
  },
  {
   "country": "Georgia",
   "unit": "Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti",
   "level": "region (mkhare)",
   "seat": "Ambrolauri",
   "seat_native": "ამბროლაური",
   "population": 2047,
   "pop_year": 2014,
   "pop_source": "Geostat, 2014 general population census (Census release 2016, geostat.ge)",
   "disputed": "the seat is not affected; part of the region (the Java area) lies in the Tskhinvali region/South Ossetia, outside the Georgian government's control since the 1990s (fully since 2008) (unchecked)",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 42.521,
   "lon": 43.162
  },
  {
   "country": "Georgia",
   "unit": "Samtskhe-Javakheti",
   "level": "region (mkhare)",
   "seat": "Akhaltsikhe",
   "seat_native": "ახალციხე",
   "population": 17903,
   "pop_year": 2014,
   "pop_source": "Geostat, 2014 general population census (Census release 2016, geostat.ge)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 41.639,
   "lon": 42.983
  },
  {
   "country": "Georgia",
   "unit": "Shida Kartli",
   "level": "region (mkhare)",
   "seat": "Gori",
   "seat_native": "გორი",
   "population": 48143,
   "pop_year": 2014,
   "pop_source": "Geostat, 2014 general population census (Census release 2016, geostat.ge)",
   "disputed": "the seat is not affected; part of the region (around Tskhinvali) lies in the Tskhinvali region/South Ossetia, outside the Georgian government's control; recognised as independent by Russia and a few states (unchecked)",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 41.985,
   "lon": 44.11
  },
  {
   "country": "Georgia",
   "unit": "Mtskheta-Mtianeti",
   "level": "region (mkhare)",
   "seat": "Mtskheta",
   "seat_native": "მცხეთა",
   "population": 7940,
   "pop_year": 2014,
   "pop_source": "Geostat, 2014 general population census (Census release 2016, geostat.ge)",
   "disputed": "the seat is not affected; the Akhalgori area of the region has been outside the Georgian government's control since 2008 (unchecked)",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 41.845,
   "lon": 44.721
  },
  {
   "country": "Georgia",
   "unit": "Kvemo Kartli",
   "level": "region (mkhare)",
   "seat": "Rustavi",
   "seat_native": "რუსთავი",
   "population": 125103,
   "pop_year": 2014,
   "pop_source": "Geostat, 2014 general population census (Census release 2016, geostat.ge)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 41.549,
   "lon": 44.993
  },
  {
   "country": "Georgia",
   "unit": "Kakheti",
   "level": "region (mkhare)",
   "seat": "Telavi",
   "seat_native": "თელავი",
   "population": 19629,
   "pop_year": 2014,
   "pop_source": "Geostat, 2014 general population census (Census release 2016, geostat.ge)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 41.919,
   "lon": 45.473
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Amasya Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Amasya",
   "seat_native": "Amasya",
   "population": 151058,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "Amasea",
   "lat": 40.652,
   "lon": 35.835
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Artvin Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Artvin",
   "seat_native": "Artvin",
   "population": 36071,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 41.183,
   "lon": 41.818
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Bartın Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Bartın",
   "seat_native": "Bartın",
   "population": 162793,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 41.635,
   "lon": 32.338
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Bayburt Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Bayburt",
   "seat_native": "Bayburt",
   "population": 69029,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 40.255,
   "lon": 40.225
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Bolu Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Bolu",
   "seat_native": "Bolu",
   "population": 222340,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "Bithynion",
   "lat": 40.735,
   "lon": 31.606
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Çorum Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Çorum",
   "seat_native": "Çorum",
   "population": 297255,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 40.55,
   "lon": 34.954
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Düzce Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Düzce",
   "seat_native": "Düzce",
   "population": 263220,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 40.844,
   "lon": 31.157
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Giresun Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Giresun",
   "seat_native": "Giresun",
   "population": 144158,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "Pharnacia",
   "lat": 40.913,
   "lon": 38.39
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Gümüşhane Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Gümüşhane",
   "seat_native": "Gümüşhane",
   "population": 54341,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "Argyroupolis",
   "lat": 40.46,
   "lon": 39.481
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Karabük Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Karabük",
   "seat_native": "Karabük",
   "population": 137428,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS at 31 Dec 2022, central district, via Wikipedia 'Karabük District'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 41.206,
   "lon": 32.62
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Kastamonu Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Kastamonu",
   "seat_native": "Kastamonu",
   "population": 156638,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 41.389,
   "lon": 33.783
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Ordu Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Ordu",
   "seat_native": "Ordu",
   "population": 234628,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "Cotyora",
   "lat": 40.984,
   "lon": 37.876
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Rize Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Rize",
   "seat_native": "Rize",
   "population": 151617,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "Rhizaeum",
   "lat": 41.02,
   "lon": 40.523
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Samsun Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Samsun",
   "seat_native": "Samsun",
   "population": 325775,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "Amisus",
   "lat": 41.287,
   "lon": 36.33
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Sinop Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Sinop",
   "seat_native": "Sinop",
   "population": 70051,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "Sinope",
   "lat": 42.027,
   "lon": 35.151
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Tokat Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Tokat",
   "seat_native": "Tokat",
   "population": 201231,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 40.314,
   "lon": 36.554
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Trabzon Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Trabzon",
   "seat_native": "Trabzon",
   "population": 330836,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "Trapezus",
   "lat": 41.003,
   "lon": 39.717
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Zonguldak Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Zonguldak",
   "seat_native": "Zonguldak",
   "population": 116325,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 41.456,
   "lon": 31.799
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "İstanbul Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "İstanbul",
   "seat_native": "İstanbul",
   "population": 15701602,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "Byzantium",
   "lat": 41.008,
   "lon": 28.978
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Kocaeli Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "İzmit",
   "seat_native": "İzmit",
   "population": 380831,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 40.765,
   "lon": 29.941
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Sakarya Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Adapazarı",
   "seat_native": "Adapazarı",
   "population": 282078,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 40.781,
   "lon": 30.403
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Kırklareli Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Kırklareli",
   "seat_native": "Kırklareli",
   "population": 114800,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 41.735,
   "lon": 27.225
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Sivas Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Sivas",
   "seat_native": "Sivas",
   "population": 392711,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "Sebastea",
   "lat": 39.748,
   "lon": 37.018
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Erzincan Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Erzincan",
   "seat_native": "Erzincan",
   "population": 168093,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 39.75,
   "lon": 39.5
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Erzurum Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Erzurum",
   "seat_native": "Erzurum",
   "population": 191228,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "Theodosiopolis",
   "lat": 39.905,
   "lon": 41.267
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Kars Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Kars",
   "seat_native": "Kars",
   "population": 120948,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 40.603,
   "lon": 43.097
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkey",
   "unit": "Ardahan Province",
   "level": "province (il)",
   "seat": "Ardahan",
   "seat_native": "Ardahan",
   "population": 42146,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "TÜİK, ADNKS results at 31 Dec 2024, central district (merkez ilçe), via Wikipedia 'Districts of Turkey'",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 41.111,
   "lon": 42.702
  }
 ],
 "later_greeks": {
  "timeline": [
   {
    "year": 1453,
    "year_text": "29 May 1453",
    "place": "Constantinople (Istanbul)",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "event": "Mehmed II takes Constantinople. The Greek community lives on as one of the city's main communities; the Patriarchate is restored under Gennadios Scholarios in 1454.",
    "persons": [
     "Mehmed II",
     "Gennadios Scholarios"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Turkey'",
     "Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 'The Greek minority and its foundations in Istanbul, Imvros and Tenedos'"
    ],
    "grade": "A",
    "note": "The Black Sea coast of Thrace (Mesembria, Anchialos) also submitted in 1453."
   },
   {
    "year": 1461,
    "year_text": "August or September 1461",
    "place": "Trebizond (Trabzon)",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "event": "Mehmed II takes Trebizond. By the terms of surrender Emperor David Komnenos, his family, the officials, nobles and rich are shipped to Istanbul and about 1,500 young men and women of the city and district are taken, about 800 of the men for the janissaries; by 1486 the Sultan had settled 201 Muslim households from about twenty Anatolian towns in the city. The town stayed mainly Christian and Greek-speaking for about a century (Rum 65% of taxpayers in 1486).",
    "persons": [
     "Mehmed II",
     "David Komnenos"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi, 'Trabzon' (after H. Lowry)",
     "Bryer & Winfield 1985"
    ],
    "grade": "A",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1475,
    "year_text": "6 June to December 1475",
    "place": "Kaffa (Feodosia) and Mangup (Theodoro)",
    "country": "Ukraine",
    "event": "The Ottoman fleet of Gedik Ahmed Pasha takes Kaffa (6 June 1475) and the Genoese towns; 1,500 youths are taken for the Sultan's palace and the Latins are ordered to move to Istanbul. Mangup, the capital of Theodoro, surrenders at the end of December 1475 after a siege; Prince Alexander is beheaded in Constantinople. The Orthodox of the Crimea stay under the see of Gothia and Kefe until 1778.",
    "persons": [
     "Mehmed II",
     "Gedik Ahmed Pasha",
     "Alexander of Theodoro"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Feodosia'",
     "Wikipedia, 'Principality of Theodoro' (after Asikpasazade)"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "The Crimea is annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262)."
   },
   {
    "year": 1682,
    "year_text": "1682/3",
    "place": "Trebizond",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "event": "Sevastos Kyminitis founds the Phrontisterion of Trebizond, the Greek school of the Pontus (first housed at the Soumela monastery). It moved into a new three-storey building with 36 classrooms in 1902 and closed in November 1921; the building now houses the Turkish Kanuni Anadolu Lisesi.",
    "persons": [
     "Sevastos Kyminitis"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Phrontisterion of Trapezous'",
     "pontosworld.com, 'Trebizond Tuition Center'"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1763,
    "year_text": "1763",
    "place": "Akhtala and Alaverdi",
    "country": "Armenia",
    "event": "King Erekle (Heraclius) II of Kartli-Kakheti brings Greek miners from the Gümüşhane (Argyroupolis) district to work the silver and lead mines of Akhtala and Alaverdi (silver works 1763, copper works 1770). Wikipedia ('Greeks in Georgia') gives 800 households; the article 'Caucasus Greeks' says 'thousands'. The first Pontic Greek communities of the Caucasus.",
    "persons": [
     "Erekle II"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Georgia'",
     "Wikipedia, 'Caucasus Greeks' (Mikhailidis and Athanasiadis)",
     "Wikipedia, 'Akhtala'"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "The number of families differs between sources."
   },
   {
    "year": 1775,
    "year_text": "1775-1779",
    "place": "Kerch, Yenikale and Taganrog",
    "country": "Ukraine / Russia",
    "event": "Greeks of the Aegean islands who had served in the Russian fleet in the war of 1768-1774 are settled at Kerch and Yenikale (the Greek battalion, at Balaklava from 1784) and at Taganrog, where a Greek merchant community and magistracy grow up.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Greek Battalion of Balaklava'",
     "E. Sifneou and G. Harlaftis, The Greek merchant community of Taganrog, 1780s-1830s (2012)"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "Greeks settled at Taganrog from the late 1770s; the year 1775 is not confirmed."
   },
   {
    "year": 1778,
    "year_text": "9 March to 24 November 1778",
    "place": "The Crimea",
    "country": "Ukraine",
    "event": "By order of Catherine II (decree of 9 March 1778), planned with P. A. Rumyantsev and G. A. Potemkin at the request of Metropolitan Ignatius of Gothia and Kefe, A. V. Suvorov moves the Christians of the Crimea to the north coast of the Sea of Azov, 26 July to 24 November 1778: 31,386 people in Suvorov's returns, Greeks (Greek-speaking and Turkish-speaking) and Armenians.",
    "persons": [
     "Catherine II",
     "P. A. Rumyantsev",
     "G. A. Potemkin",
     "Ignatius (Gozadinov), Metropolitan of Gothia and Kefe",
     "A. V. Suvorov"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Eviction of Christians from the Crimea (1778)'",
     "cities_v2 records for Sougdaia and Doros (round 1 of this set)"
    ],
    "grade": "A",
    "note": "The split of the 31,386 into Greeks and Armenians is not checked here."
   },
   {
    "year": 1780,
    "year_text": "1779-1780",
    "place": "Mariupol",
    "country": "Ukraine",
    "event": "The Crimean Greeks found Mariupol (on the site of Pavlovsk, at the mouth of the Kalmius) and about twenty villages around it; Mariupol and its villages formed a Greek district with its own Greek court and magistracy (privileges of 1779; the Greek court lasted into the second half of the 19th century). The settlers spoke either a Greek dialect (Rumeic) or a Turkic one (Urum).",
    "persons": [
     "Ignatius (Gozadinov)",
     "G. A. Potemkin"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine (esu.com.ua), Donetsk region",
     "Wikipedia, 'Mariupol'",
     "Ponomaryova, 'The Urums of the North Azov Sea region' (2014)"
    ],
    "grade": "A",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1794,
    "year_text": "1794",
    "place": "Odessa",
    "country": "Ukraine",
    "event": "Odessa is founded; Greek merchants, sailors and officers are among its first settlers and the Greek community becomes one of the city's leading merchant groups (5,086 people of Greek mother tongue in 1897).",
    "persons": [
     "José de Ribas"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Odesa'"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1814,
    "year_text": "14 September 1814",
    "place": "Odessa",
    "country": "Ukraine",
    "event": "Nikolaos Skoufas, Emmanouil Xanthos and Athanasios Tsakalof found the Filiki Eteria (Society of Friends), the secret society that prepared the Greek revolution of 1821. In 1821 the body of the Patriarch Gregory V, hanged in Constantinople, was brought to Odessa and buried there.",
    "persons": [
     "Nikolaos Skoufas",
     "Emmanouil Xanthos",
     "Athanasios Tsakalof",
     "Gregory V"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Filiki Eteria'; Britannica, 'Philikí Etaireía'"
    ],
    "grade": "A",
    "note": "14 September is the traditional date (Xanthos' memoirs)."
   },
   {
    "year": 1829,
    "year_text": "1829-1830",
    "place": "Gümüşhane, Erzurum and Bayburt to the Caucasus",
    "country": "Turkey / Georgia",
    "event": "After the Russo-Turkish war of 1828-1829 (Treaty of Adrianople, 1829), Pontic Greeks of Gümüşhane, Erzurum and Bayburt who had joined or followed the Russian army leave with it for fear of reprisals and settle in Georgia (Tsalka, Tetritskaro, Samtskhe-Javakheti) and southern Russia. A 'conservative estimate' puts them at about 20% of the Greeks of the eastern Pontus (Papadopoulos). Many of the Tsalka settlers spoke Turkish (Urum).",
    "persons": [
     "I. F. Paskevich"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Caucasus Greeks' (Papadopoulos)",
     "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Georgia'",
     "Wikipedia, 'Tsalka language'"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1866,
    "year_text": "1860s-1880s",
    "place": "The Black Sea coast of the Caucasus (Novorossiysk to Sukhumi), Batumi",
    "country": "Russia / Georgia",
    "event": "After the Russian conquest of the north-west Caucasus (1864) and the expulsion of the Circassians, Pontic Greeks from the Ottoman Pontus settle along the coast and in the valleys: Novorossiysk, Anapa, Gelendzhik, Tuapse, Sochi, Sukhumi and the villages of Abkhazia; Batumi after 1878. In 1897 the Black Sea governorate counted 5,969 people of Greek mother tongue (10.4%).",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Black Sea Governorate' (1897 census tables)",
     "Wikipedia, 'Demographics of Abkhazia'"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1878,
    "year_text": "1877-1878",
    "place": "The Kars oblast",
    "country": "Turkey (then Russia)",
    "event": "Russia takes Kars (1877) and keeps the Kars, Ardahan and Batumi districts by the treaty of Berlin (1878). Pontic Greeks settle in about 76-77 villages of the new Kars oblast; the 1897 census counts 32,593 people of Greek mother tongue there (11.2%).",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia (ru), 'Karsskaya oblast' (1897 census)",
     "S. Topalidis, 'A Brief History of Kars' (pontosworld.com)",
     "Wikipedia, 'Caucasus Greeks' (Koromela)"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1897,
    "year_text": "28 January 1897 (Old Style)",
    "place": "Russian Empire",
    "country": "Russia / Ukraine / Georgia",
    "event": "The first general census of the Russian Empire counts 186,925 people of Greek mother tongue (101,706 men, 85,219 women). Turkish-speaking Greeks (Urum) are counted under Turkish or Tatar and are not in this figure.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Demoscope Weekly, 1897 census by mother tongue (rus_lan_97)"
    ],
    "grade": "A",
    "note": "Figures by governorate in the communities section."
   },
   {
    "year": 1906,
    "year_text": "Summer 1906 (Anchialos burnt on 30 July 1906, Old Style)",
    "place": "Varna, Anchialos (Pomorie) and other towns of Bulgaria",
    "country": "Bulgaria",
    "event": "Anti-Greek riots in Bulgaria during the Greek-Bulgarian struggle over Macedonia. Anchialos, about 82% Greek, is burnt on 30 July 1906, Old Style by Bulgarian rioters, many of them from Burgas and many of them refugees from Macedonia; more than half of its Greeks leave and found Nea Anchialos near Volos. The Bulgarian authorities take over Greek churches and schools in the coastal towns.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "A. Lyberatos, 'Confronting the Urban Crowd: Bulgarian Society and the 1906 anti-Greek Movement' (2013)",
     "Wikipedia, 'Pomorie'; 'Nea Anchialos'"
    ],
    "grade": "A",
    "note": "The death toll needs a scholarly source."
   },
   {
    "year": 1914,
    "year_text": "1914-1918, again 1921-1922",
    "place": "The Pontus and all Anatolia",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "event": "Greek men of military age are drafted into the labour battalions (amele taburları), where death rates were very high ('The life of a Greek in a labor gang is generally about two months': a British intelligence officer).",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Pontic Greek genocide'",
     "S. Topalidis, 'A History of Rize' (Patriarchate 1919)"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1916,
    "year_text": "April 1916 to February 1918",
    "place": "Trebizond and the eastern Pontus",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "event": "The Russian army occupies the eastern Pontus, Rize and Trebizond (Trebizond taken in April 1916). Further west the Ottoman authorities deport the coastal Greeks inland: Kastamonu coast and Sinop (1916, consul Kuckhoff), notables of Samsun, Bafra, Ordu, Tirebolu, Amasya and Çarşamba (December 1916), mass expulsions at Samsun on 10-13 January 1917 (Refet Pasha reported 13,406 Rum sent inland, by an Ottoman archival document cited by Biber (unchecked)).",
    "persons": [
     "Refet Pasha (Bele)",
     "Kamil Pasha",
     "M. Kuckhoff (German consul)",
     "Chrysanthos, Metropolitan of Trebizond"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Pontic Greek genocide'",
     "BOA DH.SFR 548/1 (12 March 1917), via Biber",
     "Travis 2017 (Kuckhoff)"
    ],
    "grade": "A",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1918,
    "year_text": "3 March - April 1918",
    "place": "Kars oblast",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "event": "The treaty of Brest-Litovsk returns Kars, Ardahan and Batumi to the Ottomans; about 50,000 Greeks flee when the Ottoman army takes Kars in April 1918 (about 10,000 believed to have died: Petsalis-Diomidis). Most of the rest leave through Batumi in 1920-1921 for Greece (Kilkis, Drama) (Topalidis).",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "S. Topalidis, 'A Brief History of Kars' (pontosworld.com)",
     "Wikipedia, 'Caucasus Greeks' (Xanthopoulou-Kyriakou)"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1919,
    "year_text": "27 November 1919",
    "place": "Neuilly; the Bulgarian coast",
    "country": "Bulgaria",
    "event": "The Greek-Bulgarian convention on reciprocal and voluntary emigration is signed with the peace treaty of Neuilly; a Mixed Commission (1920-1931) carries it out, with the Mollov-Kafantaris agreement (Geneva, 9 December 1927) on the emigrants' property. The Greeks of Bulgaria fall from 46,759 (census of 1920) to 10,564 (1926); the coastal Greek towns empty.",
    "persons": [
     "Nikolaos Politis",
     "Hristo Kalfov"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Bulgaria' (census table)",
     "cities_v2 records for Mesembria and Anchialos"
    ],
    "grade": "A",
    "note": "Ladas (1932) is often cited for about 46,000 Greeks leaving Bulgaria and about 92,000 Bulgarians leaving Greece; not confirmed in this check."
   },
   {
    "year": 1921,
    "year_text": "June to September 1921",
    "place": "Samsun, Bafra, Merzifon, Amasya",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "event": "On 16 June 1921 the Ankara government orders the deportation of all Greek men aged 16-50 from the coast (about 21,000 deported from Samsun). Bafra is besieged from 5 June; about 1,300 Greeks are killed in the Kavak gorge on 15 or 16 August and the women and children deported (31 August, 19 September). Topal Osman's bands kill 1,000-1,500 Greeks and Armenians at Merzifon. The Independence Tribunal at Amasya (20 August - 21 September 1921) tries the Pontic Greek leaders for a 'Pontic state' plot: 177 hanged (Tsirkinidis), among them Matthaios Kofidis and Nikos Kapetanidis.",
    "persons": [
     "Topal Osman",
     "Nureddin Pasha",
     "Emin Bey Gevecioğlu (presiding judge)",
     "Matthaios Kofidis",
     "Nikos Kapetanidis"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Pontic Greek genocide'",
     "Wikipedia, 'Amasya trials' (Tsirkinidis 1999; Hofmann 2007)",
     "Morris & Ze'evi 2019, 401-416"
    ],
    "grade": "A",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1923,
    "year_text": "30 January 1923",
    "place": "Lausanne; the Pontus",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "event": "The Convention concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations is signed at Lausanne. The surviving Orthodox of the Pontus, Greek- or Turkish-speaking, are removed to Greece; the Muslim Greek speakers of Of, Çaykara, Sürmene and Tonya stay. The Greeks of Istanbul established there before 30 October 1918 are exempted (Convention, art. 2); those of Imbros and Tenedos stay under art. 14 of the Treaty of Lausanne.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Convention of Lausanne, 30 January 1923, art. 2; Treaty of Lausanne, art. 14"
    ],
    "grade": "A",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1930,
    "year_text": "27 February 1930 to 1938/1939",
    "place": "Krymskaya (Krymsk), Kuban; the Azov villages",
    "country": "Russia / Ukraine",
    "event": "Soviet 'indigenisation': a Greek national district is set up in the Kuban (27 February 1930, centre Krymskaya, from 1932 Nizhne-Bakanskaya); in Ukraine three Greek national districts and 30 Greek village councils (the Sartana, Mangush and Velyka Yanysol districts (unchecked: the names)). Greek schools, newspapers (Kolektivistis) and the Mariupol Greek theatre (1932) open. The districts are abolished in 1938-1939.",
    "persons": [
     "Georgis Kostoprav"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Greek Autonomous District'",
     "Wikipedia, 'Ukrainian Greeks'",
     "O. Demidko, Teatralne mystetstvo grekiv (Mariupol State University, 2014)"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "Abolition of the Kuban district: 22 February 1938 or 6 March 1939 (Wikipedia gives both)."
   },
   {
    "year": 1937,
    "year_text": "11 December 1937 (arrests from 15 December) to 1938",
    "place": "USSR: Donetsk (Stalino) oblast, Kuban, Crimea, Georgia, Abkhazia",
    "country": "Ukraine / Russia / Georgia",
    "event": "NKVD directive no. 50215 of 11 December 1937, signed by N. I. Yezhov, launches the 'Greek operation' against the Soviet Greeks. in Donetsk oblast 3,470 people of Greek origin were shot (Demidko, after Dzhukha); Greek schools, the press and the Mariupol Greek theatre are closed (theatre liquidated by Donetsk oblast executive protocol no. 145 of 28 January 1938). Higher estimates: 15,000 shot and 20,000 sent to the Gulag (I. Dzhukha, as quoted by Wikipedia; his figures are quoted differently elsewhere), 20,000-50,000 killed or disappeared (V. Agtzidis 1991).",
    "persons": [
     "N. I. Yezhov",
     "J. V. Stalin",
     "Georgis Kostoprav (shot)"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Greek Operation'",
     "O. Demidko 2014 (Mariupol State University)",
     "calend.ru, 'Day of remembrance of the victims of the Greek operation' (15 December)"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "The NKVD's own totals for the Greek line, often quoted from Okhotin and Roginsky, were not found in this check and are left out."
   },
   {
    "year": 1942,
    "year_text": "29 May 1942",
    "place": "Krasnodar krai",
    "country": "Russia",
    "event": "On Stalin's order 1,402 Greeks, 562 of them children under 16, are deported from Krasnodar krai to Kazakhstan and Siberia (Bugay 1996).",
    "persons": [
     "J. V. Stalin"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Deportation of the Soviet Greeks' (Bugay 1996, p. 87)"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "The decree number is not given in the sources seen."
   },
   {
    "year": 1942,
    "year_text": "11 November 1942",
    "place": "Istanbul",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "event": "The Wealth Tax (Varlık Vergisi, law 4305) is assessed far more heavily on non-Muslims; Greek, Armenian and Jewish defaulters lose their property and are sent to labour camps at Aşkale.",
    "persons": [
     "Şükrü Saracoğlu government"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "cities_v2 record for Byzantium (round 1)",
     "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Turkey'"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1944,
    "year_text": "2 June 1944 (decree); 27 June 1944 (deportation)",
    "place": "The Crimea (Sevastopol, Balaklava, Kerch, Feodosia, Yalta, Simferopol), Kuban and Rostov",
    "country": "Ukraine / Russia",
    "event": "On L. P. Beria's proposal of 29 May 1944, State Defence Committee decree no. 5984ss of 2 June 1944 orders the deportation of the Greeks, Bulgarians and Armenians of the Crimea; on 27 June 1944 the NKVD deports 15,040 Greeks from the Crimea, including 3,350 foreign Greeks with expired passports (Bugay 1996), to Central Asia and the Urals; a further 8,300 Greeks are deported from Krasnodar krai and Rostov oblast (operation under I. Serov).",
    "persons": [
     "J. V. Stalin",
     "L. P. Beria",
     "I. A. Serov"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Deportation of the Soviet Greeks' (Bugay 1996, p. 88)",
     "Inslav, Greki Balaklavy i Sevastopolya (2013)"
    ],
    "grade": "A",
    "note": "Another count: 14,300 Greeks of Soviet citizenship and 3,531 holders of expired Greek passports (cited in round 1)."
   },
   {
    "year": 1949,
    "year_text": "29 May 1949 (decree); mid-June 1949 (deportation)",
    "place": "Black Sea coast of Krasnodar krai, Abkhazia, Adjara, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, southern Ukraine",
    "country": "Russia / Georgia / Armenia / Azerbaijan / Ukraine",
    "event": "Operation Volna: under USSR Council of Ministers decree no. 2214-856ss, Greeks who held or had held Greek or Turkish citizenship, with their families (unchecked: the categories), Turks and Dashnaks are deported to Kazakhstan; 57,680 people in all (Bugay 1996). Greeks: 4,474 families or 21,837 people from Abkhazia (Gegia 2020); 4,396 from Krasnodar krai; 476 from Odesa, Melitopol, Kherson and Izmail; 323 from Azerbaijan. Estimates for all Greeks deported range from 27,000 (de Waal), 31,386 (Kaiser 2019) and 36,000 (Kaya) to about 50,000 (Voutira).",
    "persons": [
     "J. V. Stalin"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Deportation of the Soviet Greeks' (Bugay 1996; Kaiser 2019)",
     "S. Topalidis, Greeks from the former Soviet Union (Voutira 2011)",
     "E. G. Gegia, Caucasian Science Bridge 3.3 (2020)"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "The figures overlap and are not additive."
   },
   {
    "year": 1955,
    "year_text": "6-7 September 1955",
    "place": "Istanbul",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "event": "The Istanbul pogrom: after the Istanbul press spread news that Greeks had bombed Atatürk's birthplace in Thessaloniki (the bomb, at the Turkish consulate next door, had been planted by a Turkish usher of the consulate, who later confessed), crowds attack the Greeks of Istanbul: 13-16 Greeks killed by some counts, 37 by a compiled list; 5,317 properties damaged (4,214 homes, 1,004 businesses, 73 churches, 26 schools). Organised with the involvement of the governing Democrat Party and the army's Tactical Mobilisation Group, according to the sources cited by Wikipedia; Prime Minister Menderes and Foreign Minister Zorlu were accused of planning it at the Yassıada trial (1961).",
    "persons": [
     "Adnan Menderes",
     "Fatin Rüştü Zorlu"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Istanbul pogrom' (Vryonis; de Zayas)"
    ],
    "grade": "A",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1956,
    "year_text": "1956",
    "place": "Kazakhstan, Central Asia",
    "country": "",
    "event": "The restrictions of the 'special settlement' on the deported Greeks are lifted (MVD order no. 0402 of 25 September 1956, per Bugay); many return to the Black Sea coast, others emigrate to Greece. The deportations were never formally reversed by the Soviet state.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Deportation of the Soviet Greeks' (Bugay 1996, p. 94)"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "Out of the area; given for the return."
   },
   {
    "year": 1964,
    "year_text": "16 March 1964 onward",
    "place": "Istanbul",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "event": "The İnönü government denounces the Greek-Turkish convention of establishment of 1930; more than 12,000 Greek citizens are expelled within two years (Greek Foreign Ministry), each allowed 20 kg of belongings and 200 lira; some 30,000-40,000 Turkish citizens of Greek origin leave with their families. Wikipedia ('Istanbul pogrom') gives about 40,000 ethnic Greeks deported in all, a figure that includes Turkish citizens who left with them.",
    "persons": [
     "İsmet İnönü"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs (as cited in round 1)",
     "Wikipedia, 'Istanbul pogrom'; 'Expulsion of Greeks from Istanbul'"
    ],
    "grade": "A",
    "note": "200 lira was about US$22 at the 1964 rate, the figure Wikipedia gives."
   },
   {
    "year": 1971,
    "year_text": "1971",
    "place": "Halki (Heybeliada), Istanbul",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "event": "A law nationalising private higher education closes the theological school of Halki, the Patriarchate's seminary.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Turkey'"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1990,
    "year_text": "1987-2000",
    "place": "The former USSR to Greece",
    "country": "Georgia / Russia / Ukraine / Armenia",
    "event": "Mass emigration of the Soviet Greeks to Greece: an official Greek survey counted about 155,000 people of Greek descent from the former USSR who arrived 1987-2000 and stayed (Vergeti), 52% of them from Georgia, 21% from Kazakhstan and 15% from Russia (Diamanti-Karanou 2003); the peak year was 1993, with 25,700 (Vergeti). Georgia's Greeks fall from 100,324 (1989) to 15,166 (2002).",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "S. Topalidis, Greeks from the former Soviet Union (Diamanti-Karanou 2003)",
     "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Russia'; 'Greeks in Georgia'"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "The Greek survey was not compulsory and undercounts."
   },
   {
    "year": 1993,
    "year_text": "15-18 August 1993",
    "place": "Sukhumi",
    "country": "Georgia",
    "event": "Operation Golden Fleece: during the war in Abkhazia the Greek state evacuates 1,013 people from Sukhumi on the ferry Viscountes to Alexandroupolis, on the order of Deputy Foreign Minister Virginia Tsouderou; 1,484 Greeks chose to stay. About 15,000 Greeks had lived in Abkhazia in August 1992.",
    "persons": [
     "Virginia Tsouderou"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Operation Golden Fleece'",
     "protothema.gr, 'August 1993: Operation Golden Fleece ... 1,013 compatriots'"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "Abkhazia: outside the Georgian government's control since 1993; recognised as independent by Russia and a few states; regarded as part of Georgia by most states."
   },
   {
    "year": 1994,
    "year_text": "24 February 1994",
    "place": "Athens",
    "country": "Greece",
    "event": "The Greek parliament passes law 2193/1994, recognising the genocide of the Greeks of the Pontus and making 19 May a day of remembrance.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Pontic Greek genocide'",
     "greek-genocide.net, 'Greek Genocide Recognitions'"
    ],
    "grade": "A",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 2007,
    "year_text": "December 2007",
    "place": "",
    "country": "",
    "event": "The International Association of Genocide Scholars adopts a resolution recognising the Ottoman campaign against the Assyrians and the Greeks, 1914-1923, as genocide, alongside the Armenian genocide (83% of voting members).",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Greek genocide'"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "Wikipedia gives 1 December and 16 December 2007."
   },
   {
    "year": 2010,
    "year_text": "11 March 2010",
    "place": "Stockholm",
    "country": "Sweden",
    "event": "The Swedish Riksdag adopts a motion recognising the killing of Armenians, Assyrians/Syriacs/Chaldeans and Pontic Greeks in 1915 as genocide.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Greek genocide'"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 2015,
    "year_text": "March-April 2015",
    "place": "Yerevan, The Hague, Vienna",
    "country": "Armenia",
    "event": "The National Assembly of Armenia (March 2015), the Dutch House of Representatives and the Austrian Parliament (April 2015) recognise the Greek and Assyrian genocides alongside the Armenian.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Greek genocide'"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 2022,
    "year_text": "24 February - 20 May 2022",
    "place": "Mariupol, Sartana, Buhas",
    "country": "Ukraine",
    "event": "Russia's invasion and the siege of Mariupol strike the Azov Greeks: ten ethnic Greeks reported killed in air strikes on 26 February 2022, six at Sartana and four at Buhas (Greek Foreign Ministry); Sartana is reported captured on 1 March. The Greek consul general, Manolis Androulakis, the last EU diplomat in the city, reaches Athens on 20 March. Much of the community fled.",
    "persons": [
     "Manolis Androulakis",
     "Alexandra Protsenko-Pichadzhi (Federation of Greek Communities of Ukraine)"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Sartana, Ukraine'",
     "OBC Transeuropa, 'Ukraine: (Greek) Mariupol is no more' (2022)",
     "Wikipedia, 'Ukrainian Greeks'"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "Under Russian occupation since 2022."
   }
  ],
  "communities": [
   {
    "city": "Istanbul (Constantinople), the Greek community",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Greek",
    "start": "Continuous from antiquity; under Ottoman rule from 29 May 1453",
    "peak": "205,375 Greek Orthodox",
    "peak_year": 1914,
    "peak_basis": "census by religion (Ottoman census of 1914)",
    "series": "1914: 205375 [census by religion (Ottoman); Karpat 1985 via Wikipedia]; 1923: 130000 [estimate ('more than 130,000' stayed, with Imbros and Tenedos); Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs]; 1955: 65108 [census by mother tongue (Greek speakers); Tsilenis, via Wikipedia 'Istanbul pogrom']; 1960: 49081 [census by mother tongue; Tsilenis, via Wikipedia]; 1978: 7000 [estimate; Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Turkey']; 2006: 2500 [estimate; Human Rights Watch, via Wikipedia]; 2012: 2000 [estimate; United Nations, via Wikipedia]",
    "institutions": "The Ecumenical Patriarchate at the Phanar; the Greek schools (Megali tou Genous Scholi, Zografeion, Zappeion (unchecked)); the theological school of Halki (closed 1971); Greek newspapers (Apoyevmatini, Iho (unchecked)); Balıklı hospital (unchecked).",
    "notable": "Exempted from the exchange of 1923 (those established in the city before 30 October 1918).",
    "end": "The Wealth Tax (law 4305, 11 November 1942); the pogrom of 6-7 September 1955; the expulsion of Greek citizens after 16 March 1964 (more than 12,000 expelled, 30,000-40,000 others leaving with them); emigration.",
    "today": "About 2,000-3,000 (estimates); fewer than 100 Greeks live in the Phanar district itself.",
    "lat": 41.03,
    "lon": 28.95,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Turkey'",
     "Wikipedia, 'Istanbul pogrom'",
     "Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 'The Greek minority and its foundations in Istanbul, Imvros and Tenedos'"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "city": "The Greek villages and suburbs of the Bosporus (Tarabya/Therapia, Yeniköy, Arnavutköy/Mega Revma, Büyükdere, Kuzguncuk and others)",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "village group",
    "language": "Greek",
    "start": "Continuous from antiquity",
    "peak": "not found separately (counted with Istanbul)",
    "peak_year": null,
    "peak_basis": "estimate",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "Parish churches and schools in each village (unchecked).",
    "notable": "The summer villages of the Phanariots and the embassies (Therapia) (unchecked).",
    "end": "As for Istanbul: 1942, 1955, 1964 and emigration.",
    "today": "A few Greek families and working parishes remain (unchecked).",
    "lat": 41.1,
    "lon": 29.05,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Turkey'",
     "round 1 presence point 'The Greek villages of the Bosporus'"
    ],
    "grade": "C"
   },
   {
    "city": "Trabzon (Trebizond, Trapezous), the Greek community 1461-1923",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Pontic Greek",
    "start": "From the Ottoman conquest of 1461 the Greeks became a community in a city the Ottomans settled with Muslims; Muslims were the majority from about 1583.",
    "peak": "23,806 Greek Orthodox in the kaza of Trabzon",
    "peak_year": 1914,
    "peak_basis": "census by religion (Ottoman census of 1914, kaza)",
    "series": "1486:  (65.2%) [tax register (households); TDV, after Lowry]; 1583:  (38.3%) [tax register (Rum and Armenians together); TDV, after Lowry]; 1834: 1586 [Rum adult males; TDV]; 1881: 1799 (17.3%) [salname (Rum adult males of 10,383); TDV]; 1913: 2500 [church survey (families; 13 churches); Chrysanthos, Archeion Pontou 4-5 (1933)]; 1914: 23806 (23.0%) [census by religion (kaza); Karpat 1985]",
    "institutions": "The metropolis of Trebizond; the Phrontisterion (founded 1682/3; new building 1902; closed November 1921); Greek newspapers; the Greek consulate (unchecked).",
    "notable": "Under Russian occupation April 1916 - February 1918, the city's Greeks escaped the deportations further west; Metropolitan Chrysanthos (later Archbishop of Athens) led the community.",
    "end": "The flight of 1918, the labour battalions of 1921-1922, the expulsion of January 1923 and the exchange of 1923-1924.",
    "today": "No Greek Orthodox community; the Phrontisterion building is the Kanuni Anadolu Lisesi; Romeyka-speaking Muslims from the valleys live in the city.",
    "lat": 41.005,
    "lon": 39.73,
    "sources": [
     "TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi, 'Trabzon' (after Lowry)",
     "Bryer & Winfield 1985",
     "Wikipedia, 'Phrontisterion of Trapezous'",
     "Wikipedia, 'Trebizond vilayet' (1914 census)"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "city": "Samsun (Amisos), the Greek community",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Pontic Greek",
    "start": "A small Rum community after the conquest (81 adult Rum males in 1485); grew strongly in the 19th c. with the tobacco trade.",
    "peak": "8,618 Greek Orthodox in the town",
    "peak_year": 1911,
    "peak_basis": "church survey (Greek consular census of 1911)",
    "series": "1485: 81 [tax register (adult males); TDV, 'Samsun']; 1847: 240 (30.0%) [households (500 Turkish, 240 Rum, 60 Armenian); TDV]; 1911: 8618 [Greek consular census (town); Kitromilides & Alexandris 1984]; 1914: 54709 (52.4%) [census by religion (Canik kaza); Karpat 1985]",
    "institutions": "Metropolis of Amaseia at Samsun; Greek schools and churches (unchecked).",
    "notable": "Greek tobacco merchants; the Amasya trials of 1921 hanged many of its leading men.",
    "end": "Expulsions inland December 1916 - January 1917 (13,406 Rum sent inland, report of Refet Pasha); deportation of the men aged 16-50 from June 1921 (about 21,000 from Samsun); the remnant left under the exchange of 1923.",
    "today": "No Greek community.",
    "lat": 41.29,
    "lon": 36.33,
    "sources": [
     "TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi, 'Samsun'",
     "Kitromilides & Alexandris, Deltio Kentrou Mikrasiatikon Spoudon 5 (1984)",
     "Wikipedia, 'Pontic Greek genocide'"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "city": "Giresun (Kerasous), the Greek community",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Pontic Greek",
    "start": "Continuous from the medieval town; a Christian majority until the 17th c., then a Greek half of the town in the 19th c.",
    "peak": "24,138 Greek Orthodox in the kaza",
    "peak_year": 1914,
    "peak_basis": "census by religion (Ottoman census of 1914, kaza)",
    "series": "1515: 221 [tax register (Christian households); TDV, 'Giresun']; 1847:  (50.0%) [houses (750, half Christian); TDV]; 1870: 2866 (28.9%) [salname (2,866 Greeks of 9,900); cities.blacksea.gr]; 1890: 4906 [estimate (Cuinet); TDV]; 1914: 24138 (20.3%) [census by religion (kaza); Karpat 1985]",
    "institutions": "Greek churches and schools (unchecked).",
    "notable": "Topal Osman, mayor of Giresun from 1919, led bands against the Greeks of the district 1919-1922.",
    "end": "Coast villages deported inland 1916-1917; Topal Osman's killings and deportations 1920-1922; the remnant left under the exchange of 1923.",
    "today": "No Greek community.",
    "lat": 40.91,
    "lon": 38.39,
    "sources": [
     "TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi, 'Giresun'",
     "Wikipedia, 'Topal Osman' (Morris & Ze'evi 2019)"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "city": "Ordu (Kotyora), the Greek community",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Pontic Greek",
    "start": "Greek settlers came into the growing town in the 19th c.",
    "peak": "18,505 Greek Orthodox in the kaza",
    "peak_year": 1914,
    "peak_basis": "census by religion (Ottoman census of 1914, kaza)",
    "series": "1878: 2626 [salname (kaza centre); TDV, 'Ordu']; 1895: 10443 [Ottoman figure (kaza); TDV]; 1914: 18505 (13.0%) [census by religion (kaza); Karpat 1985]",
    "institutions": "Greek churches and schools (unchecked).",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "Notables deported December 1916; men aged 16-50 removed from July 1917; about 2,500 left with the Russians after August 1917 and the rest were expelled inland; a second deportation in 1921; killings by Topal Osman's men in 1922; the remnant left under the exchange of 1923.",
    "today": "No Greek community.",
    "lat": 40.98,
    "lon": 37.88,
    "sources": [
     "TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi, 'Ordu (şehir)'",
     "pontosworld.com, 'Kotyora - Ordu'",
     "Wikipedia, 'Topal Osman' (Morris & Ze'evi 2019, 416)"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "city": "Sinop (Sinope), the Greek community",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Pontic Greek",
    "start": "Continuous from antiquity; a minority after the Ottoman conquest of 1458.",
    "peak": "3,668 Orthodox",
    "peak_year": 1911,
    "peak_basis": "church survey (consular census of 1911)",
    "series": "1911: 3668 [consular census; Kitromilides & Alexandris 1984]; 1922: 3768 [Greek figure; round 1 record]",
    "institutions": "",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "Exile of the Greeks in 1916 (consul Kuckhoff); deportation of the Christian children of Sinop and Gerze, September-October 1921 (Morris & Ze'evi 2019: 411); the remnant left under the exchange of 1923.",
    "today": "No Greek community.",
    "lat": 42.03,
    "lon": 35.15,
    "sources": [
     "Morris & Ze'evi 2019, 411",
     "Travis 2017 (Kuckhoff)"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "city": "Gümüşhane (Argyroupolis), the Greek community",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "town",
    "language": "Pontic Greek",
    "start": "Greek miners of the silver mines, with privileges under Murad III (1574-1595).",
    "peak": "405 Greek houses",
    "peak_year": 1857,
    "peak_basis": "estimate (consular)",
    "series": "1857: 405 [houses (consular); Topalidis]; 1870: 300 [families (Ioannidis); Topalidis]; 1914: 1600 (53.3%) [estimate (unsourced settlement list); pontosworld.com after Samouilidis 1992]",
    "institutions": "Archdiocese of Chaldia (from 1650); the Phrontisterion of Argyroupolis (from 1723).",
    "notable": "The mother town of the Greek miners who went to the Caucasus in 1763 and of many settlers of 1829-1830.",
    "end": "Mass departure with the Russian army 1829-1830; Russian occupation 1916-1918; exchange of 1923-1924.",
    "today": "No Greek community.",
    "lat": 40.46,
    "lon": 39.48,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Gümüşhane'",
     "S. Topalidis (pontosworld.com)"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "The Romeyka-speaking Muslim villages of Of, Çaykara, Dernekpazarı, Sürmene and Tonya",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "village group",
    "language": "Pontic Greek",
    "start": "Greek-speaking villages of the Pontic valleys; their people became Muslim, mostly in the 17th c. (under pressure from the valley lords, as Topalidis puts it), and kept their Greek.",
    "peak": "no census by language",
    "peak_year": null,
    "peak_basis": "estimate",
    "series": "1987:  [village count: 17 of 21 villages of Çaykara Greek-speaking; P. Mackridge, BMGS 11 (1987)]; 2020: 2000 [estimate ('a couple of thousand native speakers in the Trabzon area'); S. Topalidis, 'Romeyka, an Endangered Greek Dialect' (pontosworld.com)]",
    "institutions": "None in Greek; Muslim religious schools of Of were renowned (unchecked).",
    "notable": "Muslims, so not exchanged in 1923; their Romeyka keeps old features (the infinitive) lost in other Greek, as studied by I. Sitaridou (Cambridge).",
    "end": "Gradual shift to Turkish; most speakers are older people.",
    "today": "Still spoken, mostly by people over 50; speakers also in Istanbul and Germany. Estimates of speakers vary widely and none is a count.",
    "lat": 40.75,
    "lon": 40.24,
    "sources": [
     "P. Mackridge, BMGS 11 (1987) 115-137",
     "University of Cambridge news (2024), 'Last chance to record archaic Greek language'",
     "S. Topalidis, pontosworld.com"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Kars, the Greek community",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Pontic Greek",
    "start": "Pontic Greek settlers under Russian rule from 1877-1878 (a few from c. 1860).",
    "peak": "733 people of Greek mother tongue (3.5% of 20,805)",
    "peak_year": 1897,
    "peak_basis": "census by mother tongue (Russian census of 1897)",
    "series": "1886: 322 (8.2%) [count; Wikipedia, 'Kars']; 1897: 733 (3.5%) [census by mother tongue; Wikipedia, 'Kars']",
    "institutions": "Greek church and school (unchecked).",
    "notable": "Seat of the Greek villages of the oblast.",
    "end": "Flight in April 1918 when the Ottoman army took Kars after Brest-Litovsk; the rest left in 1919-1921.",
    "today": "No Greek community.",
    "lat": 40.6,
    "lon": 43.1,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Kars' (1886 and 1897 tables)",
     "S. Topalidis, 'A Brief History of Kars' (pontosworld.com)"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "The Greek villages of the Kars oblast (Kars, Ardahan, Sarıkamış, Göle, Oltu)",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "village group",
    "language": "mixed",
    "start": "Settlers from the Pontus (Gümüşhane, Trabzon) and from Georgia after the Russian conquest of 1877-1878.",
    "peak": "about 53,700",
    "peak_year": 1914,
    "peak_basis": "estimate",
    "series": "1897: 32593 (11.2%) [census by mother tongue (Russian census of 1897, whole oblast); Wikipedia (ru), 'Karsskaya oblast']; 1907: 37456 [Greek count (76 villages); Lazaridis 1988, via Topalidis]; 1914: 53700 [estimate; Sagir 2021, via Topalidis]",
    "institutions": "About 77 towns and villages, each with a school (Koromela).",
    "notable": "Most spoke Pontic Greek; some were Turkish-speaking (unchecked).",
    "end": "About 50,000 fled in April 1918 (some 10,000 believed dead: Petsalis-Diomidis); the rest left through Batumi in 1919-1921, most for Kilkis and Drama in Greece; others went to the North Caucasus.",
    "today": "No Greek community; former Greek villages survive under Turkish names.",
    "lat": 40.55,
    "lon": 42.75,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia (ru), 'Karsskaya oblast'",
     "S. Topalidis, 'A Brief History of Kars' (pontosworld.com)",
     "Wikipedia, 'Caucasus Greeks'"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Rize (Rhizaion), the Greek community",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "town",
    "language": "Pontic Greek",
    "start": "All Christian in 1486 except the garrison; a minority from the 17th c.",
    "peak": "1,507 Greek Orthodox in the kaza",
    "peak_year": 1914,
    "peak_basis": "census by religion (Ottoman census of 1914, kaza)",
    "series": "1870: 81 [Rum households (kaza); TDV, 'Rize']; 1913: 310 [church survey (families; 2 churches); Chrysanthos, Archeion Pontou 4-5 (1933)]; 1914: 1507 [census by religion (kaza); Karpat 1985]; 1919: 4 [church report ('four Greeks left'); Patriarchate 1919, via Topalidis]",
    "institutions": "Two churches and a school (unchecked: the school).",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "Boycott of Christian businesses from May 1914; Russian occupation 8 March 1916 - early 1918; in early 1918 returning Turkish irregular bands destroyed the Greeks' churches, schools and houses and the inhabitants were forced to leave for Russia (Patriarchate 1919, p. 113).",
    "today": "No Greek community.",
    "lat": 41.02,
    "lon": 40.52,
    "sources": [
     "TDV Islam Ansiklopedisi, 'Rize'",
     "S. Topalidis, 'A History of Rize, Pontos' (pontosworld.com)"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Santa (the seven villages of Santa, Dumanlı)",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "village group",
    "language": "Pontic Greek",
    "start": "Greek villages of Chaldia, wholly Greek-speaking by the end of the 19th c.",
    "peak": "3,075 people",
    "peak_year": 1857,
    "peak_basis": "estimate (British consular count)",
    "series": "1857: 3075 [estimate (British consular count); Pontus gazetteer]",
    "institutions": "Village churches and schools (unchecked).",
    "notable": "An armed band under Euklidis Kourtidis held the passes from 1916.",
    "end": "April 1915: 50 men taken to the labour battalions; 6-12 September 1921 the villagers were deported by Kemalist troops via Hunuz to Erzurum; the survivors were exchanged in 1923-1924 (Topalidis).",
    "today": "Turkish summer villages; no Greek community.",
    "lat": 40.67,
    "lon": 39.8,
    "sources": [
     "S. Topalidis, 'Santa, Pontos After 1914' (pontosworld.com)",
     "Pontus gazetteer of set 17 (Samouilidis 1992)"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "The Matsouka (Maçka) valley",
    "country": "Turkey",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "village group",
    "language": "Pontic Greek",
    "start": "Greek villages of the Empire of Trebizond's district of Matsouka (named in 1223), with the monasteries of Soumela, Vazelon and Peristereota; still all Christian after the conquest.",
    "peak": "12,224 Greeks in the kaza of Maçka",
    "peak_year": 1912,
    "peak_basis": "church survey",
    "series": "1486: 8930 (99.7%) [tax register (8,930 Christians and 30 Muslims in 52 villages); Lowry 1986: 128, via Topalidis]; 1912: 12224 [church survey; Alexandris 1999, via Topalidis]",
    "institutions": "The monasteries of Soumela, Vazelon and Peristereota; the metropolis of Rhodopolis (from 1863).",
    "notable": "Women deported from the coast were held at the Vazelon monastery in 1916-1918.",
    "end": "Most of the kaza town burned by autumn 1916 (Mintslov 1923); 17 Greek men beheaded near Maçka in June 1922 (Morris & Ze'evi 2019: 421); the valley emptied in the exchange of 1923.",
    "today": "No Greek community; Soumela is a museum with a yearly liturgy on 15 August (since 2010) (unchecked).",
    "lat": 40.81,
    "lon": 39.61,
    "sources": [
     "S. Topalidis, 'A History of Maçka, Pontos' (pontosworld.com)",
     "Morris & Ze'evi 2019, 421"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Batumi, the Greek community",
    "country": "Georgia",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Pontic Greek",
    "start": "Pontic Greeks from the 1860s, many more after the Russian annexation of 1878.",
    "peak": "about 3,500",
    "peak_year": 1907,
    "peak_basis": "estimate (contemporary, Georgian archives)",
    "series": "1886: 1660 (11.2%) [family lists (of 14,803); Wikipedia, 'Batumi']; 1907: 3500 [estimate; Badashvili 2023]; 2002: 587 [census by nationality (Georgia); Wikipedia (ru), 'Batumi']; 2014: 289 [census by nationality (Georgia); Wikipedia (ru), 'Batumi']",
    "institutions": "Greek church and school; Greek consulate 1908-1910.",
    "notable": "In 1919-1921 the port of departure for the Greeks of the Kars oblast (about 53,000 by one count) on their way to Greece.",
    "end": "Emigration in the 1920s-1930s; the deportation of June 1949; emigration after 1990.",
    "today": "A small community (289 in 2014).",
    "lat": 41.64,
    "lon": 41.64,
    "sources": [
     "N. Badashvili, Greeks in Georgia (2023)",
     "Wikipedia, 'Batumi'"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Sukhumi, the Greek community",
    "country": "Georgia",
    "disputed": "Abkhazia: outside the Georgian government's control since 1993; recognised as independent by Russia and a few states; regarded as part of Georgia by most states.",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Pontic Greek",
    "start": "Pontic Greek merchants and settlers from 1867.",
    "peak": "7,069 Greeks (6.5%)",
    "peak_year": 1979,
    "peak_basis": "census by nationality (Soviet census)",
    "series": "1897: 1143 (14.3%) [census by mother tongue (Russian census); Wikipedia, 'Sukhumi']; 1926: 2298 (10.7%) [census by nationality; Wikipedia, 'Sukhumi']; 1939: 4990 (11.3%) [census by nationality; Wikipedia, 'Sukhumi']; 1959: 3141 (4.9%) [census by nationality; Wikipedia, 'Sukhumi']; 1979: 7069 (6.5%) [census by nationality; Wikipedia, 'Sukhumi']; 2011: 645 [census by nationality (de facto Abkhaz census); Wikipedia, 'Sukhumi']",
    "institutions": "Sukhum Hellenic Society; two theatres funded by Greek merchants (1911-1912); a Greek pedagogical college, newspaper and theatre, closed in 1938.",
    "notable": "Operation Golden Fleece, 15-18 August 1993: 1,013 people taken by Greece from Sukhumi to Alexandroupolis.",
    "end": "Repression of 1937-1938; deportation of June 1949; war of 1992-1993 and the evacuation of 1993; emigration.",
    "today": "A few hundred (645 in 2011).",
    "lat": 43.0,
    "lon": 41.02,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Sukhumi' (census table)",
     "Wikipedia, 'Operation Golden Fleece'",
     "Great Russian Encyclopedia, 'Sukhum'"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "The Greek villages of Abkhazia (Sukhumi, Gulripshi, Ochamchire districts)",
    "country": "Georgia",
    "disputed": "Abkhazia: outside the Georgian government's control since 1993; recognised as independent by Russia and a few states; regarded as part of Georgia by most states.",
    "kind": "village group",
    "language": "Pontic Greek",
    "start": "Pontic Greek settlers from the 1860s; many more after 1878 and during and after the First World War.",
    "peak": "34,621 Greeks (11.1% of Abkhazia)",
    "peak_year": 1939,
    "peak_basis": "census by nationality (Soviet census)",
    "series": "1886: 2149 [family lists; Wikipedia, 'Demographics of Abkhazia']; 1897: 5393 [census by mother tongue (Russian census); Wikipedia, 'Demographics of Abkhazia']; 1926: 14045 [census by nationality; Wikipedia, 'Demographics of Abkhazia']; 1939: 34621 (11.1%) [census by nationality; Wikipedia, 'Demographics of Abkhazia']; 1959: 9101 [census by nationality; Wikipedia, 'Demographics of Abkhazia']; 1989: 14664 [census by nationality; Wikipedia, 'Demographics of Abkhazia']; 2003: 1486 [census by nationality (de facto); Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Georgia']; 2011: 1380 [census by nationality (de facto, 'about'); round 1 presence point]",
    "institutions": "Greek village schools (Greek-language teaching until 1938).",
    "notable": "The fall from 34,621 (1939) to 9,101 (1959) is the deportation of 1949: 4,474 families or 21,837 Greeks from Abkhazia (Gegia 2020).",
    "end": "1937-1938: 2,184 arrested and 786 shot in Abkhazia, mostly Abkhaz and Greeks (figure of a community author, Kesanidis); 14-19 June 1949 deportation to Kazakhstan; war of 1992-1993 and emigration.",
    "today": "About 1,400 in all Abkhazia (2011).",
    "lat": 43.05,
    "lon": 41.1,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Demographics of Abkhazia'",
     "E. G. Gegia, Caucasian Science Bridge 3.3 (2020)",
     "Kh. Kesanidis, 'Repression of Greeks in Abkhazia' (community author)"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Tbilisi (Tiflis), the Greek community",
    "country": "Georgia",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "mixed",
    "start": "Greek merchants and miners' families from about 1800; many more settlers from the Pontus in the 19th c.",
    "peak": "about 21,700 (21.6% of Georgia's 100,324 Greeks)",
    "peak_year": 1989,
    "peak_basis": "census by nationality (derived from the share)",
    "series": "1989: 21670 [census by nationality (derived); Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Georgia']; 2002: 3792 [census by nationality (Georgia); Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Georgia']",
    "institutions": "Greek consulate from 1900; Greek churches and schools; the Union of Greeks in Georgia.",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "Mass emigration to Greece and Russia after 1989.",
    "today": "3,792 in 2002; fewer since.",
    "lat": 41.69,
    "lon": 44.8,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Georgia'",
     "N. Badashvili, Greeks in Georgia (2023)"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Tsalka and its Greek villages",
    "country": "Georgia",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "village group",
    "language": "Urum (Turkish)",
    "start": "Settlers from the Erzurum and Gümüşhane districts after the war of 1828-1829 (642 families listed in 1831).",
    "peak": "30,800 Greeks (62.5% of Tsalka district; 24 of its 39 villages Greek)",
    "peak_year": 1979,
    "peak_basis": "census by nationality (Soviet census)",
    "series": "1831: 642 [families (settler lists); Wikipedia, 'Tsalka language']; 1926: 20000 [estimate: of 24,000 Greeks of Tiflis and its area, 20,000 Turkish-speaking; Wikipedia, 'Urums' (Popov)]; 1979: 30800 (62.5%) [census by nationality; Aklaev 1988]; 1989: 27000 (61.0%) [census by nationality; 'The Greeks of Georgia: migration and socioeconomic problems' (cyberleninka)]; 2002: 4600 [census by nationality (Georgia); same]",
    "institutions": "Greek was taught in the Tsalka schools in the 1930s.",
    "notable": "Most of Tsalka's Greeks spoke Turkish (Urum), not Greek: in Aklaev's survey no one in the Urum villages of Beshtasheni and Imera spoke Greek freely; a few villages (Sameba/Santa, Neon Kharaba) spoke Pontic.",
    "end": "Emigration to Greece (Thessaloniki, Macedonia) and southern Russia after 1989; from the late 1990s and above all 2006-2007 the state settled eco-migrants from Svaneti and Adjara in the empty houses.",
    "today": "A few hundred, mostly elderly (about 7% of the municipality in 2014).",
    "lat": 41.59,
    "lon": 44.09,
    "sources": [
     "A. R. Aklaev, Sovetskaya etnografiya 1988.5",
     "Wikipedia, 'Tsalka language'; 'Urums'",
     "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Georgia'"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "city": "The Greek villages of Tetritskaro (Tsintskaro, Iraga and others) and Marneuli",
    "country": "Georgia",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "village group",
    "language": "mixed",
    "start": "Miners' descendants and Pontic settlers from the early 19th c. (from 1813 by one account).",
    "peak": "not found",
    "peak_year": null,
    "peak_basis": "estimate",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "",
    "notable": "Descendants of the Akhtala and Alaverdi miners live in the Marneuli district (Wikipedia).",
    "end": "Emigration after 1990.",
    "today": "Small remnants (unchecked).",
    "lat": 41.54,
    "lon": 44.46,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Georgia'",
     "round 1 presence points"
    ],
    "grade": "C"
   },
   {
    "city": "Alaverdi and Akhtala, with Madan, Yaghdan and Hankavan",
    "country": "Armenia",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "mining settlement",
    "language": "Pontic Greek",
    "start": "Greek miners from Gümüşhane brought by Erekle II in 1763 (silver at Akhtala 1763, copper 1770).",
    "peak": "5,690 Greeks in all Armenia",
    "peak_year": 1970,
    "peak_basis": "census by nationality (Soviet census, whole republic)",
    "series": "1926: 2980 [census by nationality (Armenia); Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Armenia']; 1989: 4650 [census by nationality (Armenia); Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Armenia']; 2011: 900 [census by nationality (Armenia); Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Armenia']",
    "institutions": "The Greek church of Hankavan; the mines passed to the Compagnie Française des Mines d'Akhtala (1887-1914).",
    "notable": "The oldest Pontic Greek community of the Caucasus; Yaghdan is called 'the last remaining Greek village in Armenia'.",
    "end": "Emigration to Greece and Russia in the 1990s.",
    "today": "Alaverdi has the largest Greek community in Armenia; a few families at Akhtala.",
    "lat": 41.12,
    "lon": 44.7,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Armenia'",
     "Wikipedia, 'Akhtala'",
     "Hetq, on the Greeks of Madan and Akhtala"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Gadabay (Kedabek) mines and Mehmana",
    "country": "Azerbaijan",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "mining settlement",
    "language": "Pontic Greek",
    "start": "Greek miners at the Gadabay copper mines (worked by Siemens from 1865 (unchecked)) and at Mehmana in the Karabakh hills (from c. 1820 (unchecked)).",
    "peak": "not found",
    "peak_year": null,
    "peak_basis": "estimate",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "",
    "notable": "Mehmana is said to have been purely Greek until 1992 (one visitor's account, S. Kalenteridis).",
    "end": "323 Greeks deported from Azerbaijan in 1949 (Kaiser 2019); emigration after the fighting of 1992.",
    "today": "About 10 Greeks at Mehmana in 2015 (same account).",
    "lat": 40.57,
    "lon": 45.81,
    "sources": [
     "Greek City Times, 8 Oct 2020 (after S. Kalenteridis)",
     "Wikipedia, 'Deportation of the Soviet Greeks' (Kaiser 2019)"
    ],
    "grade": "C"
   },
   {
    "city": "Vladikavkaz, the Greek community",
    "country": "Russia",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Pontic Greek",
    "start": "Pontic Greeks from the 1880s (unchecked).",
    "peak": "over 3,000",
    "peak_year": 1999,
    "peak_basis": "estimate",
    "series": "1999: 3000 [estimate; Ivanova 1999]",
    "institutions": "",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "Emigration after 1990 (unchecked).",
    "today": "A community remains.",
    "lat": 43.02,
    "lon": 44.68,
    "sources": [
     "Yu. V. Ivanova, Etnograficheskoe obozrenie 1999.6"
    ],
    "grade": "C"
   },
   {
    "city": "The Greeks of Stavropol krai (the Caucasian Mineral Waters: Yessentuki, Pyatigorsk, Kislovodsk; villages Sultanovskoye, Nagutskoye, Grecheskoye, Dubovaya Balka)",
    "country": "Russia",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "village group",
    "language": "mixed",
    "start": "Villages from 1866; refugees from the Kars oblast after 1918 (unchecked); many Greeks from Georgia and Central Asia after 1990.",
    "peak": "34,078 Greeks",
    "peak_year": 2002,
    "peak_basis": "census by nationality (Russian census)",
    "series": "1989: 26828 [census by nationality; Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Russia']; 2002: 34078 [census by nationality; Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Russia']; 2010: 33573 (1.2%) [census by nationality; Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Russia']",
    "institutions": "Greek societies; Yessentuki is called 'the Greek cultural capital of Russia' (Greeks 5.7% of the town in 2002).",
    "notable": "Predgorny district was 16.0% Greek in 2002.",
    "end": "Grew after 1990 as Greeks from Georgia and Central Asia settled here.",
    "today": "The largest Greek population in Russia.",
    "lat": 44.04,
    "lon": 42.86,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Russia'"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Novorossiysk, the Greek community",
    "country": "Russia",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Pontic Greek",
    "start": "Pontic Greek settlers from the 1860s.",
    "peak": "931 people of Greek mother tongue (5.5% of the town)",
    "peak_year": 1897,
    "peak_basis": "census by mother tongue (Russian census of 1897)",
    "series": "1897: 931 (5.5%) [census by mother tongue; Wikipedia, 'Black Sea Governorate']",
    "institutions": "",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "Arrests of 1937-1938; deportations of 1942 (1,402 from Krasnodar krai), 1944 (8,300 from Krasnodar krai and Rostov oblast) and June 1949 (4,396 from Krasnodar krai); emigration after 1990.",
    "today": "A Greek community remains; how many still speak Pontic is not known.",
    "lat": 44.72,
    "lon": 37.77,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Black Sea Governorate' (1897 tables)",
     "Wikipedia, 'Deportation of the Soviet Greeks'"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Anapa and its villages, the Greek community",
    "country": "Russia",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "town",
    "language": "Pontic Greek",
    "start": "Pontic Greeks from about 1870 (unchecked).",
    "peak": "5.7% of the town",
    "peak_year": 1926,
    "peak_basis": "census by nationality (Soviet census of 1926)",
    "series": "1926:  (5.7%) [census by nationality; Wikipedia, 'Gorgippia']",
    "institutions": "",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "As for Novorossiysk: 1937-1938, 1942, 1944, 1949, emigration.",
    "today": "A community remains.",
    "lat": 44.89,
    "lon": 37.32,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Gorgippia'",
     "Wikipedia, 'Deportation of the Soviet Greeks'"
    ],
    "grade": "C"
   },
   {
    "city": "Gelendzhik and the Greek villages of the coast (Black Sea governorate: Novorossiysk, Tuapse and Sochi districts)",
    "country": "Russia",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "village group",
    "language": "Pontic Greek",
    "start": "Pontic Greek villages along the coast and in the valleys from the 1860s-1870s.",
    "peak": "5,969 people of Greek mother tongue (10.4% of the governorate; 931 in Novorossiysk, 189 in Tuapse, 26 in Sochi, the rest in the villages)",
    "peak_year": 1897,
    "peak_basis": "census by mother tongue (Russian census of 1897)",
    "series": "1897: 5969 (10.4%) [census by mother tongue (governorate); Wikipedia, 'Black Sea Governorate']",
    "institutions": "Village schools and churches (unchecked).",
    "notable": "Krasnaya Polyana above Sochi was settled by Pontic Greeks in 1878 (unchecked).",
    "end": "The deportations of 1942-1949 and emigration after 1990 emptied many villages.",
    "today": "Greek communities remain; Krasnodar krai had 22,595 Greeks in 2010.",
    "lat": 44.56,
    "lon": 38.08,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Black Sea Governorate'",
     "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Russia'"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Krymsk (Krymskaya) and the Greek national district",
    "country": "Russia",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "village group",
    "language": "Pontic Greek",
    "start": "Pontic Greek villages around Krymskaya from about 1870 (unchecked).",
    "peak": "not found",
    "peak_year": null,
    "peak_basis": "estimate",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "The Greek national district (Greek Autonomous District), set up on 27 February 1930 by the Azov-Black Sea krai executive, centre Krymskaya, from 1932 Nizhne-Bakanskaya.",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "The district was abolished and renamed Krymsky district (22 February 1938 or 6 March 1939; sources differ); deportations of 1942-1949.",
    "today": "Greek villages and societies remain.",
    "lat": 44.93,
    "lon": 38.0,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Greek Autonomous District'",
     "Wikipedia, 'Krymsk'"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Taganrog, the Greek community",
    "country": "Russia",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Greek",
    "start": "Greek settlers and merchants from 1775 (unchecked); a Greek merchant community of the grain trade from the 1780s.",
    "peak": "2,255 people of Greek mother tongue in the whole Don Host oblast",
    "peak_year": 1897,
    "peak_basis": "census by mother tongue (Russian census of 1897)",
    "series": "1897: 2255 [census by mother tongue (oblast; Taganrog figure not seen); Wikipedia, 'Don Host Oblast']",
    "institutions": "The Greek church (begun 1781), with services in Greek and Russian and a parish school from 1862; a Greek magistracy (unchecked).",
    "notable": "One of the great Greek merchant communities of the Azov (Sifneou and Harlaftis).",
    "end": "Gradual shift to Russian in the 19th c.; arrests of 1937-1938; deportation of 1944 (Rostov oblast).",
    "today": "A small Greek society (unchecked).",
    "lat": 47.21,
    "lon": 38.94,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Greek Church and Greek School (Taganrog)'",
     "E. Sifneou and G. Harlaftis, The Greek merchant community of Taganrog, 1780s-1830s (2012)"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Rostov-on-Don, the Greek community",
    "country": "Russia",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Greek",
    "start": "Greek merchants from the late 18th c. (unchecked).",
    "peak": "not found",
    "peak_year": null,
    "peak_basis": "estimate",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "A Greek church of the Annunciation (early 20th c.) (unchecked).",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "Arrests of 1937-1938; deportation of 1944 (8,300 from Krasnodar krai and Rostov oblast together).",
    "today": "A small community (unchecked).",
    "lat": 47.23,
    "lon": 39.72,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Deportation of the Soviet Greeks'"
    ],
    "grade": "C"
   },
   {
    "city": "Odesa (Odessa), the Greek community",
    "country": "Ukraine",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Greek",
    "start": "Greek merchants, sailors and officers from the founding of the city in 1794.",
    "peak": "5,086 people of Greek mother tongue (1.26% of 403,815)",
    "peak_year": 1897,
    "peak_basis": "census by mother tongue (Russian census of 1897)",
    "series": "1897: 5086 (1.26%) [census by mother tongue; Wikipedia, 'Odesa']",
    "institutions": "Greek church of the Holy Trinity (unchecked); the Greek commercial school (1817) (unchecked); the house of the Filiki Eteria, now a museum (unchecked).",
    "notable": "The Filiki Eteria was founded here on 14 September 1814; the Patriarch Gregory V was buried here in 1821 (unchecked).",
    "end": "10,000-12,000 people fled the Odessa region for Greece in 1920 (Kefalas); arrests of 1937-1938 (unchecked); 476 Greeks deported from Odesa, Melitopol, Kherson and Izmail in 1949 (Kaiser 2019); emigration after 1990.",
    "today": "A Greek community and societies remain (unchecked).",
    "lat": 46.48,
    "lon": 30.73,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Odesa'",
     "Encyclopedia of Ukraine, 'Greeks'",
     "Fondation Robert Schuman, 'The Greeks of Ukraine' (Kefalas, 2022)"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Mariupol, the Greek community of the city",
    "country": "Ukraine",
    "disputed": "Under Russian occupation since 2022.",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "mixed",
    "start": "Founded 1779-1780 by the Crimean Greeks led by Metropolitan Ignatius; a Greek town by privilege until 1859 (Greek court to 1869), with a Russian-speaking majority from the late 19th c.",
    "peak": "21,923 Greeks by nationality (1,046 of them with Greek as mother tongue)",
    "peak_year": 2001,
    "peak_basis": "census by nationality (Ukrainian census of 2001)",
    "series": "1897: 1590 (5.1%) [census by mother tongue (Greek; a further 922 Turkish/Tatar), of 31,116; Wikipedia, 'Mariupol']; 2001: 21923 [census by nationality; Wikipedia, 'Mariupol']; 2001: 1046 [census by mother tongue (Greek); Wikipedia, 'Mariupol']",
    "institutions": "The Greek court and magistracy (1780-1869); the Mariupol Greek theatre (1932, initiated by the poet Georgis Kostoprav; closed December 1937, liquidated 28 January 1938); the Greek newspaper Kolektivistis; Greek studies at the Mariupol State University; a Greek consulate general.",
    "notable": "In December 1937 the theatre's director Georgy Deglari, the actor Sava Yangicher, the poet Kostoprav and Danylo Telenchi were arrested; Kostoprav was shot (Demidko 2014).",
    "end": "The Greek operation of 1937-1938 (3,470 people of Greek origin shot in Donetsk oblast: Demidko, after Dzhukha); language shift to Russian; emigration after 1990; the siege of 2022.",
    "today": "The city has been under Russian occupation since 2022; much of the community fled.",
    "lat": 47.1,
    "lon": 37.55,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Mariupol'",
     "O. Demidko, Teatralne mystetstvo grekiv (Mariupol State University, 2014)",
     "Ukrinform, 'Hretska Atlantyda' (20 July 2020)"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "city": "The Greek villages of the Mariupol district (Sartana, Chermalyk, Staryi Krym, Yalta, Urzuf, Bugas: Rumeic; Manhush, Staromlynivka, Starobesheve, Hranitne, Starohnativka: Urum; Velyka Novosilka: mixed)",
    "country": "Ukraine",
    "disputed": "Partly under Russian occupation since 2022 (most villages), partly under Ukrainian control.",
    "kind": "village group",
    "language": "mixed",
    "start": "Founded 1779-1780 by the Crimean Christians moved by Catherine II; Anadol (1826) by Pontic Greeks.",
    "peak": "77,516 Greeks in Donetsk oblast (including the 21,923 of Mariupol city)",
    "peak_year": 2001,
    "peak_basis": "census by nationality (Ukrainian census of 2001)",
    "series": "2001: 77516 (1.6%) [census by nationality (Donetsk oblast); Wikipedia, 'Ukrainian Greeks'; Ukrainian census]; 2001: 10951 [census (total population of Sartana, 'overwhelmingly' Greek); Wikipedia, 'Sartana, Ukraine']",
    "institutions": "Three Greek national districts and about 30 Greek village councils in the 1930s (Sartana, Mangush, Velyka Yanysol (unchecked: the names)); Greek schools until 1937-1938; the Sartana ensemble (closed 1937).",
    "notable": "Two languages: Rumeic (Mariupol Greek, spoken in about 17 villages) and Urum (Turkic). A Cyrillic alphabet for Rumeic was made in 1969 (first printed 1973).",
    "end": "The Greek operation of 1937-1938; Sartana renamed Primorskoe 1938-1990; shift to Russian; emigration after 1990; the war of 2022 (ten people, all ethnic Greeks as reported, killed in the shelling of Sartana on 26 February 2022).",
    "today": "Rumeic and Urum survive among older people; the war of 2022 has displaced much of the population.",
    "lat": 47.25,
    "lon": 37.5,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Mariupol Greek'",
     "Wikipedia, 'Sartana, Ukraine'",
     "Ponomaryova, 'The Urums of the North Azov Sea region' (2014)",
     "round 1 presence points"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Kerch and Yenikale, the Greek community",
    "country": "Ukraine",
    "disputed": "The Crimea was annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262).",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Greek",
    "start": "Aegean Greeks who had served in the Russian fleet, from 1775.",
    "peak": "1,202 Greeks (3.5%)",
    "peak_year": 1926,
    "peak_basis": "census by nationality (Soviet census of 1926)",
    "series": "1926: 1202 (3.5%) [census by nationality; Encyclopedia of Ukraine, 'Kerch']",
    "institutions": "",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "Deported by the NKVD on 27 June 1944 (GKO decree 5984ss of 2 June 1944).",
    "today": "A small community of returnees (unchecked).",
    "lat": 45.36,
    "lon": 36.47,
    "sources": [
     "Encyclopedia of Ukraine, 'Kerch'",
     "Inslav, Greki Balaklavy i Sevastopolya (2013)"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Feodosia, the Greek community",
    "country": "Ukraine",
    "disputed": "The Crimea was annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262).",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Greek",
    "start": "Greek merchants and settlers in Russian Feodosia from 1784 (the Orthodox of Ottoman Kefe, 1,643 'Greeks', had left in 1778).",
    "peak": "not found",
    "peak_year": null,
    "peak_basis": "estimate",
    "series": "1778: 1643 [Suvorov's returns ('Greeks' of Kefe removed in 1778); round 1 record for Theodosia]",
    "institutions": "",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "Deported on 27 June 1944.",
    "today": "A small community of returnees (unchecked).",
    "lat": 45.03,
    "lon": 35.38,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Feodosia'",
     "Wikipedia, 'Eviction of Christians from the Crimea (1778)'"
    ],
    "grade": "C"
   },
   {
    "city": "Sevastopol and Balaklava, the Greek community",
    "country": "Ukraine",
    "disputed": "The Crimea and Sevastopol were annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262).",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Greek",
    "start": "The Greek battalion settled at Balaklava by the decree of 18 February 1784; Greeks in Sevastopol from its founding in 1783.",
    "peak": "about 1,700 Greeks of 2,240 people (76.2%) in Balaklava with Kadykovka",
    "peak_year": 1904,
    "peak_basis": "estimate (count by nationality)",
    "series": "1802: 1700 [estimate; Inslav 2013]; 1904: 1707 (76.2%) [count by nationality (Balaklava with Kadykovka); Inslav 2013]; 1921:  (2.3%) [census (Sevastopol city area); Inslav 2013]",
    "institutions": "The Greek battalion (disbanded 1859); Greek church and schools; Greek schools in the Crimea closed in the mid-1930s.",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "Deported to Central Asia and the Urals on 27 June 1944.",
    "today": "A small community of returnees (unchecked).",
    "lat": 44.55,
    "lon": 33.55,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Greek Battalion of Balaklava'",
     "Inslav, Greki Balaklavy i Sevastopolya (2013)"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Simferopol and Yalta, the Greek communities, with the Greek villages of the south coast (Laki and others)",
    "country": "Ukraine",
    "disputed": "The Crimea was annexed by Russia in 2014; the annexation is not recognised by Ukraine or by most UN members (UN General Assembly resolution 68/262).",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Greek",
    "start": "Greek merchants and settlers after 1783; a few villages (Laki) kept Greek people through the removal of 1778.",
    "peak": "about 20,600 Greeks in the Crimean ASSR (unchecked)",
    "peak_year": 1939,
    "peak_basis": "census by nationality (Soviet census of 1939)",
    "series": "1944: 15040 [Greeks deported from the Crimea (NKVD); Bugay 1996, via Wikipedia]; 2001: 2795 [census by nationality (Crimea); Wikipedia, 'Ukrainian Greeks']",
    "institutions": "Greek churches in Simferopol and Yalta (unchecked).",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "The Greek operation of 1937-1938; the deportation of 27 June 1944; Greeks allowed back only from 1956, many returning after 1989.",
    "today": "2,795 Greeks in the Crimea in 2001.",
    "lat": 44.95,
    "lon": 34.1,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Deportation of the Soviet Greeks' (Bugay 1996)",
     "Wikipedia, 'Ukrainian Greeks'"
    ],
    "grade": "C"
   },
   {
    "city": "Constanța, the Greek community",
    "country": "Romania",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Greek",
    "start": "A new Greek community grew after the Cernavodă-Constanța (Köstence) railway of 1860, with no tie to ancient Tomis.",
    "peak": "2,460 Greeks of 10,419 people",
    "peak_year": 1894,
    "peak_basis": "estimate (town count)",
    "series": "1880: 1543 (29.7%) [town count (second group after the Turks); Ardeleanu]; 1894: 2460 (23.6%) [town count; Ardeleanu]; 1916: 2326 (6.9%) [town count; Ardeleanu]",
    "institutions": "Greek church and school; Greek merchants and shipowners (unchecked).",
    "notable": "Brăila and Galați, upstream on the Danube and outside this set's area, had the largest Greek merchant communities of Romania in the 19th c. (unchecked).",
    "end": "A minority once the town became mainly Romanian in the late 1890s; emigration and assimilation in the 20th c.; property of Greek organisations confiscated by the communist state; some Greeks imprisoned at the Danube-Black Sea Canal.",
    "today": "A small community with a church and Greek classes.",
    "lat": 44.17,
    "lon": 28.64,
    "sources": [
     "C. Ardeleanu, 'Greek community', cities.blacksea.gr/en/constantza",
     "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Romania'"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Tulcea, the Greek community",
    "country": "Romania",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Greek",
    "start": "Greek merchants, shipowners and shipbuilders from about 1840 (a Greek-owned shipyard of 1847).",
    "peak": "1,233 Greeks (another count 1,305)",
    "peak_year": 1907,
    "peak_basis": "estimate (prefect's report)",
    "series": "1878: 324 (1.8%) [estimate (of 17,518); L. Dima, Istro-Pontica 2]; 1907: 1233 [prefect I. C. Atanasiu's report; L. Dima]",
    "institutions": "",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "Emigration and assimilation in the 20th c.",
    "today": "A small community; Greek classes for children since 2000.",
    "lat": 45.18,
    "lon": 28.8,
    "sources": [
     "L. Dima, 'Populația orașului Tulcea', Istro-Pontica 2"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Sulina, the Greek community",
    "country": "Romania",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "town",
    "language": "Greek",
    "start": "Greek pilots and lightermen after the Treaty of Adrianople (1829); seat of the European Commission of the Danube from 1856.",
    "peak": "1,653 Greeks of 2,875",
    "peak_year": 1879,
    "peak_basis": "estimate (count, Sturdza 1880)",
    "series": "1879: 1653 (57.5%) [count; Sturdza 1880]; 1930:  (20.8%) [census by nationality; round 1 record]; 2011:  (1.7%) [census by nationality (1.69%); Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Romania']",
    "institutions": "Church of St Nicholas (1866-1867); Greek boys' and girls' schools (from c. 1870).",
    "notable": "Greek was the language of daily life in the 19th c.; it is counted as a Greek town of the later period in this set.",
    "end": "The port declined after 1939; the Greeks left or were assimilated in the communist period (unchecked: the timing).",
    "today": "1.7% Greek in 2011.",
    "lat": 45.16,
    "lon": 29.65,
    "sources": [
     "hrmars.com, 'Ekistic heritage and enhancement: the case of Sulina' (Engelhardt 1862; Sturdza 1880)",
     "Wikipedia, 'Sulina'"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Izvoarele (Tulcea county), a Greek village",
    "country": "Romania",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "village group",
    "language": "Greek",
    "start": "Settled by Greek farmers in the 19th c. (unchecked).",
    "peak": "43.8% Greek",
    "peak_year": 2011,
    "peak_basis": "census by nationality (Romanian census of 2011)",
    "series": "2011:  (43.8%) [census by nationality; Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Romania']",
    "institutions": "",
    "notable": "The commune with the highest Greek share in Romania.",
    "end": "",
    "today": "43.8% Greek in 2011.",
    "lat": 45.03,
    "lon": 28.56,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Romania'"
    ],
    "grade": "C"
   },
   {
    "city": "Varna, the Greek community",
    "country": "Bulgaria",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Greek",
    "start": "Continuous from the medieval Greek metropolis and merchant community; a minority in Bulgarian Varna after 1878.",
    "peak": "5,367 people of Greek mother tongue (21.9%)",
    "peak_year": 1881,
    "peak_basis": "census by mother tongue (Bulgarian census of 1881)",
    "series": "1881: 5367 (21.9%) [census by mother tongue; Lyberatos]",
    "institutions": "Greek metropolis; first Greek secondary school 1840; seven Greek schools with 1,200-1,500 pupils in 1907; Greek theatre in the 1890s-1900s.",
    "notable": "Local Greeks joined the Filiki Eteria.",
    "end": "The anti-Greek riots of 1906 (Greek churches and schools taken over (unchecked)); emigration after the Balkan wars and under the 1919 convention; a last group expelled before the Second World War; assimilation.",
    "today": "A small community (unchecked).",
    "lat": 43.21,
    "lon": 27.91,
    "sources": [
     "A. Lyberatos, 'Greek community', cities.blacksea.gr/en/varna",
     "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Bulgaria'"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Burgas, the Greek community",
    "country": "Bulgaria",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Greek",
    "start": "Greeks from Anchialos, Sozopol and Mesembria among the first settlers of Ottoman Burgas; they led its grain trade in the late 19th c.",
    "peak": "116 Greek Orthodox houses, about 40% of the town",
    "peak_year": 1829,
    "peak_basis": "estimate (Russian source, Enecholm 1830)",
    "series": "1829: 116 (40.0%) [houses; Lyberatos]",
    "institutions": "",
    "notable": "Many of the rioters who burnt Anchialos on 30 July 1906, Old Style came from Burgas (Athens reports, August 1906).",
    "end": "No mass flight in 1906; gradual emigration in the 1920s under the Greek-Bulgarian exchange; the rest assimilated.",
    "today": "No distinct community (unchecked).",
    "lat": 42.5,
    "lon": 27.47,
    "sources": [
     "A. Lyberatos, cities.blacksea.gr/en/burgas"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Pomorie (Anchialos), the Greek town after 1906",
    "country": "Bulgaria",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "town",
    "language": "Greek",
    "start": "A Greek town from antiquity.",
    "peak": "about 82% Greek of some 6,000 people",
    "peak_year": 1900,
    "peak_basis": "estimate",
    "series": "1900:  (82.0%) [estimate; Wikipedia, 'Pomorie']",
    "institutions": "Metropolis of Anchialos; Greek schools.",
    "notable": "Burnt on 30 July 1906, Old Style; more than half its Greeks left and founded Nea Anchialos near Volos.",
    "end": "The rest left in the following years and under the 1919 convention; Bulgarian refugees from Eastern Thrace were settled in their place.",
    "today": "No Greek community.",
    "lat": 42.56,
    "lon": 27.64,
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Pomorie'; 'Nea Anchialos'",
     "A. Lyberatos (2013)"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Nesebar (Mesembria) and Sozopol (Sozopolis), the Greek towns",
    "country": "Bulgaria",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "town",
    "language": "Greek",
    "start": "Greek towns from antiquity.",
    "peak": "Nesebar: 89% Greek of about 1,900",
    "peak_year": 1900,
    "peak_basis": "estimate",
    "series": "1900:  (89.0%) [estimate (Nesebar); round 1 record]",
    "institutions": "Greek metropolises; Greek churches and schools (seized at Sozopol after 1906).",
    "notable": "Locals took part in the Filiki Eteria and the war of 1821.",
    "end": "Emigration under the 1919 convention, much of it to Chalkidiki (Sozopol) [round 1].",
    "today": "No Greek community.",
    "lat": 42.66,
    "lon": 27.73,
    "sources": [
     "round 1 records for Mesembria and Apollonia",
     "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Bulgaria'"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   }
  ],
  "figures": [
   {
    "country": "Russian Empire (1897) and USSR (all republics)",
    "year": 1897,
    "figure": 186925,
    "basis": "census by mother tongue (Greek; Turkish-speaking Greeks not included)",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, 1897 census (rus_lan_97)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Russian Empire (1897) and USSR (all republics)",
    "year": 1926,
    "figure": 213765,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Wikipedia, '1926 Soviet census'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Russian Empire (1897) and USSR (all republics)",
    "year": 1939,
    "figure": 286444,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greek Operation'; zn.ua"
   },
   {
    "country": "Russian Empire (1897) and USSR (all republics)",
    "year": 1959,
    "figure": 309308,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly (Soviet census tables)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Russian Empire (1897) and USSR (all republics)",
    "year": 1970,
    "figure": 336869,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly (Soviet census tables)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Russian Empire (1897) and USSR (all republics)",
    "year": 1979,
    "figure": 343809,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly (Soviet census tables)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Russian Empire (1897) and USSR (all republics)",
    "year": 1989,
    "figure": 358068,
    "basis": "census by nationality (Topalidis tabulates 366,670)",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly (Soviet census tables)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Ukraine",
    "year": 1897,
    "figure": 1590,
    "basis": "census by mother tongue: Mariupol town only (Greek; 922 more Turkish/Tatar); governorate figures not checked",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Mariupol'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Ukraine",
    "year": 1926,
    "figure": 104666,
    "basis": "census by nationality (Ukrainian SSR, without the Crimea, then in the RSFSR)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, '1926 Soviet census'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Ukraine",
    "year": 1989,
    "figure": 98594,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly (1989 census, Ukrainian SSR)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Ukraine",
    "year": 2001,
    "figure": 91548,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Ukrainian census of 2001, via Wikipedia 'Ukrainian Greeks'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Ukraine",
    "year": 2001,
    "figure": 77516,
    "basis": "census by nationality: Donetsk oblast (1.6%)",
    "source": "Ukrainian census of 2001"
   },
   {
    "country": "Ukraine",
    "year": 2001,
    "figure": 2795,
    "basis": "census by nationality: the Crimea (unchecked: whether Sevastopol is included)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Ukrainian Greeks'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Russia",
    "year": 1897,
    "figure": 5969,
    "basis": "census by mother tongue: Black Sea governorate (10.4%)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Black Sea Governorate'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Russia",
    "year": 1897,
    "figure": 2255,
    "basis": "census by mother tongue: Don Host oblast (Taganrog, Rostov)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Don Host Oblast'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Russia",
    "year": 1926,
    "figure": 34439,
    "basis": "census by nationality (present-day Russia, without the Crimea; the RSFSR with the Crimea had 50,649)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Ethnic groups in Russia'; Demoscope Weekly"
   },
   {
    "country": "Russia",
    "year": 1939,
    "figure": 65705,
    "basis": "census by nationality (present-day Russia, without the Crimea; the RSFSR with the Crimea had 86,357)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Ethnic groups in Russia'; Demoscope Weekly"
   },
   {
    "country": "Russia",
    "year": 1959,
    "figure": 47024,
    "basis": "census by nationality (RSFSR)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Ethnic groups in Russia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Russia",
    "year": 1970,
    "figure": 57847,
    "basis": "census by nationality (RSFSR)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Ethnic groups in Russia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Russia",
    "year": 1979,
    "figure": 69816,
    "basis": "census by nationality (RSFSR)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Ethnic groups in Russia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Russia",
    "year": 1989,
    "figure": 91699,
    "basis": "census by nationality (RSFSR)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Ethnic groups in Russia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Russia",
    "year": 1989,
    "figure": 26828,
    "basis": "census by nationality: Stavropol krai",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Russia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Russia",
    "year": 2002,
    "figure": 97827,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Ethnic groups in Russia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Russia",
    "year": 2002,
    "figure": 34078,
    "basis": "census by nationality: Stavropol krai",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Russia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Russia",
    "year": 2010,
    "figure": 85640,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Ethnic groups in Russia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Russia",
    "year": 2010,
    "figure": 33573,
    "basis": "census by nationality: Stavropol krai (1.2%)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Russia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Russia",
    "year": 2010,
    "figure": 22595,
    "basis": "census by nationality: Krasnodar krai (0.4%)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Russia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Russia",
    "year": 2021,
    "figure": 53972,
    "basis": "census by nationality (Russia's 2021 census also counted the Crimea and Sevastopol)",
    "source": "Rosstat 2021, via Wikipedia, 'Ethnic groups in Russia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Georgia",
    "year": 1926,
    "figure": 54051,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Soviet census of 1926 (Topalidis, table 4.2: 54,050)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Georgia",
    "year": 1939,
    "figure": 84636,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Georgia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Georgia",
    "year": 1959,
    "figure": 72938,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Georgia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Georgia",
    "year": 1970,
    "figure": 89246,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Georgia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Georgia",
    "year": 1979,
    "figure": 95105,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Georgia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Georgia",
    "year": 1989,
    "figure": 100324,
    "basis": "census by nationality (Tsalka 38.6%, Tbilisi 21.6%, Abkhazia 14.6% of them)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Georgia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Georgia",
    "year": 2002,
    "figure": 15166,
    "basis": "census by nationality (without Abkhazia and South Ossetia)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Georgia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Georgia",
    "year": 2014,
    "figure": 5544,
    "basis": "census by nationality (without Abkhazia and South Ossetia)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Georgia' (infobox)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Georgia: Abkhazia",
    "year": 1897,
    "figure": 5393,
    "basis": "census by mother tongue",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Demographics of Abkhazia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Georgia: Abkhazia",
    "year": 1926,
    "figure": 14045,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Demographics of Abkhazia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Georgia: Abkhazia",
    "year": 1939,
    "figure": 34621,
    "basis": "census by nationality (11.1%)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Demographics of Abkhazia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Georgia: Abkhazia",
    "year": 1959,
    "figure": 9101,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Demographics of Abkhazia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Georgia: Abkhazia",
    "year": 1989,
    "figure": 14664,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Demographics of Abkhazia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Georgia: Abkhazia",
    "year": 2003,
    "figure": 1486,
    "basis": "census by nationality (de facto authorities)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Georgia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Georgia: Abkhazia",
    "year": 2011,
    "figure": 1380,
    "basis": "census by nationality (de facto authorities; 'about')",
    "source": "round 1 presence point"
   },
   {
    "country": "Armenia",
    "year": 1926,
    "figure": 2980,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Armenia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Armenia",
    "year": 1939,
    "figure": 4181,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Armenia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Armenia",
    "year": 1959,
    "figure": 4976,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Armenia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Armenia",
    "year": 1970,
    "figure": 5690,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Armenia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Armenia",
    "year": 1979,
    "figure": 5653,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Armenia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Armenia",
    "year": 1989,
    "figure": 4650,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Armenia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Armenia",
    "year": 2011,
    "figure": 900,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Armenia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Armenia",
    "year": 2022,
    "figure": 364,
    "basis": "census by nationality (the article's infobox gives 900; unresolved)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Armenia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Azerbaijan",
    "year": 1926,
    "figure": 904,
    "basis": "derived, not a census figure: Transcaucasian SFSR 57,935 less Georgia 54,051 and Armenia 2,980",
    "source": "Wikipedia, '1926 Soviet census'; 'Greeks in Armenia'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Azerbaijan",
    "year": 1989,
    "figure": 583,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly (1989 census, Azerbaijan SSR)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Turkey",
    "year": 1914,
    "figure": 205375,
    "basis": "census by religion: Greek Orthodox of Istanbul (Ottoman census)",
    "source": "Karpat 1985"
   },
   {
    "country": "Turkey",
    "year": 1914,
    "figure": 23806,
    "basis": "census by religion: Greek Orthodox of Trabzon kaza",
    "source": "Karpat 1985 (unchecked: no page reference)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Turkey",
    "year": 1914,
    "figure": 54709,
    "basis": "census by religion: Greek Orthodox of Canik (Samsun) kaza",
    "source": "Karpat 1985 (unchecked: no page reference)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Turkey",
    "year": 1927,
    "figure": 119822,
    "basis": "Greeks in Turkey (census; basis not stated by the source, probably mother tongue)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Turkey'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Turkey",
    "year": 1955,
    "figure": 65108,
    "basis": "census by mother tongue: Istanbul",
    "source": "Tsilenis, via Wikipedia"
   },
   {
    "country": "Turkey",
    "year": 1960,
    "figure": 49081,
    "basis": "census by mother tongue: Istanbul",
    "source": "Tsilenis, via Wikipedia"
   },
   {
    "country": "Turkey",
    "year": 2012,
    "figure": 2000,
    "basis": "estimate: Rum Orthodox of Istanbul",
    "source": "United Nations, via Wikipedia"
   },
   {
    "country": "Turkey",
    "year": 2020,
    "figure": 2000,
    "basis": "estimate: native Romeyka speakers of the Trabzon area ('a couple of thousand'); other estimates are higher and none is a count",
    "source": "S. Topalidis (pontosworld.com)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Romania",
    "year": 1878,
    "figure": 3480,
    "basis": "Greeks in Northern Dobruja (Constanța and Tulcea), 1.6%",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Northern Dobruja'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Romania",
    "year": 1880,
    "figure": 4015,
    "basis": "Northern Dobruja (2.8%)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Northern Dobruja'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Romania",
    "year": 1899,
    "figure": 8445,
    "basis": "Northern Dobruja (3%)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Northern Dobruja'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Romania",
    "year": 1913,
    "figure": 9999,
    "basis": "Northern Dobruja (2.6%)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Northern Dobruja'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Romania",
    "year": 1930,
    "figure": 7743,
    "basis": "census by nationality: Northern Dobruja (1.8%; boundaries differ)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Northern Dobruja'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Romania",
    "year": 1956,
    "figure": 1399,
    "basis": "census by nationality: Northern Dobruja",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Northern Dobruja'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Romania",
    "year": 1977,
    "figure": 635,
    "basis": "census by nationality: Northern Dobruja",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Northern Dobruja'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Romania",
    "year": 2002,
    "figure": 2270,
    "basis": "census by nationality: Northern Dobruja",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Northern Dobruja'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Romania",
    "year": 2002,
    "figure": 6472,
    "basis": "census by nationality: all Romania (most in Bucharest, Constanța, Tulcea, Brăila, Galați)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Romania'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Romania",
    "year": 2011,
    "figure": 1447,
    "basis": "census by nationality: Northern Dobruja (0.16%)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Northern Dobruja'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Bulgaria",
    "year": 1884,
    "figure": 65756,
    "basis": "census (Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia, 1881/1884; basis not stated)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Bulgaria'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Bulgaria",
    "year": 1887,
    "figure": 58326,
    "basis": "census",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Bulgaria'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Bulgaria",
    "year": 1900,
    "figure": 70887,
    "basis": "census (the article also gives 33,650)",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Bulgaria'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Bulgaria",
    "year": 1905,
    "figure": 69761,
    "basis": "census",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Bulgaria'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Bulgaria",
    "year": 1910,
    "figure": 50886,
    "basis": "census",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Bulgaria'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Bulgaria",
    "year": 1920,
    "figure": 46759,
    "basis": "census",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Bulgaria'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Bulgaria",
    "year": 1926,
    "figure": 10564,
    "basis": "census",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Bulgaria'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Bulgaria",
    "year": 1934,
    "figure": 9601,
    "basis": "census",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Bulgaria'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Bulgaria",
    "year": 1956,
    "figure": 7437,
    "basis": "census",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Bulgaria'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Bulgaria",
    "year": 1992,
    "figure": 4930,
    "basis": "census by ethnicity",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Bulgaria'"
   },
   {
    "country": "Bulgaria",
    "year": 2001,
    "figure": 3408,
    "basis": "census by ethnicity",
    "source": "NSI Bulgaria, census of 2001"
   },
   {
    "country": "Bulgaria",
    "year": 2011,
    "figure": 1379,
    "basis": "census by ethnicity",
    "source": "NSI Bulgaria, census of 2011"
   },
   {
    "country": "Bulgaria",
    "year": 2021,
    "figure": 1625,
    "basis": "census by ethnicity",
    "source": "Wikipedia, 'Demographics of Bulgaria'"
   }
  ],
  "events": {
   "exchanges": "Three agreements ended most of the Greek communities of the Black Sea's southern and western shores. (1) Bulgaria: after the anti-Greek riots of 1906 (Anchialos burnt on 30 July 1906, Old Style), the Greek-Bulgarian convention on reciprocal and voluntary emigration was signed with the treaty of Neuilly on 27 November 1919 and carried out by a Mixed Commission (1920-1931), with the Mollov-Kafantaris agreement (Geneva, 9 December 1927) on the emigrants' property; the Greeks of Bulgaria fell from 46,759 (census of 1920) to 10,564 (1926). Tens of thousands of Greeks left Bulgaria, and more Bulgarians left Greece. (2) Turkey: the Convention concerning the Exchange of Greek and Turkish Populations, signed at Lausanne on 30 January 1923, was compulsory and went by religion: the Orthodox of the Pontus, Greek-speaking or Turkish-speaking, were removed to Greece (most survivors had already fled or been deported), and the Muslims of Greece to Turkey. Exempted: the Greeks established in Constantinople before 30 October 1918 and the Muslims of Western Thrace; Imbros and Tenedos kept their Greeks under article 14 of the treaty. The Muslim Greek speakers of Of, Çaykara, Sürmene and Tonya were not exchanged. (3) The Kars oblast: no treaty, but flight: about 50,000 Anatolian Greeks fled in April 1918 when the Ottoman army took Kars (Topalidis), and most of the rest left through Batumi in 1920-1921 for Greece (Kilkis, Drama) or the North Caucasus.",
   "pontic_genocide": {
    "text": "Between 1916 and 1923 the Greeks of the Pontus were deported, killed or driven out by the Ottoman authorities and then by the Ankara government. Deportations: in the west, the coastal Greeks of Kastamonu, İnebolu and Sinop were exiled in 1916 (German consul M. Kuckhoff); Greek notables of Samsun, Bafra, Ordu, Tirebolu, Amasya and Çarşamba were deported in December 1916; on 10-13 January 1917 the Greeks of Samsun were expelled inland (Refet Pasha reported 13,406 Rum sent inland: BOA DH.ŞFR 548/1, cited by Biber (unchecked)); the Greeks of the Tirebolu and Görele districts were marched via Espiye, Karahisar and Suşehri to Pürk in the winter of 1916-1917 (Valavanis); the men of Ordu were removed from July 1917. In the east the Russian army held Rize (from March 1916) and Trebizond (from April 1916) until February 1918, and when it left, Turkish irregulars burnt Greek villages and quarters (Rize, Platana, early 1918). Labour battalions (amele taburları) took Greek men of military age from 1914, with very high death rates, and again in 1921-1922. From 1919-1920 the Pontic Greeks of the mountains formed armed bands, which are said to have saved some 60,000 lives. In 1921 the Ankara government ordered on 16 June the deportation of all Greek men aged 16-50 from the coast (about 21,000 from Samsun); Bafra was besieged from 5 June and about 1,300 Greeks were killed in the Kavak gorge on 15 or 16 August, the women and children deported on 31 August and 19 September; Topal Osman's bands killed 1,000-1,500 Greeks and Armenians at Merzifon and killed or deported most of the Greeks of Giresun and Tirebolu, and in 1922 attacked the remaining Christians of Ordu, mostly women and children (Morris & Ze'evi 2019). The Independence Tribunal at Amasya, presided over by Emin Bey Gevecioğlu, tried the Pontic Greek leaders in August-September 1921 for a supposed 'Pontic state' plot: 177 were hanged between 20 August and 21 September 1921 (Tsirkinidis 1999; a Turkish newspaper published 155 names on 25 September 1921), among them the former deputy Matthaios Kofidis, the journalist Nikos Kapetanidis and the banker Pavlos Papadopoulos; Metropolitan Germanos Karavangelis of Amasya and Metropolitan Chrysanthos of Trebizond were also condemned to death by the nationalists in their absence. The survivors left under the Lausanne convention of 30 January 1923; the last guerrillas reached the Soviet coast in late 1923 (Pantelis Anastasiadis at Poti with 25 fighters and 300 civilians). Scholarship: B. Morris and D. Ze'evi, The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894-1924 (Harvard UP, 2019); T. Hofmann, M. Bjørnlund and V. Meichanetsidis (eds.), The Genocide of the Ottoman Greeks: Studies on the State-Sponsored Campaign of Extermination of the Christians of Asia Minor (1912-1922) and Its Aftermath (Caratzas, 2011); G. N. Shirinian (ed.), Genocide in the Ottoman Empire: Armenians, Assyrians, and Greeks, 1913-1923 (Berghahn, 2017). Some historians (T. Kostopoulos, N. Doumanis) put the deaths in the Pontus 1912-1923 much lower, and A. Varnava (2025) argues for distinguishing genocide from ethnic cleansing in the Ottoman Greek case; Turkey does not recognise the events as genocide.",
    "figures": [
     {
      "figure": "353,000 Pontic Greek dead (from the First World War to March 1924)",
      "whose": "G. K. Valavanis, Η σύγχρονος γενική ιστορία του Πόντου (Athens, 1925); derived from the 1922 record of the Central Council of Pontus, based on the Patriarchate's Black Book, with '50,000 new martyrs' added",
      "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greek genocide'; Wikipedia, 'George Valavanis' (Varnava 2025: 'no verifiable empirical evidence')"
     },
     {
      "figure": "303,238 dead by the end of 1921 (the base of Valavanis's figure: 353,000 less 50,000)",
      "whose": "Central Council of Pontus, Black Book: The Tragedy of Pontus 1914-1922 (Athens, 1922)",
      "source": "greek-genocide.net, 'Black Book: The Tragedy of Pontus, 1914-1922'; archive.org (blackbooktragedy00281prich)"
     },
     {
      "figure": "The Patriarchate's Black Book of persecutions and martyrdoms of the Greeks in Turkey, 1914-1918 (Constantinople, 1919): the documentary basis of the later Pontic figures; its own totals are not given here",
      "whose": "Ecumenical Patriarchate",
      "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greek genocide'; archive.apan.gr"
     },
     {
      "figure": "300,000-360,000 dead in the Pontus",
      "whose": "range cited by A. Jones (Genocide, 2010) and others; 360,000 by M. Peterson",
      "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greek genocide'"
     },
     {
      "figure": "about 100,000 dead in the Pontus, 1912-1923",
      "whose": "T. Kostopoulos and N. Doumanis, from Ottoman census data and refugee records",
      "source": "Wikipedia, 'George Valavanis'"
     },
     {
      "figure": "13,406 Rum of Samsun sent inland (January-March 1917)",
      "whose": "Refet Pasha (Bele), Ottoman commander at Samsun, report of 12 March 1917",
      "source": "BOA DH.ŞFR 548/1, via Biber (unchecked)"
     },
     {
      "figure": "30,000 deported to the Ankara region (1917)",
      "whose": "Germanos Karavangelis, Metropolitan of Amasya (at Samsun)",
      "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greek genocide'"
     },
     {
      "figure": "about 5,000 Greeks 'eliminated' from Samsun",
      "whose": "a post-war United States consul",
      "source": "Wikipedia, 'Pontic Greek genocide'"
     },
     {
      "figure": "the Greek population of the Tirebolu and Görele districts fell from 15,195 to about 12,000 in the deportation of 1916-1917",
      "whose": "Valavanis 1925",
      "source": "imoph.org, via round 1 record for Tripolis (unchecked: no page reference)"
     },
     {
      "figure": "213,000-368,000 Anatolian Greeks killed 1919-1922 (all Anatolia, not only the Pontus)",
      "whose": "R. J. Rummel",
      "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greek genocide'"
     },
     {
      "figure": "'several hundred thousand Ottoman Greeks had died' (all Anatolia)",
      "whose": "Morris & Ze'evi 2019",
      "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greek genocide'"
     }
    ],
    "recognitions": [
     {
      "by": "Greece: Hellenic Parliament, law 2193/1994 (genocide of the Greeks in the Pontus; 19 May a day of remembrance)",
      "date": "24 February 1994 (published 8 March 1994)",
      "source": "Wikipedia, 'Pontic Greek genocide'; 'Greek genocide'"
     },
     {
      "by": "Cyprus: House of Representatives (Pontus)",
      "date": "1994 [day not found]",
      "source": "greek-genocide.net, 'Greek Genocide Recognitions'"
     },
     {
      "by": "Greece: Hellenic Parliament, law 2645/1998 (genocide of the Greeks of Asia Minor; 14 September)",
      "date": "13 October 1998 (published)",
      "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greek genocide'"
     },
     {
      "by": "United States: several states and cities (New Jersey 2002, New York 2002/2005, Pennsylvania 2003-2004, Florida 2005, Chicago 2006, Iowa 2016, Indiana 2015/2017, South Dakota 2015, Alabama 2019 and others)",
      "date": "2002-2022",
      "source": "greek-genocide.net, 'Greek Genocide Recognitions' (advocacy site)"
     },
     {
      "by": "International Association of Genocide Scholars (resolution on the Ottoman genocide of Armenians, Assyrians and Greeks)",
      "date": "December 2007 (1 or 16 December; 83% of voting members)",
      "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greek genocide'; 'Pontic Greek genocide'"
     },
     {
      "by": "South Australia: House of Assembly (Pontus)",
      "date": "2009",
      "source": "greek-genocide.net"
     },
     {
      "by": "Sweden: Riksdag (Armenians, Assyrians/Syriacs/Chaldeans and Pontic Greeks)",
      "date": "11 March 2010",
      "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greek genocide'"
     },
     {
      "by": "New South Wales: Legislative Council",
      "date": "2013 (motion of 14 May 2013)",
      "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greek genocide'"
     },
     {
      "by": "Armenia: National Assembly (Greek and Assyrian genocides)",
      "date": "March 2015",
      "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greek genocide'"
     },
     {
      "by": "Netherlands: House of Representatives (Armenian, Assyrian and Greek genocides)",
      "date": "April 2015",
      "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greek genocide'"
     },
     {
      "by": "Austria: Parliament (Armenian, Assyrian and Greek genocides)",
      "date": "April 2015",
      "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greek genocide'"
     },
     {
      "by": "Tasmania: House of Assembly",
      "date": "11 May 2023",
      "source": "greek-genocide.net"
     }
    ]
   },
   "soviet": {
    "text": "The Greeks of the USSR (213,765 in 1926, 286,444 in 1939) first gained national institutions under the policy of 'indigenisation': a Greek national district in the Kuban (1930, centre Krymskaya), three Greek national districts and some 30 Greek village councils around Mariupol, Greek schools teaching first in the local dialects and from 1926 in Demotic, newspapers (Kolektivistis in Mariupol), a Greek pedagogical college and theatre in Sukhumi, and the Mariupol Greek theatre (1932). From December 1937 all this was destroyed: the 'Greek operation' of the NKVD arrested Greek men across the country, the theatres, schools and newspapers were closed in 1937-1938 and the national districts abolished in 1938-1939. During and after the war came deportations by nationality: from Krasnodar krai in 1942, from the Crimea, Krasnodar, Rostov and the Transcaucasian republics in 1944, and from the Black Sea coast, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and southern Ukraine in 1949, to Kazakhstan, Central Asia and the Urals. The restrictions were lifted in 1956, but many Greeks never went back. In Russia the deported peoples of the Crimea, the Greeks among them, were rehabilitated by presidential decree (no. 268 of 21 April 2014, amended by no. 458 of 12 September 2015).",
    "operations": [
     {
      "name": "The NKVD 'Greek operation' (one of the national operations of the Great Terror)",
      "date": "11 December 1937 (arrests from 15 December) to autumn 1938",
      "decree": "NKVD directive no. 50215 of 11 December 1937, signed by N. I. Yezhov ('in order to suppress the activities of Greek intelligence in the territory of the USSR'); continued by the Politburo decision of 31 January 1938",
      "numbers": "about 10,000 arrested in December 1937 - January 1938 in the Donetsk and Krasnodar regions, nearly all shot (Manuylov 2015, via Topalidis); 3,470 people of Greek origin shot and 158 sent to the Gulag in Donetsk oblast (Demidko 2014, after Dzhukha); about 5,000 arrested and over 3,000 shot in Donetsk oblast (Ukrinform 2020); up to 6,500 arrested in Stalino oblast, 96% of them shot (D. Lubinets, 2020); higher estimates: 15,000 shot and 20,000 sent to camps (I. Dzhukha); 20,000-50,000 killed or disappeared (V. Agtzidis 1991).",
      "source": "Wikipedia, 'Greek Operation'; O. Demidko 2014; S. Topalidis, Greeks from the former Soviet Union; Ukrinform, 20 July 2020; lb.ua (D. Lubinets)"
     },
     {
      "name": "Deportation from Krasnodar krai",
      "date": "29 May 1942",
      "decree": "order of 29 May 1942 attributed to Stalin (number not found)",
      "numbers": "1,402 Greeks, 562 of them children under 16 (Bugay 1996, p. 87)",
      "source": "Wikipedia, 'Deportation of the Soviet Greeks'"
     },
     {
      "name": "Deportation of the Greeks, Bulgarians and Armenians of the Crimea",
      "date": "27 June 1944",
      "decree": "State Defence Committee (GKO) decree no. 5984ss of 2 June 1944, on L. P. Beria's note to Stalin of 29 May 1944 (which counted 14,300 Greeks in the Crimea)",
      "numbers": "15,040 Greeks from the Crimea, including 3,350 foreign Greeks with expired passports (Bugay 1996, p. 88); another count (zn.ua): 14,300 Soviet Greeks and 3,531 holders of expired Greek passports; 8,300 Greeks from Krasnodar krai and Rostov oblast (operation under I. Serov and G. Karandadze); 16,375 people relocated from the Georgian, Armenian and Azerbaijan SSRs in the same wave (Wikipedia)",
      "source": "Wikipedia, 'Deportation of the Soviet Greeks' (Bugay 1996); zn.ua; Inslav 2013"
     },
     {
      "name": "Operation Volna ('Wave')",
      "date": "mid-June 1949 (in Abkhazia 14-19 June)",
      "decree": "USSR Council of Ministers decree no. 2214-856ss of 29 May 1949",
      "numbers": "57,680 people in all, Greeks, Turks and Dashnaks (Bugay 1996, p. 92); Greeks: 4,474 families or 21,837 from Abkhazia (Gegia 2020); 4,396 from Krasnodar krai; 476 from Odesa, Melitopol, Kherson and Izmail; 323 from Azerbaijan; all-Soviet estimates of the Greeks deported range from 27,000 (de Waal), 31,386 (Kaiser 2019) and 36,000 (Kaya) to about 50,000 (Voutira)",
      "source": "Wikipedia, 'Deportation of the Soviet Greeks'; E. G. Gegia 2020; S. Topalidis (Voutira 2011)"
     },
     {
      "name": "Release from the special settlements",
      "date": "1956",
      "decree": "MVD order no. 0402 of 25 September 1956 (Bugay)",
      "numbers": "52,000 Greeks were in the special settlements in all (Tishkov 1996); on 1 January 1953, 21,057 foreign Greeks in the Kazakh SSR and 2,472 in the Uzbek SSR",
      "source": "Wikipedia, 'Deportation of the Soviet Greeks'"
     }
    ]
   },
   "emigration_after_1990": "Emigration to Greece began earlier (about 50,000 in 1929-1939 [Voutira 2011]; 21,500 in 1945-1984 [Kaurinkoski]; about 13,500 in 1965-1967 [Karpozilos]), but became an exodus as the USSR broke up: an official (non-compulsory) Greek survey counted about 155,000 people of Greek descent from the former USSR who had arrived in 1987-2000 and stayed (Vergeti), 52% of them from Georgia, 21% from Kazakhstan and 15% from Russia (Diamanti-Karanou 2003); the peak year was 1993, with 25,700 (Vergeti). Georgia's Greeks fell from 100,324 (1989) to 15,166 (2002) and 5,544 (2014); Armenia's from 4,650 to 900 (2011); Abkhazia's from 14,664 to about 1,400; Tsalka, the largest Greek district of Georgia, lost most of its Greeks, and Georgian eco-migrants were settled there. Others moved within the former USSR, above all to Stavropol and Krasnodar krais in Russia, whose Greek population rose (Stavropol 26,828 in 1989, 34,078 in 2002). Ukraine's Greeks fell more slowly (98,594 in 1989, 91,548 in 2001). Some returned to Russia after the Greek economic crisis of 2008. In Greece the 2011 census counted 27,400 citizens of Georgia, 17,000 of Ukraine and 13,800 of Russia (Kaurinkoski 2021).",
   "istanbul": "The Greeks of Istanbul were the one large Black Sea community to survive 1923. The Lausanne convention exempted the Greeks 'established' in the city (within the boundaries of the prefecture as defined in 1912) before 30 October 1918: more than 130,000 stayed, with Imbros and Tenedos (Greek Foreign Ministry). The Ottoman census of 1914 had counted 205,375 Greek Orthodox in Istanbul. The community was cut down in four steps: the Wealth Tax (Varlık Vergisi, law 4305 of 11 November 1942), assessed far more heavily on non-Muslims, with defaulters sent to the labour camp at Aşkale; the pogrom of 6-7 September 1955 (13-16 Greeks killed by some counts, 37 by a compiled list; 5,317 properties damaged, among them 4,214 homes, 1,004 businesses, 73 churches and 26 schools), after the Istanbul press spread news that Greeks had bombed Atatürk's birthplace in Thessaloniki (the bomb had been planted by a Turkish usher of the consulate next door); the denunciation on 16 March 1964 of the 1930 convention of establishment, followed by the expulsion of more than 12,000 Greek citizens (Greek Foreign Ministry) and the departure of tens of thousands of Turkish citizens of Greek origin with them; and the closure of the Halki seminary (1971). Greek speakers in Istanbul: 65,108 in 1955 and 49,081 in 1960 (Tsilenis); about 7,000 by 1978; about 2,000-3,000 today (UN 2012: 2,000; HRW 2006: 2,500; Turkish Foreign Ministry 2008: 3,000-4,000 citizens of Greek descent). The Ecumenical Patriarchate remains at the Phanar."
  },
  "special": [
   {
    "title": "The Greek school of Ottoman Trebizond",
    "text": "The Phrontisterion of Trebizond, founded in 1682/3 by Sevastos Kyminitis, taught in the city for nearly 240 years, from 1682/3 until 1921. In 1902 it moved into a three-storey building with 36 classrooms; it closed in November 1921. The building still stands and houses a Turkish school, the Kanuni Anadolu Lisesi.",
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Phrontisterion of Trapezous'",
     "pontosworld.com, 'Trebizond Tuition Center'"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "title": "A Greek revolution planned in Odessa",
    "text": "On 14 September 1814 three Greeks living in Odessa, Nikolaos Skoufas, Emmanouil Xanthos and Athanasios Tsakalof, founded the Filiki Eteria, the secret society that launched the Greek War of Independence in 1821. In 1821 the body of the Patriarch Gregory V, hanged in Constantinople, was brought to Odessa and buried there.",
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Filiki Eteria'; Britannica, 'Philikí Etaireía'"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "title": "1,013 people on one ferry",
    "text": "During the war in Abkhazia Greece sent the ferry Viscountes to Sukhumi. On 15-18 August 1993 it took 1,013 people, most of them Pontic Greeks of Sukhumi and its villages, to Alexandroupolis (Operation Golden Fleece, ordered by Deputy Foreign Minister Virginia Tsouderou). 1,484 Greeks chose to stay.",
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Operation Golden Fleece'",
     "protothema.gr (August 1993)"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "title": "Greek still spoken by Muslims in the Pontus",
    "text": "In the upper valley of Of (Çaykara, Dernekpazarı) and around Sürmene and Tonya, Muslim villagers whose ancestors became Muslim mostly in the 17th c. still speak Romeyka, a Pontic Greek dialect. As Muslims they were not exchanged in 1923. Greek is spoken in about two dozen villages of Çaykara district; speakers today are mostly older people, and estimates of their number differ widely (a couple of thousand native speakers in the Trabzon area by one estimate).",
    "sources": [
     "P. Mackridge, BMGS 11 (1987)",
     "University of Cambridge news (2024)",
     "S. Topalidis, pontosworld.com"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "title": "A Greek theatre in Mariupol, 1932-1937",
    "text": "The Mariupol Greek theatre was founded in 1932 on the initiative of the poet Georgis Kostoprav and played in the Greek of the Azov villages; some 12,000 people saw its plays. In December 1937 its director Georgy Deglari, the actor Sava Yangicher, Kostoprav and the literary manager Danylo Telenchi were arrested in the NKVD's Greek operation; the theatre was closed as 'mediocre' and liquidated on 28 January 1938, and its archive destroyed. Kostoprav was shot.",
    "sources": [
     "O. Demidko, Teatralne mystetstvo grekiv (Mariupol State University, 2014)",
     "Wikipedia, 'Mariupol Greek'"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "title": "From the Crimea to the Azov, 1778",
    "text": "In 1778 Catherine II ordered the Christians of the Crimea, then a Tatar khanate under Russian protection, to move to the north coast of the Sea of Azov; A. V. Suvorov's returns count 31,386 people moved between July and November. Led by Metropolitan Ignatius, the Greeks founded Mariupol and about twenty villages, which still bear Crimean names (Sartana, Yalta, Staryi Krym, Urzuf). Some villages spoke a Greek dialect (Rumeic), others a Turkic one (Urum).",
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia, 'Eviction of Christians from the Crimea (1778)'",
     "Ponomaryova 2014"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "title": "The Greeks who spoke Turkish",
    "text": "Most of the Greeks of Tsalka in Georgia, settled from the Erzurum area in 1830-1831, spoke Turkish (Urum) by the 20th century (Aklaev's survey of the 1980s), as did many of the Mariupol Greeks; they were Greeks by church and self-name (Rum), not by speech. In 1979 Greeks were the majority of Tsalka district (62.5%, 30,800, by Aklaev's figures), but almost all left after 1989.",
    "sources": [
     "A. R. Aklaev, Sovetskaya etnografiya 1988.5",
     "Wikipedia, 'Urums'"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "title": "Sulina: a Greek town on the Danube",
    "text": "When the European Commission of the Danube (1856) made Sulina the base of its works at the river's mouth, the town was Greek: 1,653 of its 2,875 people in 1879 by Sturdza's count, with Greek as the language of daily life and a Greek church of St Nicholas. In 2011 Greeks were 1.7% of the town.",
    "sources": [
     "hrmars.com (Sturdza 1880; Engelhardt 1862)",
     "Wikipedia, 'Greeks in Romania'"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "title": "The Kars Greeks: forty years in Russia",
    "text": "After Russia took Kars in 1877-1878, Greeks from Anatolia and the Pontus settled in some 76 villages of the new Kars oblast; by 1897 there were 32,593 Greek speakers (11.2%). When the Ottomans returned in April 1918 about 50,000 fled (Topalidis), and most of the rest left through Batumi for Greece (Kilkis, Drama) in 1920-1921.",
    "sources": [
     "Wikipedia (ru), 'Karsskaya oblast'",
     "S. Topalidis, 'A Brief History of Kars'"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   }
  ],
  "open_points": [
   "Wikipedia's 1926 figure of 124,000 (97,000 around Mariupol) conflicts with the census table's 104,666 for the Ukrainian SSR (the gap is probably the Crimea, then in the RSFSR).",
   "The 1897 census figures by governorate (Yekaterinoslav, Taurida, Kherson, Kuban, Tiflis, Kutais) were not obtained; only the Empire total (186,925), the Black Sea governorate, the Don oblast, the Kars oblast, Sukhumi, Odessa and Mariupol are sourced.",
   "The names and dates of the three Greek national districts of Ukraine (Sartana, Mangush, Velyka Yanysol) are from memory; Wikipedia confirms only 'three districts and 30 village councils'.",
   "Crimea 1939 (about 20,600 Greeks) is from memory.",
   "The Pontic genocide figures are contested: the 353,000 of Valavanis (1925) and the implied 303,000 of the Central Council of Pontus (1922) are the standard Greek figures; Kostopoulos and Doumanis put the Pontic deaths at about 100,000.",
   "Armenia 2022: the census table gives 364 Greeks, the infobox 900. Romania 1992: Wikipedia gives 19,594 Greeks, which looks too high beside 6,472 in 2002; not used.",
   "Azerbaijan: no reliable later census series found; Mehmana rests on one visitor's account.",
   "Bulgaria: the national census figures include the Greeks of Plovdiv, Asenovgrad and Melnik as well as the coast; the coastal share is not separated.",
   "Sartana: Wikipedia says it was founded by Urum Greeks; round 1 and other sources class it as Rumeic (Greek-speaking). Check.",
   "Istanbul pogrom: the number of schools damaged is given as both 23 and 26; deaths range from 13-16 to 37 by source. The 1964 expulsions: 'more than 12,000' Greek citizens (Greek Foreign Ministry) against 'about 40,000' (Wikipedia); the second figure probably includes family members.",
   "Fact-check of 17 October: not confirmed and so marked or left out: the NKVD totals for the Greek line; Ladas's 46,000/92,000 for Bulgaria; Refet Pasha's 13,406; Valavanis's Tirebolu figures; the 1914 kaza figures for Trabzon and Canik; the Crimea's 2,795 in 2001."
  ]
 }
}