{
 "title": "Greek cities of Central and South Asia",
 "scope": "Greek cities of Central and South Asia: Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India; Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, the Maldives, western China, Asian Russia and Mongolia were searched too, for the places left out. Iran is in Greek Cities in Present-Day West Asia (https://iosiflazaridis.github.io/greek-cities-west-asia/): its Greek cities, among them Hecatompylos, Calliope, Charis and Qal'a-ye Sam, are counted there. Window A: from the first Greek settlement (the deportees of the Persian kings, c. 500 BC; Alexander from 330 BC) to the Arab conquest of each area (Merv 651 to Sindh 711-713), or 712 where the Arabs never came. Window B: towns that became Greek or bilingual later, before 1991.",
 "disputed_areas": "Disputed areas: a site in the Kashmir region is given with the country that administers it and the note 'part of the Kashmir region, administered by Pakistan and claimed by India' (or the reverse). No city of the set lies there. Afghanistan is given with its provinces.",
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 "cities": [
  {
   "no": 1,
   "list_group": "Margiana, Areia, Drangiana, Arachosia and Gedrosia",
   "dates_shown": "330 BC – c. AD 1",
   "period": "1 The deportees and Alexander (to 323 BC)",
   "id": "a006",
   "latin": "Alexandria in Arachosia (Alexandropolis)",
   "greek": "Ἀλεξανδρόπολις (Isidore); Ἀλεξάνδρεια ἡ ἐν Ἀραχωσίᾳ",
   "other_names": "Alexandropolis, metropolis of Arachosia (Isidore of Charax 19); Arachosiorum oppidum and Cufis (Pliny 6.61, 6.92) (unchecked); Alexandria in Arachosia (Stephanus of Byzantium, list of Alexandrias); Old Kandahar, Shahr-i Kuhna; medieval al-Rukhkhaj (the province) (unchecked)",
   "identification": "Old Kandahar (Shahr-i Kuhna, the old city below the Qaitul ridge, west of modern Kandahar) is generally taken as Alexandria in Arachosia and Isidore's Alexandropolis, since Ashoka's Greek edicts and the Greek dedications were found there. Probable rather than proven: no inscription names the city.",
   "modern": "Kandahar",
   "modern_native": "کندهار",
   "population": 732629,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA, 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), p. 94, settled population (via Wikipedia 'Kandahar')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Old Kandahar (Shahr-i Kuhna) with its citadel, and the Chehel Zina rock where the bilingual edict was cut, on the western edge of Kandahar city",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "admin1": "Kandahar",
   "admin2": "Kandahar district",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Arachosia",
   "lat": 31.601,
   "lon": 65.6597,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "59669",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -330,
   "greek_until": 1,
   "phases": [
    [
     -330,
     1
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Alexander passed through Arachosia in the winter of 330/329 BC and left Menon as satrap (Arrian 3.28.1; Curtius 7.3.4-5) (unchecked); the foundation of Alexandria there is not described by Arrian but is given by the lists of Alexandrias (Stephanus; Pliny). Archaeology: the Iron Age and Achaemenid citadel of Old Kandahar is held to have been re-established in Alexander's time (Pleiades 630721027; British excavations of the 1970s (unchecked: the dates)).",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Rule: Seleucid until Seleucus I ceded Arachosia to Chandragupta Maurya (c. 303 BC; Strabo 15.2.9); Mauryan under Ashoka; Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek in the 2nd century BC; Parthian by Isidore's time (\"as far as this the Parthians rule\"), then Indo-Parthian (Gondophares) and Kushan. Speech: the Greek community is attested from the 3rd century BC (dedication, Ashoka's edicts) into the 2nd century BC (Sophytos); Isidore of Charax, writing under Augustus, is the last witness: \"Alexandropolis, the metropolis of Arachosia; it is Greek\". Nothing later shows Greek speakers. The range runs from Isidore's time (he wrote after 26 BC) to c. AD 200: the Indo-Parthian kings of Arachosia kept Greek legends on their coins down to Pacores (probably early 2nd century AD), after whom the imitations add Pahlavi (Iranica, Indo-Parthian dynasty), and the Sasanian conquest of the east followed (Ardashir I, c. AD 230 (unchecked)). Nothing in that span is evidence of Greek speech; royal coin legends only show that Greek letters were still read.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -26,
    200
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "3rd century BC: verse dedication on an alabaster statue base by a Greek who calls himself son of Aristonax (Fraser 1979); c. 260 BC: Ashoka's Greek-Aramaic bilingual on the Chil Zena rock (found 1958); c. 258 BC: Greek version of the end of Rock Edict XII and beginning of XIII on a limestone plaque from a building in Old Kandahar (found 1963), in Greek of a high literary level; 2nd century BC: epitaph of Sophytos son of Naratos, a man of local or Indian family writing Greek verse (SEG 54.1568; findspot reported as Kandahar, bought on the market); c. 26 BC - AD 1: Isidore of Charax 19 calls Alexandropolis Greek; 1st century AD: Indo-Parthian royal coins with Greek legends (royal, not evidence of speech).",
   "ended_by": "No named act ends the Greek community. Seleucus I ceded Arachosia to Chandragupta Maurya, c. 305/303 BC (Strabo 15.2.9; Appian Syr. 55), but Greek went on: Ashoka addressed the town in Greek, c. 260 BC. Rule passed later to Indo-Greek, Parthian (Isidore 19: 'as far as this the Parthians rule'), Indo-Parthian (Gondophares) and Kushan kings; no destruction of the town is recorded, and the Greek community seems to have been absorbed.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Achaemenid Arachosian town with a citadel, refounded by Alexander",
   "founder": "Alexander, 330/329 BC (implied by Arrian 3.28.1 and Curtius 7.3; named in Stephanus' list and in Pliny) (unchecked: the passages)",
   "founder_group": "Alexander",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Harauvatiš? (Old Persian, the satrapy)",
   "pre_greek_note": "Harauvatiš is the Old Persian name of the province (Arachosia), not certainly of the town; an Achaemenid citadel and an Elamite administrative tablet fragment were found at Old Kandahar (unchecked: the tablet). The town's own Achaemenid name is unknown. The popular derivation of Kandahar from Iskandar (Alexander) is unproven.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Arachosian Iranian (written in Aramaic in the 3rd century BC); later also Indic Prakrit",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Ashoka (c. 260 BC) had his message cut in Greek and in Aramaic side by side on the Chehel Zina rock, and in Greek alone on a building in the old city: two reading publics in one town. The residents' own inscriptions known so far are Greek.",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "The Greek community spoke and wrote literary Greek: a 3rd-century BC verse dedication on an alabaster statue base, Ashoka's Greek edicts in polished Greek prose, and Sophytos son of Naratos's acrostic epitaph in Greek verse (2nd century BC); Isidore still calls the town Greek c. 1st century BC.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 1,
   "evidence_basis": "A contemporary description of the town as Greek (Isidore 19) together with Greek inscriptions by residents (the 3rd-century BC verse dedication, the Sophytos epitaph) and a Greek reading public addressed by Ashoka.",
   "status_evidence": "Isidore of Charax, Parthian Stations 19; Stephanus of Byzantium s.v. Alexandreia; Pliny 6.61 (cited by Iranica), 6.92 (unchecked); Ptolemy 6.20.4 (unchecked); Kandahar edicts of Ashoka (Rougemont 2012: IGIAC 82, the Greek text of the Greek-Aramaic bilingual, a summary of the edicts; IGIAC 83, the Greek version of Rock Edicts XII-XIII); Sophytos epitaph (IGIAC 84; SEG 54.1568)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "A Greek-speaking community at Old Kandahar is certain; that this was Alexander's Alexandria and Isidore's Alexandropolis is the standard view. The Sophytos stone was bought on the market and is only reported to come from Kandahar. Whether the name Kandahar continues Alexandria (through Iskandar) is disputed: Encyclopaedia Iranica (de Planhol 2010) rejects the derivation; others accept it.",
   "sources": [
    "Isidore of Charax, Parthian Stations 19 (text: https://www.parthia.com/doc/parthian_stations.htm)",
    "Encyclopaedia Iranica, Epigraphy ii (Greek inscriptions): https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/epigraphy-ii",
    "Kandahar Sophytos Inscription: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandahar_Sophytos_Inscription",
    "Kandahar Greek Edicts of Ashoka: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandahar_Greek_Edicts_of_Ashoka",
    "Fraser 1979, The son of Aristonax at Kandahar, Afghan Studies 2 (unchecked: the reference)",
    "Bernard, Pinault and Rougemont 2004, Journal des Savants (Sophytos) (unchecked); Rougemont 2012, IGIAC 82-84 (numbers from the review: https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/?p=52131)",
    "Pleiades 59669"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": "Alexandria in Arachosia (Kandahar)"
  },
  {
   "no": 2,
   "list_group": "Margiana, Areia, Drangiana, Arachosia and Gedrosia",
   "dates_shown": "330 BC – c. 150 BC",
   "period": "1 The deportees and Alexander (to 323 BC)",
   "id": "a004",
   "latin": "Alexandria in Areia",
   "greek": "Ἀλεξάνδρεια ἡ ἐν Ἀρίοις",
   "other_names": "Alexandria Ariana, Alexandria Arion (Pliny); Alexandreia among the Arians (Isidore 15; Strabo); Herat, Middle Persian Harew (unchecked)",
   "identification": "Generally placed at Herat, most likely the old town round the citadel (Fraser 1996, p. 113); Iron Age and Achaemenid levels have been found at the citadel, but there has been no large-scale excavation and the Greek town has not been found (Cohen 2013, pp. 260-261). Ptolemy and Isidore distinguish it from the Achaemenid royal seat Artacoana, whose site is unknown.",
   "modern": "Herat",
   "modern_native": "هرات",
   "population": 673273,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA, 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "The old walled city and citadel (Qala-i Ikhtiyaruddin) of Herat",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "admin1": "Herat",
   "admin2": "Herat district",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Areia",
   "lat": 34.3456,
   "lon": 62.1891,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "961874",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -330,
   "greek_until": -150,
   "phases": [
    [
     -330,
     -150
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Alexander was in Areia in 330 BC, put down the revolt of the satrap Satibarzanes at the royal seat Artacoana and returned against him again in 329 BC (Arrian 3.25, 3.28) (unchecked); Pliny 6.93 says the Arius flows past Alexandria, a city founded by Alexander, 30 stades in extent.",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Rule: Seleucid, then probably Graeco-Bactrian, and Parthian from the mid-2nd century BC (the Parthians took the satrapies of Aspionus and Turiva from Eucratides, Strabo 11.11.2; the king is not named, but it was presumably Mithridates I). Speech: no evidence after the foundation; Isidore (c. AD 1) still lists Alexandreia among the Arians as a city, but unlike Alexandropolis in Arachosia he does not call it Greek. The end is an estimate.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -250,
    1
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Alexander's surveyors and Eratosthenes measured distances from Alexandreia in Areia (Strabo 11.8.9; Pliny) (unchecked: the sections); Pliny 6.93 adds that Artacabene was fortified a second time by Antiochus; Isidore 15 names the city (after 26 BC).",
   "ended_by": "No named act on the town: Areia passed from the Graeco-Bactrian kings (Euthydemus I held the line of the Arius against Antiochus III in 208 BC, Polybius 10.49) to the Parthians, probably under Mithridates I in his wars with Eucratides I (Strabo 11.11.2; Justin 41.6.1-3), though the sources do not name Areia in that conquest; no destruction of the Greek town is recorded.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Alexander, 330/329 BC (Pliny 6.93; Strabo 11.10.1; Stephanus) (unchecked)",
   "founder_group": "Alexander",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Haraiva (Old Persian, the province)",
   "pre_greek_note": "Haraiva (Avestan Haroiva) names the land of the Harirud; the town of Herat took the province's name. Iron Age and Achaemenid settlement was found below the citadel (Areia Antiqua project).",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Persian",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Not directly attested: no Greek inscription or document of residents is known from Herat (unchecked).",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: Pliny, Strabo, Isidore, Ptolemy and Stephanus name it a city founded by Alexander; no Greek writing of residents is known.",
   "status_evidence": "Pliny 6.61 (unchecked), 6.93; Strabo 11.10.1 (three cities of Areia named after their founders), 11.8.9 (unchecked: the sections); Isidore of Charax 15; Ptolemy 6.17.6 (unchecked: the section); Stephanus s.v. Alexandreia",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "That Herat stands on Alexandria in Areia is likely but unproven; the Greek town is known only from texts. Arrian, Diodorus and Curtius do not mention its foundation. Al-Tabari, Hamza al-Isfahani and Qudama ibn Jafar record that Alexander founded Herat, a later tradition that agrees with the classical texts but adds nothing to them.",
   "sources": [
    "Isidore of Charax 15: https://www.parthia.com/doc/parthian_stations.htm",
    "Areia Antiqua (Ancient Herat project): https://ancient-herat.de/ancient-herat-2",
    "Alexandria Ariana: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria_Ariana",
    "Fraser 1996, Cities of Alexander the Great, p. 113; Cohen 2013, pp. 260-261 (as cited there)",
    "Pleiades 961874"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": "Alexandria in Areia (Herat)"
  },
  {
   "no": 3,
   "list_group": "Margiana, Areia, Drangiana, Arachosia and Gedrosia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 330 BC – c. 130 BC",
   "period": "1 The deportees and Alexander (to 323 BC)",
   "id": "a008",
   "latin": "Alexandropolis in Sakastane",
   "greek": "Ἀλεξανδρόπολις (Isidore 18)",
   "other_names": "Alexandropolis polis near Sigal (Isidore 18); the Alexandria named just before it in the manuscript may be the same town written twice",
   "identification": "Unlocated, near Sigal, the royal seat of the Sakas, along the lower Helmand between Zarangiane (Zaranj) and Arachosia. It may also be a doublet of Alexandropolis in Arachosia, which Isidore names in the next section.",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Unlocated, lower Helmand valley in Afghan Sistan",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "admin1": "Nimruz",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Drangiana (Sakastane)",
   "lat": 30.7,
   "lon": 62.8,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -330,
   "greek_until": -130,
   "phases": [
    [
     -330,
     -130
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "No foundation is recorded; if named for a foundation of Alexander, 330/329 BC.",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Rule: Seleucid, then Parthian; Saka settlement from the late 2nd century BC gave the land its name. Speech: nothing is known; Isidore (written after 26 BC) names the town but does not call it Greek, as he does Alexandropolis in Arachosia. The end is an estimate.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -300,
    1
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Only Isidore 18.",
   "ended_by": "No named act on the town: Drangiana passed to the Parthians and was settled by Saka nomads in the late 2nd century BC, after the nomad wars in which the Parthian kings Phraates II and Artabanus I were killed (Justin 42.1-2) (unchecked: sections); Isidore 18 calls the land Sakastane of the Saka Scythians. No destruction of the town is recorded.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Alexander? (inferred from the name only)",
   "founder_group": "Alexander",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Not attested beyond the name.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: Isidore (18) names a polis Alexandropolis in Sakastane, a royal name that records a foundation; nothing else.",
   "status_evidence": "Isidore of Charax, Parthian Stations 18; perhaps Stephanus' list of Alexandrias (Iranica)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Admitted on the name in a 1st-century BC itinerary alone, the weakest case in this region. Isidore's text names an Alexandria and an Alexandropolis side by side here; Tarn and the Encyclopaedia Iranica take the Alexandria as a scribal repetition, so the two are counted once. Greek ostraca from Qal'a-ye Sam in Iranian Sistan show Greek writing in the region, but that site is in Iran.",
   "sources": [
    "Isidore of Charax 18: https://www.parthia.com/doc/parthian_stations.htm",
    "Encyclopaedia Iranica, Isidorus of Charax: https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/isidorus-of-charax",
    "Encyclopaedia Iranica, Alexandria (of Sacastene): https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/alexandria-general-designation-of-cities-whose-foundation-is-credited-to-alexander-the-great-356-23-b/"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": "Alexandria and Alexandropolis in Sakastane"
  },
  {
   "no": 4,
   "list_group": "Margiana, Areia, Drangiana, Arachosia and Gedrosia",
   "dates_shown": "330 BC – c. 130 BC",
   "period": "1 The deportees and Alexander (to 323 BC)",
   "id": "a005",
   "latin": "Prophthasia (Phrada)",
   "greek": "Προφθασία; Φράδα",
   "other_names": "Phrada (Stephanus; the Drangian royal seat where Alexander uncovered the Philotas plot); Phra, \"the greatest city\" of Anauon (Isidore 16); Alexandria Prophthasia (modern usage); Sasanian Frah (unchecked); Farah",
   "identification": "Usually placed at Farah on the Farah Rud, whose name continues Phra(da), with Alexander's fort said to lie under the citadel; Tarn put it at Zaranj, and the Encyclopaedia Iranica prefers Nad-i Ali near Zaranj in Sistan. None of these sites has given Hellenistic Greek finds.",
   "modern": "Farah",
   "modern_native": "فراه",
   "population": 141091,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA, 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "The old walled town (Shahr-i Kuhna) of Farah",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "admin1": "Farah",
   "admin2": "Farah district",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Drangiana",
   "lat": 32.3821,
   "lon": 62.1117,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "29718",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -330,
   "greek_until": -130,
   "phases": [
    [
     -330,
     -130
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "In autumn 330 BC, at the royal seat of the Drangians, Alexander learned of the plot ascribed to Philotas and had him executed (Arrian 3.26; Curtius 6.7-7.2) (unchecked); the town was renamed Prophthasia, \"Anticipation\", and is counted among Alexander's foundations (Plutarch, On the Fortune of Alexander 1.5, Moralia 328f (unchecked: the section); Stephanus s.v. Phrada).",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Rule: Seleucid, then Parthian; from the late 2nd century BC Drangiana was settled by the Sakas and became Sakastane. Speech: no evidence after the foundation; Isidore (c. AD 1) calls Phra the greatest city of Anauon but uses its native name and does not call it Greek. The end is an estimate.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -250,
    1
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Eratosthenes' distances from Prophthasia (Strabo 11.8.9, 15.2.10) (unchecked); Pliny 6.61 and 6.94 name Prophthasia, a city of the Drangae; Isidore 16 has only the native name Phra.",
   "ended_by": "No named act on the town: Drangiana passed to the Parthians and was settled by Saka nomads in the late 2nd century BC, after the nomad wars in which the Parthian kings Phraates II and Artabanus I were killed (Justin 42.1-2) (unchecked: sections); Isidore 18 calls the land Sakastane of the Saka Scythians. No destruction of the town is recorded.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Alexander, 330 BC: native royal seat renamed, perhaps with settlers (Plutarch, On the Fortune of Alexander; Stephanus s.v. Phrada)",
   "founder_group": "Alexander",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The native name Phrada/Phra is known only from Greek writers; Old Persian Zranka is the name of the land (Drangiana), not of this town.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Persian",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Not directly attested: no Greek inscription or document of residents is known (unchecked).",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: Plutarch and Stephanus count it among Alexander's foundations; nothing shows Greek settlers or Greek writing.",
   "status_evidence": "Arrian 3.25.8-3.27 (unchecked); Plutarch, On the Fortune of Alexander (Moralia 328f (unchecked: the section)); Stephanus s.v. Phrada; Strabo 11.8.9, 15.2.10; Pliny 6.61, 6.94; Ammianus 23.6; Ptolemy 6.19.4 (unchecked); Isidore 16",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "It may have been only a renaming of the Drangian capital rather than a settlement of Greeks; the site is disputed between Farah, Zaranj and Nad-i Ali. A letter of a king Seleucus to one Herophantos, of unknown findspot but perhaps from Drangiana (IGIAC 80 bis), is a royal document and does not locate a Greek town.",
   "sources": [
    "Encyclopaedia Iranica, Alexandria (Prophtasia): https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/alexandria-general-designation-of-cities-whose-foundation-is-credited-to-alexander-the-great-356-23-b/",
    "Pliny 6.92-95 (English text: https://pothos.org/forum/viewtopic.php?p=47854)",
    "Isidore of Charax 16: https://www.parthia.com/doc/parthian_stations.htm",
    "Alexandria Prophthasia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria_Prophthasia",
    "Fraser 1996 (unchecked); Cohen 2013 (unchecked)",
    "Pleiades 29718"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": "Prophthasia (Farah)"
  },
  {
   "no": 5,
   "list_group": "Margiana, Areia, Drangiana, Arachosia and Gedrosia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 329 BC – c. 150 BC",
   "period": "1 The deportees and Alexander (to 323 BC)",
   "id": "a002",
   "latin": "Achaia (Heraclea)",
   "greek": "Ἀχαΐα",
   "other_names": "Heraclea, founded by Alexander; Achais, its name after Antiochus rebuilt it (Pliny 6.48); Achaia in Areia (Strabo 11.10.1) (unchecked); an Achaia 'in Parthia' among the cities named by Seleucus I (Appian, Syrian Wars 57)",
   "identification": "Unlocated. Strabo puts Achaia in Areia, Pliny's Heraclea-Achais comes in his account after Margiana; it lay somewhere between Herat and the Merv oasis, perhaps in the Harirud or Murghab valleys. Pliny's Heraclea and Strabo's Achaia are usually taken as one town.",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Unlocated, in Areia (Herat province) or on the way to Margiana",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "admin1": "Herat",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Areia",
   "lat": 34.5,
   "lon": 61.5,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "60403",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -329,
   "greek_until": -150,
   "phases": [
    [
     -329,
     -300
    ],
    [
     -290,
     -150
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Pliny 6.48: Heraclea, founded by Alexander, later destroyed, was rebuilt by Antiochus and named Achais. Alexander's foundation would date to his campaigns in Areia and Margiana (330-328 BC); the refoundation to Antiochus I (c. 294-261 BC) (unchecked: the king).",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Rule: Seleucid, probably Graeco-Bactrian, then Parthian from the mid-2nd century BC. Speech: nothing is known after the refoundation; the town is not in Isidore's route (c. AD 1). The end is an estimate.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -250,
    1
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Only the foundation notices (Strabo, Pliny, Appian).",
   "ended_by": "No named act: Alexander's Heraclea was destroyed by enemies whom Pliny does not name (6.48); Achaia, like the rest of Areia, passed from the Graeco-Bactrian kings to the Parthians, probably under Mithridates I in his wars with Eucratides I (Strabo 11.11.2; Justin 41.6.1-3), but nothing is recorded of the end of the town.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Alexander, as Heraclea (Pliny 6.48); refounded as Achais by Antiochus, probably Antiochus I; Appian lists an Achaia in Parthia among the cities Seleucus I named (Syr. 57), which may be this town or another",
   "founder_group": "Alexander",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Antiochus (probably Antiochus I), as Achais (Pliny 6.48)",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Not attested beyond the foundation texts.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: Pliny, Strabo and Appian name it a foundation of Alexander and of the Seleucid kings; unlocated, no finds.",
   "status_evidence": "Pliny 6.48; Strabo 11.10.1 (unchecked); Appian, Syrian Wars 57 (an Achaia 'in Parthia')",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Placed by region only; Pleiades also has an Achaia in Parthyene (700525086), from Appian, which may be the same town or another. The first phase end and the gap before the refoundation are not dated.",
   "sources": [
    "Pliny 6.46-49 (English text: https://pothos.org/forum/viewtopic.php?p=47852)",
    "Cohen 2013 (Achaia; Herakleia) (unchecked)",
    "Pleiades 60403 and 700525086"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Heraclea (Alexander) and Achais (Antiochus) are one entry: Pliny says it was rebuilt, not moved.",
   "west_asia_entry": "Achaia/Achais"
  },
  {
   "no": 6,
   "list_group": "Margiana, Areia, Drangiana, Arachosia and Gedrosia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 328 BC – c. 150 BC",
   "period": "1 The deportees and Alexander (to 323 BC)",
   "id": "a001",
   "latin": "Antioch in Margiana (Merv)",
   "greek": "Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐν Μαργιανῇ; Ἀντιόχεια ἡ καλουμένη Ἔνυδρος (Isidore)",
   "other_names": "Alexandria (Pliny 6.47); Antiocheia called Enydros, the well-watered (Isidore 14); Merv, Middle Persian Marw, Arabic Marw al-Shahijan; Gyaur Kala and Erk Kala (the site)",
   "identification": "Gyaur Kala, the square walled city of the Merv oasis with Erk Kala as its citadel, is Antioch in Margiana: its first wall is dated to the time of Antiochus I. Alexander's Alexandria, if it existed, stood on the same spot (Pliny says Antiochus rebuilt it on the same site).",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "Merw; Gäwür gala, Erk gala (Turkmen)",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Gyaur Kala and Erk Kala, Ancient Merv, east of Mary and north of Baýramaly",
   "country": "Turkmenistan",
   "admin1": "Mary Region",
   "admin2": "Baýramaly District",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Margiana",
   "lat": 37.6618,
   "lon": 62.1798,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "961873",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -328,
   "greek_until": -150,
   "phases": [
    [
     -328,
     -300
    ],
    [
     -290,
     -150
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Pliny says Alexander founded an Alexandria in Margiana, which barbarians destroyed; Antiochus, son of Seleucus, rebuilt it on the same site, 70 stades round, and called it Antioch (Pliny 6.47). Strabo 11.10.2 has Antiochus Soter wall in the oasis and found Antiocheia. Archaeology dates the first wall of Gyaur Kala to Antiochus I as co-ruler of the upper satrapies (from 294/293 BC). Alexander's foundation (328 or 327 BC, during the war with Spitamenes) is not in Arrian and is doubted by many.",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Rule: Seleucid; Graeco-Bactrian for a time (an obol of Diodotus I or II in the brickwork of the first wall; coins of Euthydemus are reported from the oasis (unchecked)); Parthian from the mid-2nd century BC, probably under Mithridates I in his wars with Eucratides I, from whom the Parthians took two satrapies (Strabo 11.11.2; Justin 41.6.1-3), though no source names Margiana in that conquest; the nomad wars of c. 130-115 BC and Mithridates II's recovery of the east followed (unchecked). In 53 BC Orodes II settled Roman prisoners from Carrhae here (Pliny 6.47): Roman soldiers, not a Greek community, so they do not extend the Greek phase, and the Greek legends of Parthian royal coins are royal usage, not speech. Speech: no evidence of Greek speakers after the foundations; the Parthian-period documents of Merv are in Parthian (unchecked). Isidore (c. AD 1) gives the Greek name but does not call the town Greek. The end is an estimate tied to the Parthian takeover, as for the towns of Areia; the range runs from the Graeco-Bactrian period to Isidore.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -200,
    1
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Copper obol of Diodotus I or II in the mud-brick of the first wall (Zav'yalov 2004); Greek name still used by Strabo 11.10.2 and Isidore 14 (late 1st century BC - early 1st century AD); Parthian ostraca and coins of the Margiana mint from the 1st century BC (unchecked). 53 BC: Orodes II settled Roman prisoners from Carrhae at Antioch (Pliny 6.47): Roman soldiers, not evidence of Greek speech. Greek legends on Parthian royal coins: royal usage only.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ends the Greek community. Alexander's town was destroyed by barbarians whom Pliny does not name (6.47); Antioch passed to the Parthians, probably under Mithridates I, who took lands from Eucratides I (Strabo 11.11.2; Justin 41.6.1-3), though no source names Margiana in that conquest. No destruction of Antioch is recorded.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Alexander, c. 328 BC (Pliny 6.47; not in Arrian); refounded as a new city by Antiochus I, c. 294-281 BC (Pliny 6.47; Strabo 11.10.2)",
   "founder_group": "Alexander",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Antiochus I, as co-ruler of the upper satrapies and king (c. 294-261 BC): new name Antioch, a walled square of about 340 hectares",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Marguš (Old Persian, the province and its centre)",
   "pre_greek_note": "Marguš is the name of the province in Darius' Bisotun inscription; Erk Kala, the citadel, was built in the Achaemenid period (6th-5th century BC).",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Persian",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Not directly attested: no Greek inscription or document of the citizens is known from Merv (Rougemont's corpus of 2012 has no section for Margiana, to judge by the list of its sections in the BMCR review); the Greek character rests on the foundation texts and the Seleucid fortification.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: early texts naming it a foundation of Alexander and of Antiochus I (Pliny, Strabo, Isidore); the excavated Seleucid wall is a Greek-style work but no Greek writing of residents is known.",
   "status_evidence": "Pliny 6.46-47; Strabo 11.10.2; Isidore of Charax 14; Ptolemy 6.10.4 (unchecked)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "The rung is low only because Greek writing of residents has not been found at Merv; the Seleucid foundation itself is not in doubt. The end of Alexander's town is not dated (only that it fell before Antiochus rebuilt it), so the first phase is approximate. Pliny's Roman prisoners of 53 BC were Latin-speaking soldiers, not a Greek community.",
   "sources": [
    "Pliny 6.46-47 (English text: https://pothos.org/forum/viewtopic.php?p=47852)",
    "Zav'yalov 2004, Fortifications at Merv (Gyaur-Kala) after Alexander (abstract: https://parthia.com/webreport_71.htm)",
    "Livius, Margiana: https://www.livius.org/articles/place/margiana/",
    "Herrmann 1999, Monuments of Merv (unchecked); Cohen 2013 (Antiocheia in Margiane) (unchecked)",
    "BMCR 2013.07.51 (review of Rougemont 2012): https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/?p=52131",
    "Pleiades 961873"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Alexandria (Alexander) and Antioch (Antiochus I) are one entry, being on the same site; Erk Kala is its citadel. Sultan Kala, the medieval city to the west, is not a Greek town.",
   "west_asia_entry": "Antiochia in Margiana (Merv)"
  },
  {
   "no": 7,
   "list_group": "Margiana, Areia, Drangiana, Arachosia and Gedrosia",
   "dates_shown": "325 BC – c. 303 BC",
   "period": "1 The deportees and Alexander (to 323 BC)",
   "id": "a009",
   "latin": "Alexandria among the Oreitai (Rhambakia)",
   "greek": "Ἀλεξάνδρεια (ἐν Ὠρείταις); Ῥαμβακία",
   "other_names": "Rhambakia, the largest village of the Oreitai (Arrian 6.21.5); Alexandria by the sea (Diodorus 17.104.8); Alexandria in Gedrosia or Makarene (Pliny 6.97, per Iranica); Alexandria in Orietai; Arbis, 'founded by Nearchus during his voyage' (Pliny 6.97), if the same town (Pleiades and the Barrington Atlas identify them)",
   "identification": "Near Bela in Las Bela, the plain of the Purali river, as proposed by Aurel Stein; Diodorus places the city on the coast, which has moved since. No Greek finds.",
   "modern": "Bela (nearby)",
   "modern_native": "بیلہ",
   "population": 29380,
   "pop_year": null,
   "pop_source": "GeoNames gazetteer figure (date and origin not stated)",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Las Bela plain, near Bela, south of Khuzdar",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "admin1": "Balochistan",
   "admin2": "Lasbela District",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Gedrosia (land of the Oreitai)",
   "lat": 26.1307,
   "lon": 66.4597,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "59675",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -325,
   "greek_until": -303,
   "phases": [
    [
     -325,
     -303
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Autumn 325 BC: Alexander reached Rhambakia, judged that a city founded there would be great and prosperous, and left Hephaestion to build it (Arrian 6.21.5) (unchecked).",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Rule: the Oreitai rose against Leonnatus, who defeated them (Arrian, Indica 23.5) (unchecked); Seleucus I ceded parts of Gedrosia with Arachosia to Chandragupta Maurya c. 303 BC (Strabo 15.2.9). Speech: the town is never heard of again; the end is an estimate.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -325,
    -200
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Only the foundation accounts of 325 BC.",
   "ended_by": "No named act on the town: soon after the foundation the Oreitai rose and were defeated by Leonnatus (Arrian, Indica 23.5) (unchecked: section), and Seleucus I later ceded the borderlands to Chandragupta (Strabo 15.2.9). The town is not mentioned again.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Greek foundation at Rhambakia, the chief village of the Oreitai",
   "founder": "Alexander, 325 BC, built by Hephaestion and settled by Leonnatus (Arrian 6.21.5, 6.22.3; Diodorus 17.104.8; Curtius 9.10.7) (unchecked: the passages)",
   "founder_group": "Alexander",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Rhambakia is a native name known only from Arrian.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Arachosian Iranian (settlers) and the language of the Oreitai",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Curtius (9.10.7) and Diodorus say the city was settled with Arachosians (unchecked; settlers per Wikipedia); Arrian has Leonnatus left behind with Agrianians, archers and Macedonian troops to settle it (6.22.3) (unchecked). The Greek element is the founders and garrison only.",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Not attested beyond the foundation accounts.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: Arrian, Diodorus and Curtius describe a foundation of Alexander with settlers; site unknown and no finds.",
   "status_evidence": "Arrian 6.21.3-6 (6.21.5 for the city), 6.22.3 (unchecked: the section); Diodorus 17.104.4-8; Curtius 9.10.5-7; Pliny 6.97 (Iranica)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Tarn doubted that the city was ever built, since no Greek material has been found in Las Bela; the settlers named are Arachosians, so its Greek speech is doubtful. Pliny's Arbis, a town founded by Nearchus on the coast of the Arbies (6.97), is counted here, not separately, since Pleiades and the Barrington Atlas identify it with Rhambakia; if it was a different place it would be a further uncertain foundation.",
   "sources": [
    "Alexandria in Orietai: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria_in_Orietai",
    "Encyclopaedia Iranica, Alexandria (of Gedrosia): https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/alexandria-general-designation-of-cities-whose-foundation-is-credited-to-alexander-the-great-356-23-b/",
    "Hamilton 1972, Alexander among the Oreitae, Historia 21 (unchecked)",
    "Pleiades 59675"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 8,
   "list_group": "Margiana, Areia, Drangiana, Arachosia and Gedrosia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 300 BC – c. 150 BC",
   "period": "2 The Seleucids and the kingdom of Bactria (322-181 BC)",
   "id": "a003",
   "latin": "Soteira",
   "greek": "Σώτειρα",
   "other_names": "Sotira, a town of Areia (Ptolemy 6.17) (unchecked: the section)",
   "identification": "Unlocated. Appian lists Soteira among the cities Seleucus I founded in Parthyene, with Achaia, which Strabo puts in Areia; Ptolemy lists a Sotira among the towns of Areia. Taking the two as one town places it in Areia, the Herat country; this is an inference.",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Unlocated, Areia (Herat province)",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "admin1": "Herat",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Areia",
   "lat": 34.4,
   "lon": 62.6,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "60694",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -300,
   "greek_until": -150,
   "phases": [
    [
     -300,
     -150
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Founded by Seleucus I, who named it ('in Parthia also Sotera, Calliope, Charis, Hecatompylos, Achaia', Appian, Syrian Wars 57); no date is given, most likely after his eastern campaign of c. 308-303 BC.",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Rule: Seleucid, probably Graeco-Bactrian, then Parthian from the mid-2nd century BC. Speech: nothing is known; the town is not in Isidore. The end is an estimate.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -250,
    1
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Only Appian and Ptolemy (2nd century AD, who gives the name only).",
   "ended_by": "No named act: nothing is recorded of the town; Areia passed from the Graeco-Bactrian kings to the Parthians, probably under Mithridates I in his wars with Eucratides I (Strabo 11.11.2; Justin 41.6.1-3).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Seleucus I (Appian, Syrian Wars 57)",
   "founder_group": "Seleucid kings",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Not attested beyond the foundation notice.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: Appian names it a foundation of Seleucus I; the region comes from Ptolemy's Sotira in Areia, if the same town.",
   "status_evidence": "Appian, Syrian Wars 57; Ptolemy 6.17 (Sotira, in Areia)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "The other two towns in Appian's group, Calliope and Charis, are left out: Pliny puts Calliope near Hecatompylos in Iran, and Charis is unlocated. The Barrington Atlas also places Soteira, with a query, in Ariana.",
   "sources": [
    "Aria, towns of Ptolemy: https://en.bharatpedia.org/wiki/Aria",
    "Pleiades 60694 (Barrington: city in Ariana?)",
    "Cohen 2013 (Soteira) (unchecked)"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": "Calliope, Charis and Soteira (Parthyene)"
  },
  {
   "no": 9,
   "list_group": "Margiana, Areia, Drangiana, Arachosia and Gedrosia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 190 BC – c. 100 BC",
   "period": "2 The Seleucids and the kingdom of Bactria (322-181 BC)",
   "id": "a007",
   "latin": "Demetrias in Arachosia",
   "greek": "Δημητριάς",
   "other_names": "Demetrias polis (Isidore 19); probably Dattamitri, home of the Yavana Indragnidatta, 'a northerner', at Nashik (Cave 17)",
   "identification": "Unlocated. Isidore lists it among the cities of Arachosia on the road from Sakastane before Alexandropolis (Kandahar), so it probably lay west of Kandahar, in the Helmand-Arghandab country. Barrington and Pleiades fold the name into Arachosiorum oppidum at Ghazni (59694), which does not fit Isidore's order.",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Unlocated, west of Kandahar (Kandahar or Helmand province)",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "admin1": "Kandahar",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Arachosia",
   "lat": 31.55,
   "lon": 65.2,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -190,
   "greek_until": -100,
   "phases": [
    [
     -190,
     -100
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "No date is recorded. The name points to a king Demetrius, most often Demetrius I of Bactria (c. 200-185 BC), who extended Graeco-Bactrian rule south of the Hindu Kush (Tarn); a Seleucid Demetrius is unlikely in Arachosia after 303 BC.",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Rule: Graeco-Bactrian or Indo-Greek, then Saka and Parthian kings (Arachosia was Parthian by Isidore's time: 'as far as this the Parthians rule'). Speech: nothing is known. Isidore (c. AD 1) names Demetrias among the native-named towns of Arachosia and calls only Alexandropolis Greek, which counts a little against a Greek community in his time. The end is therefore set, as for the towns of Areia and Drangiana that Isidore names without calling them Greek, at the end of Greek rule in the province (c. 115-70 BC (unchecked)); the range runs from the decline of the Greek kingdoms south of the Hindu Kush to Isidore.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -150,
    1
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Isidore 19 (c. AD 1). Perhaps also a cave dedication at Nashik in western India (Cave 17, c. 2nd century AD) by Indragnidatta son of Dhammadeva, a Yonaka, a northerner from Dattamitri: Dattamitri is often taken as this Demetrias, which would show men of the town calling themselves Yavanas generations later, though writing Prakrit [identification uncertain].",
   "ended_by": "No named act: nothing is recorded.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Probably Demetrius I of Bactria, c. 200-185 BC (inferred from the name; Tarn 1938) (unchecked)",
   "founder_group": "Graeco-Bactrian kings",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Not attested beyond the name.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: Isidore (19) names a polis Demetrias in Arachosia, a Greek king's dynastic name that records a royal (re)foundation; the founder is inferred. A Yavana from Dattamitri at Nashik, if the same town, shows Greek identity, not Greek speech.",
   "status_evidence": "Isidore of Charax, Parthian Stations 19",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Known only from one line of Isidore; the founder is a guess from the name, and Tarn's reconstruction should not be relied on alone.",
   "sources": [
    "Isidore of Charax 19: https://www.parthia.com/doc/parthian_stations.htm",
    "Tarn 1938, The Greeks in Bactria and India (unchecked); Cohen 2013, p. 272 (Demetrias in Arachosia)",
    "Demetrias in Arachosia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demetriapolis",
    "Pleiades 59694 (Arachosiorum oppidum, which lists Demetrias among its names)"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 10,
   "list_group": "Bactria",
   "dates_shown": "c. 328 BC – c. 130 BC",
   "period": "1 The deportees and Alexander (to 323 BC)",
   "id": "a016",
   "latin": "Bactra",
   "greek": "Βάκτρα",
   "other_names": "Zariaspa (Arrian; Strabo 11.11.2; Pliny 6.48: 'Bactra, formerly called Zariaspe'); Bactra the royal seat (Ptolemy 6.11 (unchecked)); probably Lanshi, the capital of Daxia (Shiji 123; Hou Hanshu 88), though this is debated; Balkh; Umm al-Bilad, 'mother of cities' (Arabic)",
   "identification": "Balkh: the Bala Hisar citadel and the walled town around it; Tepe Zargaran, inside the walls, has Hellenistic walls and Greek-type stone capitals of the 3rd c. BC. The identification with Balkh is secure; Zariaspa is either another name of Bactra or a town close to it.",
   "modern": "Balkh",
   "modern_native": "بلخ",
   "population": 148972,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA, 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Balkh, Bala Hisar and Tepe Zargaran, Balkh province",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "admin1": "Balkh",
   "admin2": "Balkh",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Bactria",
   "lat": 36.7679,
   "lon": 66.9011,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "961886",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -328,
   "greek_until": -130,
   "phases": [
    [
     -328,
     -130
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Alexander made Zariaspa-Bactra his base in the winters of 329/328 and 328/327 BC and settled Greek mercenaries in colonies around it (Arrian 4.7.1; 4.16.6; Curtius 9.7.1).",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Rule: Greek kings held Bactra until the nomad conquest of c. 145-130 BC; Zhang Qian, c. 128 BC, found Daxia under the Yuezhi, with Lanshi as its capital. Speech: the end of the Greek community is not recorded. It may have dwindled soon after the conquest, or lasted for a time in what remained the chief town of Bactria, while Greek stayed the written language of the Yuezhi and Kushan rulers until Kanishka replaced it with Bactrian, c. AD 127 (Rabatak inscription). Bactrian in Greek letters, used afterwards, is not Greek speech.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -145,
    127
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek-type capitals of the 3rd c. BC and a Hellenistic wall at Tepe Zargaran and on the Bala Hisar; Graeco-Bactrian and Kushan coins with Greek legends from the French excavations (Bordeaux, Besenval, Marquis and Rassoli 2019); Greek documents on skin of the 2nd c. BC said to come from near Balkh; Greek on Kushan coins until Kanishka, c. AD 127. In the wider Kushan realm Greek still appears rarely in inscriptions: the Dasht-e Nawur inscription of Vima Takto (south of the Hindu Kush) opens with a Greek date line, year 279, c. AD 104/5, and a Bactrian inscription at Surkh Kotal (SK 3) ends with the Greek words 'by Palamedes', not earlier than Kanishka I; Greek in inscriptions ceased at about the time Bactrian replaced it on the coins (Encyclopaedia Iranica).",
   "ended_by": "Rule passed to the Yuezhi, who conquered Daxia and made it their subject before Zhang Qian's visit, c. 128 BC (Shiji 123); Strabo 11.8.2 names the nomads who took Bactriana from the Greeks (Asii, Pasiani, Tochari, Sacarauli). No sack of Bactra and no expulsion of Greeks is recorded, and no named act ends the Greek community. Kanishka's edict replacing Greek with Aryan (Bactrian), c. AD 127 (Rabatak inscription), ended the official use of Greek, not necessarily its speech.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Bactrian town",
   "founder": "Native Bactrian town; Alexander settled Greeks in colonies around it, 329-327 BC (Curtius 9.7.1; Diodorus 17.99.5-6); Stephanus of Byzantium lists an Alexandria near Bactra (unchecked)",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Royal city of the Graeco-Bactrian kings from Diodotus I (c. 250 BC) to the conquest",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Bāxtriš (Old Persian, the province; Bisitun); Bāxδī (Avestan, Videvdad 1)",
   "pre_greek_note": "The Old Persian and Avestan forms name the land; the town carried the name of the province. Achaemenid terraces have been found on the slope of the Bala Hisar.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Persian",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Bactrian",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Greek settlers placed by Alexander in colonies around Bactra seized its citadel in 325 BC (Curtius 9.7.1-11; Diodorus 17.99.5-6). It was then the royal city of the Graeco-Bactrian kings, where Euthydemus, beaten on the Arius (Polybius 10.49), withstood the siege of Antiochus III, c. 208-206 BC (Polybius 11.34; the siege of Bactra is named in 29.12.8 (unchecked)). The townspeople were Bactrians. No Greek inscription has yet been found in the town, which is largely unexcavated.",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "The Greek settlers spoke Greek; how far the Bactrian townspeople did is unknown. A Bactrian, Hyspasines son of Mithroaxes, made a Greek dedication on Delos c. 178-168 BC, and Greek documents on skin of the 2nd c. BC are said to come from near Balkh.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: texts on Alexander's Greek settlers placed around Bactra, who seized its citadel in 325 BC (Curtius 9.7.1-11; Diodorus 17.99.5-6), and Stephanus' Alexandria near Bactra, counted here; then the royal city of the Graeco-Bactrian kings. No Greek writing of residents has yet been found in the town.",
   "status_evidence": "Arrian 3.29.1, 4.7.1, 4.16.6; Curtius 7.4.31, 9.7.1-11; Diodorus 17.99.5-6; Polybius 10.49, 11.34, 29.12.8 (unchecked); Strabo 11.11.2; Pliny 6.48",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Its standing as a Greek or bilingual city rests on texts. As the Greek capital it was surely bilingual in some measure, but excavation has not yet reached the Hellenistic town; a find of Greek inscriptions would raise it at once.",
   "sources": [
    "Bernard, Besenval and Marquis, 'Du mirage bactrien aux realites archeologiques: nouvelles fouilles de la DAFA a Bactres (2004-2005)', CRAI 2006, 1175-1248: https://isidore.science/document/10.3406/crai.2006.87126",
    "Bordeaux, Besenval, Marquis and Rassoli 2019: https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-02955019v1/file/Bordeaux_Besenval_Marquis_Rassoli_2019_Monnaies_h%C3%A9llenistiques_kouchanes_Bactres.pdf",
    "https://amis-musee-cernuschi.org/en/afghanistan-retour-a-bactres/",
    "Holt, Alexander the Great and Bactria (1988)",
    "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/961886"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 11,
   "list_group": "Bactria",
   "dates_shown": "c. 328 BC – c. 130 BC",
   "period": "1 The deportees and Alexander (to 323 BC)",
   "id": "a010",
   "latin": "Kampyr Tepe",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Kampyrtepa; identified by Rtveladze with a Pandokheion ('inn, staging post') (1999) and, since 2019, with Alexandria Oxiana",
   "identification": "Site name; the ancient name is not attested at the site. Rtveladze identifies it with Alexandria Oxiana (Ptolemy 6.12.6), which Ptolemy lists in Sogdiana, north of the river, as Kampyr Tepe is; others prefer Ai Khanoum. Alexandria Oxiana is not counted separately: its two main candidate sites are both entered.",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "Кампиртепа",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Kampyr Tepe, on the right bank of the Amu Darya about 30 km west of Termez, near Shurob, Surkhandarya",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "admin1": "Surkhandarya",
   "admin2": "Muzrabot (unchecked)",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Bactria (north bank of the Oxus)",
   "lat": 37.4106,
   "lon": 67.0279,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "809369795",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -328,
   "greek_until": -130,
   "phases": [
    [
     -328,
     -130
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "A small river-port outpost was built in the late 4th c. BC, in or soon after Alexander's campaign of 329-327 BC (archaeology); its walls were rebuilt c. 235-200 BC.",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Rule: Greek rule ended with the nomad conquest, c. 145-130 BC; the town lived on under the Yuezhi and Kushans, its main period being Kanishka's reign, and was left when the river moved, after about four centuries. Speech: the Greek writing found is Hellenistic; when Greek ceased to be spoken there is unknown. The phase ends with Greek rule, c. 130 BC, the last time Greek residents can be assumed; the range runs to Kanishka's edict, c. AD 127 (Rabatak), because until then Greek was the written language of the Yuezhi and Kushan state in Bactria, as at Bactra.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -145,
    127
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek inscriptions on vessels; coins of Euthydemus I and Apollo types; the Kushan-period town wrote Bactrian and Gandhari (Kharoshthi) on birch bark.",
   "ended_by": "No named act on the town: the north bank of the Oxus was the seat of the Yuezhi court when Zhang Qian visited, c. 128 BC (Shiji 123), and the town passed from Greek to Yuezhi and Kushan rule without a recorded sack. Kanishka's edict, c. AD 127 (Rabatak inscription), ended the official use of Greek, not necessarily its speech.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Unknown: a fortress built in Alexander's time or soon after, enlarged under the Graeco-Bactrian kings (archaeology)",
   "founder_group": "Alexander",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Rebuilt c. 235-200 BC (Graeco-Bactrian kings); Kushan fortifications and lower town of the 1st-2nd c. AD",
   "pre_settlement": "no known",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Bactrian (Kushan period)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Greek inscriptions on vessels (one sherd begins KLE-) and fragments of papyrus are reported from the excavations (Rtveladze 1995; 1999); the manuscript fragments on birch bark, in Kharoshthi and Bactrian, belong to the Kushan town.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: excavation published by Rtveladze as a fortress-city of the Greek period (from the 4th c. BC, rebuilt c. 235-200 BC) with Greek writing on vessels; the identification with Alexandria Oxiana is disputed and adds no second strand.",
   "status_evidence": "Excavations of the Tokharistan Archaeological Expedition (Pugachenkova from 1977; Rtveladze from 2000); Rtveladze, Revue numismatique 1995 and 1999 (unchecked: titles)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "In the Greek period the site was mainly a fortress and port guarding a river crossing, published by Rtveladze as a fortress-city; whether it was a town rather than a garrison post, and whether its Greek writing is Hellenistic or Kushan, is open. It may belong among the presence points instead.",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kampir_Tepe",
    "https://society.uz/edition/13",
    "https://vestnik.spbgik.ru:443/vestnic_jurnal/2020-4/4_20-2-193-78-84.pdf",
    "https://www.orexca.com/rus/uzbekistan/termez/kampyr-tepe.htm",
    "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/809369795"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 12,
   "list_group": "Bactria",
   "dates_shown": "c. 290 BC – c. 145 BC",
   "period": "2 The Seleucids and the kingdom of Bactria (322-181 BC)",
   "id": "a012",
   "latin": "Ai Khanoum",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Ay Khanum ('Lady Moon', the Uzbek name of the site); proposed ancient names: Alexandria Oxiana (Ptolemy 6.12.6), Eucratidia (Strabo 11.11.2; Ptolemy 6.11.8)",
   "identification": "The ancient name is not attested at the site. Paul Bernard suggested that the city was renamed Eucratidia by Eucratides I; Frantz Grenet, Claude Rapin and others prefer Alexandria Oxiana, although Ptolemy lists that town in Sogdiana, north of the river; Edvard Rtveladze puts Alexandria Oxiana at Kampyr Tepe instead. Eucratidia is entered separately as an unlocated town; Alexandria Oxiana is not counted separately, because its two candidate sites, this one and Kampyr Tepe, are both entered.",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "آی خانم",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Ai Khanoum, at the confluence of the Amu Darya (Panj) and the Kokcha, beside Dasht-i Qala, Takhar province",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "admin1": "Takhar",
   "admin2": "Dasht-i Qala",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Bactria",
   "lat": 37.1659,
   "lon": 69.4121,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "971693",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -290,
   "greek_until": -145,
   "phases": [
    [
     -290,
     -145
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Founded in the early 3rd c. BC, probably under Antiochus I while co-regent of Seleucus I (from 294 BC), by Kineas, honoured as founder (oikistes) in his precinct (archaeology); an earlier foundation by Alexander, c. 328 BC, is possible but not proven. The Clearchus inscription (IGIAC 97) dates to the first quarter of the 3rd c. BC.",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Rule: the city belonged to the Seleucids and then to the Graeco-Bactrian kings down to Eucratides I (c. 171-145 BC). Speech: the latest dated treasury texts name 'year 24', usually taken as a year of Eucratides (c. 147 BC); soon after, c. 145 BC, the treasury was looted and the palace burnt, and the city was never rebuilt as a Greek town. People lived for a while in the ruins (squatter levels), but no Greek writing is known after the sack.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    -150,
    -130
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Treasury jar inscriptions dated up to 'year 24' (c. 147 BC on Bernard's reading); coins of Eucratides I are the latest Graeco-Bactrian issues common in the city (unchecked); nothing Greek after c. 145 BC.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the city was sacked c. 145 BC, soon after the murder of Eucratides I (Justin 41.6.5). The attackers are usually taken to be nomads (Saka or Yuezhi) moving south into Bactria (Strabo 11.8.2; Shiji 123), but no source names the town.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Kineas, honoured as founder (oikistes) in his precinct in the town centre, probably for Antiochus I, co-regent from 294 BC (archaeology); a first foundation by Alexander, c. 328 BC, is argued by some but not proven.",
   "founder_group": "Seleucid kings",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Enlarged and rebuilt under the Graeco-Bactrian kings (Diodotids; above all Eucratides I: palace, theatre, arsenal), c. 250-145 BC.",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "An Achaemenid-period fortified settlement lay in the plain at Kohna Qala, about 6 km to the north-east; no pre-Greek name is known for the site.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Bactrian (a minority among the residents and officials)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Officials with Iranian names appear beside Greek ones on the treasury jar inscriptions (unchecked: e.g. Oxeboakes, Oxybazos, Aryandes), showing Bactrians in the city's administration, but every text from the city is in Greek.",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Greek was the language of the city: the Delphic maxims and the epigram set up by Clearchus in the precinct of Kineas (IGIAC 97), the gymnasium dedication of Triballos and Straton to Hermes and Heracles, inscriptions on the treasury jars, ostraca, a philosophical dialogue on papyrus and fragments of a literary text on parchment.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 1,
   "evidence_basis": "Greek institutions of its own: a gymnasium with a Greek dedication, a theatre, Greek administrative texts of the treasury, Greek inscriptions, ostraca and literary texts written by residents.",
   "status_evidence": "French excavations 1964-1978 (Bernard and others, Fouilles d'Ai Khanoum I-IX); Rougemont, Inscriptions grecques d'Iran et d'Asie centrale (2012), nos. 97-150, the Ai Khanoum texts (Clearchus and the Delphic maxims: IGIAC 97); gymnasium dedication to Hermes and Heracles by two brothers (Robert 1968, 417-421); the epigram of Clearchus in two elegiac distichs (Robert 1968, 421-457); treasury inscriptions on storage jars (Rapin 1983 = SEG 33.1220-1246); perhaps Ptolemy 6.12.6 (Alexandria Oxiana) or Strabo 11.11.2 (Eucratidia).",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The Clearchus of the Delphic maxims (IGIAC 97a-c; I.Estremo Oriente 382-384; first quarter of the 3rd c. BC) was identified by Louis Robert (1968) with Clearchus of Soli, a pupil of Aristotle; editors of the Peripatetic's fragments accept this, while Narain, Mairs and Lerner see a local or later Clearchus. The archaeological phases run from the early 3rd c. BC to about 140 BC; the dating of 'year 24' to Eucratides is the usual view, not a certainty. Some scholars reject the identification with Alexandria Oxiana outright.",
   "sources": [
    "Bernard, Fouilles d'Ai Khanoum I (1973) and later volumes",
    "Rougemont, Inscriptions grecques d'Iran et d'Asie centrale, CII II.1 (2012)",
    "Mairs, The Hellenistic Far East (2014)",
    "Delphic maxims in Ai Khanum, Axon 1.1 (2017): https://edizionicafoscari.it/media/pdf/article/axon/2017/1/art-10.14277-2532-6848-Axon-1-1-17-20_2Ee2UZe.pdf",
    "Martinez-Seve, 'The spatial organization of Ai Khanoum', AJA 118 (2014) (unchecked)",
    "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/971693"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 13,
   "list_group": "Bactria",
   "dates_shown": "c. 290 BC – c. 145 BC",
   "period": "2 The Seleucids and the kingdom of Bactria (322-181 BC)",
   "id": "a036",
   "latin": "Antioch Tharmata",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Antiohia tharmata (Peutinger Table, segment 11, with a town symbol; perhaps the same as an Antiochia in the next square of the map, Talbert); Antiochia Tharmata (Barrington Atlas, unlocated, on its maps 6 and 99); Alexandreia/Antioch Tharmata (Cohen 2013)",
   "identification": "Unlocated. The Barrington Atlas lists it among the unlocated places of its map of Bactria and Sogdiana (map 99). The second name has been compared with Tarmita, the Bactrian name of Termez on the Oxus (unchecked: who proposed it not checked); if that is right it is a Seleucid name of the Greek fortress at Old Termez, which is otherwise left out because no Greek writing has been found there. The Peutinger Table is a medieval copy of a late Roman map whose eastern part is confused.",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Unlocated; Old Termez (Surkhandarya, Uzbekistan) has been proposed",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "admin1": "Surkhandarya (region only)",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Bactria",
   "lat": 37.2643,
   "lon": 67.1925,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "975462",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -290,
   "greek_until": -145,
   "phases": [
    [
     -290,
     -145
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "No date. An Antioch in Bactria would most likely be named by Antiochus I, who governed the upper satrapies as co-ruler with Seleucus I, c. 294-281 BC (unchecked), or by a later Antiochus; the Hellenistic fortress at Old Termez is dated to the early Hellenistic period (unchecked).",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Rule: northern Bactria fell to the nomads (Saka and Yuezhi), c. 145-130 BC; Termez later grew into a large Kushan town whose language was Bactrian. Speech: nothing is known of Greek speakers after the Greek period; the end is an estimate.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    -145,
    -100
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Only the name on the Peutinger Table. At Old Termez: Graeco-Bactrian coins and pottery, no Greek inscriptions.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: northern Bactria was taken by the nomads, the Yuezhi settling north of the Oxus (Shiji 123).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "A king Antiochus, most likely Antiochus I (inferred from the name)",
   "founder_group": "Seleucid kings",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Nothing is known beyond the name; the fortress at Old Termez has Graeco-Bactrian pottery and coins but no Greek writing.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: a king's dynastic name in an ancient text (the Peutinger Table), admitted under the rule for text-only foundations; nothing found at Termez carries Greek writing.",
   "status_evidence": "Peutinger Table, segment 11 (Talbert database: Antiohia tharmata)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "The weakest kind of admission: a name on a late Roman map, unlocated and perhaps duplicated, placed at Termez only because of the likeness of Tharmata and Tarmita. If the identification is dropped the point should stay 'region only' in Bactria; if the rule for dynastic names is not applied to the Peutinger Table, this becomes a left-out entry. It may be a doublet: the Barrington Atlas suggests the map's Antiochia Tharmata blends Antioch in Margiana (Merv) and Tarmita (Termez); it is counted separately because the name stands apart on the Peutinger Table, and the doubt is stated.",
   "sources": [
    "Talbert, Peutinger Map database: https://www.cambridge.org/us/talbert/talbertdatabase/TPPlace2794.html",
    "Cohen, The Hellenistic Settlements in the East (2013): the entry is listed in the publisher's table of contents, https://www.ucpress.edu/books/the-hellenistic-settlements-in-the-east-from-armenia-and-mesopotamia-to-bactria-and-india/hardcover (the entry itself not read)",
    "Pleiades 975462 and 60420 (Antiochia Tharmata, unlocated)"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 14,
   "list_group": "Bactria",
   "dates_shown": "c. 250 BC – c. 130 BC",
   "period": "2 The Seleucids and the kingdom of Bactria (322-181 BC)",
   "id": "a034",
   "latin": "Emshi Tepe",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Emshi-tepe",
   "identification": "Site name; no ancient name is known for it (Pleiades 961905).",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Emshi Tepe, north-east of Sheberghan, about 1.5 km from Tillya Tepe, Jowzjan",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "admin1": "Jowzjan",
   "admin2": "Sheberghan",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Bactria",
   "lat": 36.7067,
   "lon": 65.7871,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "961905",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -250,
   "greek_until": -130,
   "phases": [
    [
     -250,
     -130
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Hellenistic level of the town (Graeco-Bactrian period), the context of the ostrakon (unchecked); the exact level is not checked.",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Rule: Greek rule in Bactria ended with the nomad conquest, c. 145-130 BC. Speech: nothing Greek is known after the single ostrakon; the town lived on in the Kushan and later periods, beside the nomad burials of Tillya Tepe (1st c. AD).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    -145,
    -50
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek ostrakon Diod- (1969) (unchecked); Kushan and later levels without Greek writing.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the Yuezhi took Bactria (Shiji 123), c. 130 BC; nothing is recorded at the site.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Bactrian town",
   "founder": "Native Bactrian fortified town; Greek writing in its Hellenistic level",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Bactrian",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Encyclopaedia Iranica (Epigraphy ii) lists fragmentary Greek graffiti on jars from Emshi Tepe, with Tepe Nemlik and Garaw Qala, citing Rapin 1983, p. 316, no. 5, and Schmitt, p. 53, no. 44. One is reported as the beginning of a Greek name, Diod-, found in 1969; that reading and date are not checked against Rougemont 2012 (unchecked).",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Fragmentary Greek graffiti on jars, one reported as a name beginning Diod- (unchecked); nothing more.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: Greek graffiti on jars (one reported as the beginning of a Greek name) in a fortified town with Hellenistic levels, the same kind of evidence that admits Ora.",
   "status_evidence": "Encyclopaedia Iranica, Epigraphy ii (Rapin 1983, p. 316, no. 5; Schmitt, p. 53, no. 44); Soviet-Afghan excavations (Kruglikova, Sarianidi), 1969 onwards (unchecked)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Admitted only for consistency with Ora: one Greek name fragment on a sherd. If the ostrakon is not Greek of the Hellenistic level, or if both cases are judged too slight, Emshi Tepe and Ora should go out together.",
   "sources": [
    "Pleiades 961905",
    "Encyclopaedia Iranica, Epigraphy ii: https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/epigraphy-ii",
    "Kruglikova and Sarianidi, Drevnyaya Baktriya I (1976) (unchecked)"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 15,
   "list_group": "Bactria",
   "dates_shown": "c. 170 BC – c. 145 BC",
   "period": "3 The Indo-Greeks and the last Greek kings of Bactria (180 BC - AD 10)",
   "id": "a015",
   "latin": "Amphipolis in Bactria",
   "greek": "Ἀμφίπολις",
   "other_names": "",
   "identification": "Unlocated town named as the place of a Greek contract on skin dated under King Antimachus, 'year 30', said to come from near Balkh (Clarysse and Thompson 2007, text 2). The editors note that the Macedonian Amphipolis cannot be ruled out, but a town in Bactria is more likely for a document dated by a Bactrian king; the year number is too high for Antimachus' own reign and may count from an era.",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Unlocated, probably in the Balkh region",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "admin1": "Balkh",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Bactria",
   "lat": 36.85,
   "lon": 66.6,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -170,
   "greek_until": -145,
   "phases": [
    [
     -170,
     -145
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Only attestation: the contract of the 2nd c. BC, dated 'year 30' under King Antimachus (I or II); Antimachus I reigned c. 174-166 BC on Hollis's dating (other datings c. 185-170 BC), so the year probably counts from an era rather than from his accession.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Rule: the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom fell to the nomads c. 145-130 BC. Speech: the town is attested only once; nothing is known of its later history.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    -170,
    -130
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Single document of the 2nd c. BC.",
   "ended_by": "No named act on the town: nothing is recorded of it after the fall of the Greek kingdom of Bactria, which the sources ascribe to nomads: the Asii, Pasiani, Tochari and Sacarauli, who took Bactriana from the Greeks (Strabo 11.8.2), and the Yuezhi, who conquered Daxia (Shiji 123).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Unknown; the Greek name points to a Greek foundation (Alexander, the Seleucids or the Graeco-Bactrian kings)",
   "founder_group": "a Greek king, not known which",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "A Greek contract, drawn up 'in Amphipolis', hiring forty Scythians for one hundred drachmas of silver, perhaps as mounted guards for a local authority or a Greek city rather than the king.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: a single Greek document dated at the town, of unknown exact find-spot, giving it a Greek name.",
   "status_evidence": "Clarysse and Thompson, 'Two Greek texts on skin from Hellenistic Bactria', ZPE 159 (2007) 273-279",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "A Bactrian Amphipolis is otherwise unknown; if the place is the Macedonian city the entry falls.",
   "sources": [
    "Clarysse and Thompson, ZPE 159 (2007) 273-279",
    "https://vestnik.spbgik.ru:443/vestnic_jurnal/2020-4/4_20-2-193-78-84.pdf"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 16,
   "list_group": "Bactria",
   "dates_shown": "c. 170 BC – c. 145 BC",
   "period": "3 The Indo-Greeks and the last Greek kings of Bactria (180 BC - AD 10)",
   "id": "a013",
   "latin": "Asangorna",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "identification": "Unlocated town named in a Greek tax receipt on parchment (Ashmolean Museum EA 1994.79), bought on the market and presumed to come from Bactria; the reading of the name is not certain. The first editor compared modern names beginning in Sang- (Sangar Saray among them) without finding a match.",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Unlocated, Graeco-Bactrian kingdom (probably northern Afghanistan)",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "admin1": "",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Bactria",
   "lat": 36.9,
   "lon": 67.5,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -170,
   "greek_until": -145,
   "phases": [
    [
     -170,
     -145
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Only attestation: the receipt dated 'in the reign of God Antimachus and Eumenes and Antimachus, year 4, month Oloios, in Asangorna(?), when NN was guardian of the law (nomophylax)'; Hollis dates it about 170 BC (or 171), the Ashmolean Museum c. 180 BC.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Rule: the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom fell to the nomads c. 145-130 BC. Speech: the town is attested only once, c. 170 BC; nothing is known of its later history.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    -170,
    -130
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Single document, c. 170 BC.",
   "ended_by": "No named act on the town: nothing is recorded of it after the fall of the Greek kingdom of Bactria, which the sources ascribe to nomads: the Asii, Pasiani, Tochari and Sacarauli, who took Bactriana from the Greeks (Strabo 11.8.2), and the Yuezhi, who conquered Daxia (Shiji 123).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Bactrian town (non-Greek name)",
   "founder": "Native town (non-Greek name) under Greek administration",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "Asangorna?",
   "pre_greek_note": "The name, read with doubt from the Greek receipt, does not look Greek; its language is unknown.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Bactrian",
   "bilingual_evidence": "The receipt is in Greek and names Greek officials (the tax-collector Menodotus, Diodorus the controller of revenues, the agent of Demonax) and a payer whose father's name, Dataes(?), is Iranian; the name of the town is not Greek.",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "A Greek receipt for the dues on a purchase, written in a good Greek documentary hand, dated by kings, by the Macedonian month Oloios and by an eponymous guardian of the law (nomophylax), a civic magistrate of a Greek kind.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: a single Greek administrative document of the town (a tax receipt), dated by an eponymous guardian of the law (nomophylax), of unknown find-spot and with an uncertain reading of the place name.",
   "status_evidence": "Rea, Senior and Hollis, 'A tax receipt from Hellenistic Bactria', ZPE 104 (1994) 261-280; Bernard and Rapin, 'Un parchemin gréco-bactrien d'une collection privée', CRAI 138 (1994); Ashmolean Museum EA1994.79",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "The receipt shows Greek fiscal administration and an eponymous civic magistrate in a Bactrian town c. 180-170 BC; whether the town had a Greek-speaking community beyond the officials cannot be said from one text. The co-ruler Eumenes is otherwise unknown: Rea thought of Eumenes II of Pergamum, Hollis of a son of Antimachus. The same document was also published by Bernard and Rapin, CRAI 1994.",
   "sources": [
    "Rea, Senior and Hollis, ZPE 104 (1994): https://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/ifa/zpe/downloads/1994/104pdf/104261.pdf",
    "https://www.ashmolean.org/node/867906",
    "https://vestnik.spbgik.ru/stati/2645?lang=en"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 17,
   "list_group": "Bactria",
   "dates_shown": "c. 170 BC – c. 145 BC",
   "period": "3 The Indo-Greeks and the last Greek kings of Bactria (180 BC - AD 10)",
   "id": "a014",
   "latin": "Eucratidia",
   "greek": "Εὐκρατίδεια",
   "other_names": "Eukratideia (Strabo 11.11.2); Eukratidia (Ptolemy 6.11.8)",
   "identification": "Unlocated. Bernard suggested that Ai Khanoum was renamed Eucratidia by Eucratides I; Pleiades (975464) and the Encyclopaedia Iranica tentatively put it at Dilberjin, north-west of Balkh; others look for it elsewhere in Bactria.",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Unlocated, Bactria",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "admin1": "",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Bactria",
   "lat": 36.9,
   "lon": 68.0,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "975464",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -170,
   "greek_until": -145,
   "phases": [
    [
     -170,
     -145
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Named after Eucratides I, who reigned c. 171-145 BC; the date of naming is not recorded.",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Rule: the Graeco-Bactrian kingdom fell to the nomads c. 145-130 BC; Strabo (11.11.2) lists Eucratidia among the cities the Greeks held. Speech: nothing is known after the conquest.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    -150,
    -130
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "None beyond the name in Strabo and Ptolemy.",
   "ended_by": "No named act on the town: nothing is recorded of it after the fall of the Greek kingdom of Bactria, which the sources ascribe to nomads: the Asii, Pasiani, Tochari and Sacarauli, who took Bactriana from the Greeks (Strabo 11.8.2), and the Yuezhi, who conquered Daxia (Shiji 123).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Eucratides I, c. 171-145 BC (named after him: Strabo 11.11.2); a new town or a renamed one",
   "founder_group": "Graeco-Bactrian kings",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Known only from the texts; nothing is recorded of its people.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: Strabo (11.11.2) names Eucratidia among the cities of Bactria, 'named after its ruler', and Ptolemy (6.11.8) gives it a position of its own; no site is agreed (Ai Khanoum and Dilberjin are proposed).",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 11.11.2; Ptolemy 6.11.8",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "If Eucratidia was the later name of Ai Khanoum, this entry merges with that city.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 11.11.2 (ToposText)",
    "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/975464",
    "https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/delbarjin"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 18,
   "list_group": "Sogdiana and the Jaxartes",
   "dates_shown": "c. 479 BC – 329 BC",
   "period": "1 The deportees and Alexander (to 323 BC)",
   "id": "a020",
   "latin": "Town of the Branchidae",
   "greek": "ἡ τῶν Βραγχιδῶν πόλις",
   "other_names": "Branchidae; Curtius 7.5.28: parvulum oppidum (a small town)",
   "identification": "Unlocated: a small town in Sogdiana that Alexander reached after crossing the Oxus and before reaching Maracanda (Curtius 7.5.28; Strabo 11.11.4). Pichikyan (VDI 1991) argued for a site and cited amphora inscriptions, accepted as relevant by Hammond (1998); not checked here.",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Southern Sogdiana between the Oxus and Maracanda (Kashkadarya or Surkhandarya region), unlocated",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "admin1": "Qashqadaryo Region (region only)",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Sogdiana",
   "lat": 38.5,
   "lon": 66.6,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "961891",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -479,
   "greek_until": -329,
   "phases": [
    [
     -479,
     -329
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "The Branchidae, temple-keepers of Apollo at Didyma, handed the temple treasures to Xerxes and went with him (Strabo 14.1.5, 17.1.43); Xerxes settled them in Central Asia (Strabo 11.11.4; Curtius 7.5.28). The year of Xerxes' retreat from Greece, 479 BC, is the conventional date.",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Rule and speech ended together: Alexander had the town destroyed and its people killed in 329 BC, as punishment for their ancestors' betrayal of Didyma (Curtius 7.5.28-35; Strabo 11.11.4; Plutarch Moralia 557b; Diodorus 17, list of contents). If the story is fictional, so is the town.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "year",
   "until_range": null,
   "fade_evidence": "Curtius 7.5.29 already describes them as bilingual and losing their Greek after 150 years.",
   "ended_by": "The Branchidae were killed on Alexander's orders, 329 BC (Curtius 7.5.28-35; Strabo 11.11.4)",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Greek deportee town",
   "founder": "Xerxes, c. 479 BC (Strabo 11.11.4, 14.1.5; Curtius 7.5.28)",
   "founder_group": "Achaemenid kings (deportees)",
   "metropolis": "Didyma (Miletus)",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "the local language (Sogdian or Bactrian)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Curtius 7.5.29: they kept their ancestral customs but were already bilingual, gradually losing their own tongue to the foreign one (mores patrii nondum exoleverant, sed iam bilingues erant).",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Greek still spoken beside the local language when Alexander arrived (Curtius 7.5.29).",
   "deportee_city": true,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One textual strand (the Alexander historians, via Curtius and Strabo) describes a town of Greek deportees who were bilingual; no archaeological confirmation.",
   "status_evidence": "Curtius 7.5.28-35; Strabo 11.11.4, 14.1.5, 17.1.43; Plutarch, Moralia 557b; Diodorus 17 (contents); cf. Herodotus 6.19.3",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Historicity disputed: Tarn (1938) rejected the massacre as an invention (unchecked); Parke (JHS 105, 1985) and Hammond (CQ 48, 1998) argued for it; Rapin (2018) and Iliakis treat it as a fiction built from several real events. Curtius places it in Sogdiana; it is sometimes put in Bactria. Some link the story to Demodamas of Miletus, who dedicated altars to Apollo of Didyma beyond the Jaxartes a generation later (Pliny 6.49). Herodotus (6.19) has Didyma sacked under Darius, in 494 BC, not under Xerxes.",
   "sources": [
    "Curtius 7.5.28-35",
    "Strabo 11.11.4",
    "Hammond, CQ 48 (1998) 339-344: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/classical-quarterly/article/branchidae-at-didyma-and-in-sogdiana/59491F8ED5FD1549C88F5903BCC0F025",
    "Parke, JHS 105 (1985): https://resolve.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-hellenic-studies/article/abs/massacre-of-the-branchidae/73F7B2FF7A3FB16E148F12940820E597",
    "Iliakis, Studia Hercynia 25.1: https://dspace.cuni.cz/bitstream/handle/20.500.11956/152279/Michael_Iliakis_34-47.pdf"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 19,
   "list_group": "Sogdiana and the Jaxartes",
   "dates_shown": "329 BC – c. 145 BC",
   "period": "1 The deportees and Alexander (to 323 BC)",
   "id": "a018",
   "latin": "Alexandria Eschate",
   "greek": "Ἀλεξάνδρεια ἡ Ἐσχάτη",
   "other_names": "Alexandria 'the Farthest' (Ptolemy 6.12.6); Alexandreschata in Scythia (Appian Syr. 57 (unchecked)); Alexandria on the Tanais (Justin 12.5.12; the Greeks called the Jaxartes the Tanais); medieval Khujanda (Arabic and Persian geographers); Khodzhent; Leninabad (1936-1991); Khujand. Cohen (2013) has entries 'Alexandreia/Antioch in Scythia', 'Alexandreia on the Tanais' and 'Alexandreschata in Scythia' (publisher's table of contents); a Seleucid renaming as Antioch has been suggested by modern scholars (Tarn) (unchecked: the evidence for the Antioch name not read)",
   "identification": "Khujand on the Syr Darya (Jaxartes), at the mouth of the Ferghana valley: the identification of most scholars (Pleiades, Cohen, Fraser), based on Arrian's account of a city on the Tanais at the frontier against the Scythians and on the Hellenistic remains under the citadel. Not proven by an inscription.",
   "modern": "Khujand",
   "modern_native": "Хуҷанд",
   "population": 203800,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "Agency on Statistics under the President of Tajikistan, estimate at 1 Jan 2024 (via citypopulation.de, 'Tajikistan: Administrative Division')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Khujand citadel and old town, left (south) bank of the Syr Darya, Sughd Region",
   "country": "Tajikistan",
   "admin1": "Sughd Region",
   "admin2": "Khujand (city)",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Sogdiana (the Jaxartes frontier, at the entrance to Ferghana)",
   "lat": 40.2846,
   "lon": 69.6227,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "59672",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -329,
   "greek_until": -145,
   "phases": [
    [
     -329,
     -145
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Founded by Alexander on the Jaxartes in summer 329 BC: walls built in twenty days (Arrian 4.4.1) or seventeen (Curtius 7.6.25-26 (unchecked); Justin 12.5.12, who gives a wall of six miles (unchecked)).",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Rule: Seleucid control of the Jaxartes frontier is shown by Demodamas of Miletus, general of Seleucus I and Antiochus I, who crossed the Jaxartes and set up altars to Apollo of Didyma (Pliny 6.49; L. Robert, BCH 108, 1984, 467-472; IK Estremo oriente 392); the Graeco-Bactrian kings held Sogdiana (Strabo 11.11.2: 'they also held Sogdiana') until the nomad invasions of c. 145-130 BC, and by Zhang Qian's visit (c. 128 BC) the area lay between the independent kingdom of Dayuan (Ferghana) and the nomad Kangju (Shiji 123). Speech: no Greek text from the town is known, so the end of Greek speech cannot be dated; the range runs from a possible early loss of the frontier (c. 280 BC) to the nomad conquest of Sogdiana (c. 130 BC), as at Maracanda; the walled towns of Dayuan, which fought the Han in 104-101 BC, are not evidence of Greek speech.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -280,
    -130
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Soviet and Tajik excavations (Negmatov and Belyaeva 1977) found Achaemenid, Hellenistic and medieval layers under the citadel, fortifications of about the 4th c. BC, and many Hellenistic coins and pottery (shown in the Khujand museum); no Greek inscriptions are published; no Greek name survives in later sources (the town is Khujanda in the Arabic geographers). Some identify Khujand with Guishan, the capital of Dayuan in the Han shu, which would make it a Ferghana royal city by c. 100 BC (not verified).",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the Jaxartes frontier passed out of Greek hands with the nomad movements of the 2nd century BC (Saka, Yuezhi; the Kangju and Dayuan of Shiji 123); no siege or capture of the town is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Greek foundation with native settlers (Arrian 4.4.1)",
   "founder": "Alexander, 329 BC (Arrian 4.1.3-4, 4.4.1; Curtius 7.6.25-27; Justin 12.5.12; Pliny 6.49)",
   "founder_group": "Alexander",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Appian (Syr. 57) counts Alexandreschata in Scythia among the cities Seleucus I named after Alexander, which may imply a Seleucid refoundation (an inference); a rebuilding as Antioch is a modern hypothesis (Encyclopaedia Iranica, Alexandria: 'may have been rebuilt as Antioch')",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Achaemenid-period layers lie under the Khujand citadel (Negmatov and Belyaeva 1977, as reported); Cyropolis lay nearby, at Kurkat or Istaravshan. No pre-Greek name of the Khujand site is attested.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Sogdian or Saka (the native settlers)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "The founding population was mixed: Greek mercenaries, Macedonians unfit for service and volunteers from the neighbouring natives (Arrian 4.4.1), with captives ransomed by Alexander (Curtius 7.6.27). No Greek writing of residents is published.",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Greek mercenaries and Macedonian veterans were the core of the settlers (Arrian 4.4.1); there is no later testimony of Greek speech in the town.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: early texts name it Alexander's foundation with Greek mercenaries, Macedonian invalids and native volunteers (Arrian 4.4.1; Curtius 7.6.25-27); the Hellenistic walls found at Khujand carry no Greek writing.",
   "status_evidence": "Arrian 4.1.3-4, 4.4.1; Curtius 7.6.25-27; Justin 12.5.12; Pliny 6.49; Ptolemy 6.12.6; Appian Syr. 57",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "One of the best-attested of Alexander's foundations in the texts, but the excavated evidence is thin: rung 3 only, as long as no Greek writing of residents is found.",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 4.1.3-4, 4.4.1",
    "Curtius 7.6.25-27",
    "Cohen, The Hellenistic Settlements in the East (2013), s.v. Alexandreia Eschate (unchecked)",
    "Livius, Alexandria Eschate: https://livius.org/articles/place/alexandria-eschate",
    "Wikipedia, Alexandria Eschate (citing Negmatov and Belyaeva 1977): https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria_Eschate",
    "Pleiades 59672"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 20,
   "list_group": "Sogdiana and the Jaxartes",
   "dates_shown": "c. 329 BC – c. 145 BC",
   "period": "1 The deportees and Alexander (to 323 BC)",
   "id": "a019",
   "latin": "Maracanda",
   "greek": "Μαράκανδα",
   "other_names": "Samarkand (Sogdian Smʾrknδh in the Ancient Letters, early 4th c. AD); Kang (康國) in the Chinese histories of the Sui and Tang; Afrasiab (the name of the ruin field)",
   "identification": "Afrasiab, the ruin mound on the northern edge of modern Samarkand: secure (continuous occupation, Arrian's royal seat of Sogdiana).",
   "modern": "Samarkand",
   "modern_native": "Samarqand / Самарқанд",
   "population": 595818,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "Statistics Agency of Uzbekistan, estimate at 1 Jan 2025 (via citypopulation.de, 'Uzbekistan: Administrative Division')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Afrasiab plateau (a ruin field since the Mongol conquest of 1220, inside the modern city), northern Samarkand, Samarqand Region",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "admin1": "Samarqand Region",
   "admin2": "Samarkand (city)",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Sogdiana",
   "lat": 39.672,
   "lon": 66.989,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "59915",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -329,
   "greek_until": -145,
   "phases": [
    [
     -329,
     -145
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Alexander took Maracanda in 329 BC and left a garrison in its citadel (Arrian 3.30.6, 4.3.6, 4.5.2); the Greek rebuilding of the walls and the Greek graffiti belong to the Hellenistic phase (Afrasiab II) that began then. The garrison alone would not count: the date marks the start of the phase, the Greek writing is undated within it.",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Rule: the Seleucids held Sogdiana until c. 250 BC and the Graeco-Bactrian kings until c. 140-130 BC, to judge from coin circulation (Iranica, Sogdiana III); then Saka and Yuezhi nomads crossed the region and by the 1st c. BC most of Sogdiana belonged to a nomad state on the middle Syr Darya (the Kangju of the Chinese sources). Speech: the excavators disagree on the Greek phase. Lyonnet (1998) and Rapin see two Greek occupations, the first ending after Antiochus I (c. 280 BC) and a second under Eucratides I (after c. 170 BC, until c. 145-130 BC); Lerner (2010) sees one continuous Greek phase into the third quarter of the 2nd c. BC. Marshak puts a first nomad conquest at the end of the 3rd c. BC, a possible Greek return in the first half of the 2nd and the final nomad conquest by the middle of that century; the Greek-period grain store on the citadel was burnt, probably in the nomad conquest. The range covers these views.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -280,
    -130
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek graffiti of the Hellenistic levels (nos. 387-389 Canali De Rossi); Sogdian coins imitating tetradrachms of Antiochus I and of Euthydemus I, with Sogdian legends, carry Greek types after Greek rule ended (unchecked); a fragmentary Greek-letter text (...αισινου) from the Samarkand area is dated to the 1st-2nd c. AD (VDI 1954.4, 161; SEG 46.1758), language and context unclear; the Sogdian Ancient Letters (early 4th c. AD) and later Sogdian documents show a wholly Sogdian city.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: Greek rule ended with the Saka and Yuezhi invasions of c. 145-130 BC; Zhang Qian (Shiji 123, c. 128 BC) found the Yuezhi court north of the Oxus and the Kangju to the north. No sack of Maracanda by a named leader is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Sogdian town",
   "founder": "Native Sogdian town (Afrasiab I, Achaemenid period), taken by Alexander in 329 BC and garrisoned; walls rebuilt by the Greeks (Rapin)",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "A second Greek occupation under Eucratides I (c. 170-145 BC) is proposed by Lyonnet and Rapin, disputed by Lerner",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The native name behind Greek Maracanda is the one attested in Sogdian as Smʾrknδh (Ancient Letters, 4th c. AD), but no pre-Greek attestation in a non-Greek source exists (the Old Persian lists name only Sugda, the land).",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Persian",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Sogdian",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Greek writing of residents in the Hellenistic levels of the Sogdian capital: the name Nikias on a goblet (Sov. Arch. 1975.2, 69), a graffito ΚΤΗΣ[...] (CRAI 1990, 359) and a complete Greek abecedary (BAI 8, 1994, 81-99), collected by Canali De Rossi, Iscrizioni dello estremo oriente greco nos. 387-389 (SEG 44.1303); makers' names in Greek letters on the large mud bricks of the Hellenistic city wall (Marshak); with Greek rebuilding of the walls, Greek pottery forms (fish plates, kraters) from the 3rd c. BC and a grain store of the Greek period on the citadel (Rapin, Grenet and Isamiddinov; Marshak; Iranica).",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "A Greek abecedary and Greek personal names written by residents show Greek literacy in the Hellenistic town (3rd-2nd c. BC); the Sogdian population remained.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 2,
   "evidence_basis": "Greek rebuilding of the walls and a Greek-period granary (excavation) plus Greek writing of residents (brickmakers' names in Greek letters, a personal name, a name fragment and an abecedary).",
   "status_evidence": "Arrian 3.30.6, 4.3.6-7, 4.5.2-6.2; Curtius 7.6.10; Strabo 11.11.4; Ptolemy 6.12.6; IK Estremo oriente 387-389; SEG 44.1303",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The Greek community may have been largely a garrison and colonists in a much larger Sogdian city; it is admitted as bilingual because the abecedary and personal names are Greek writing by residents, not by officials.",
   "sources": [
    "Lerner, Anabasis 1 (2010): https://journals.ur.edu.pl/anabasis/article/view/10125",
    "PHI Greek inscriptions, Maracanda: https://epigraphy.packhum.org/text/314810 ; https://epigraphy.packhum.org/text/314811",
    "Encyclopaedia Iranica, Sogdiana iii: https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archaeology",
    "Marshak, The Archaeology of Sogdiana (Silk Road newsletter): https://edspace.american.edu/silkroadjournal/wp-content/uploads/sites/984/2017/09/The-Archaeology-of-Sogdiana.pdf",
    "Pleiades 59915"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 21,
   "list_group": "The Paropamisadae, Swat and Taxila",
   "dates_shown": "329 BC – c. 70 BC",
   "period": "1 The deportees and Alexander (to 323 BC)",
   "id": "a021",
   "latin": "Alexandria in the Caucasus",
   "greek": "Ἀλεξάνδρεια πρὸς Καυκάσῳ",
   "other_names": "Alexandria sub Caucaso or ad Caucasum (Latin: Curtius 7.3.23; Pliny 6.62); Alexandria in Opiane, 'near India' (Stephanus of Byzantium, list of Alexandrias (unchecked)); probably Alasanda, 'the city of the Yonas' (Pali: Mahavamsa 29.39; Milindapañha, birthplace of Menander at the village of Kalasi); Kapisa (Καπίσα, Ptolemy 6.18.4 (unchecked)), Capisa (Pliny 6.92), Kāpiśī (Sanskrit), Kaviśi (Gandhari, on coins of Eucratides), Jiabishi (Chinese, Xuanzang, 7th c. (unchecked)); Begram or Bagram (modern)",
   "identification": "Masson (1830s) took Begram for Alexandria; Foucher (1923) identified it instead as Kapisa, the capital visited by Xuanzang; recent work has returned to Masson's view, and 'it now tends to be agreed' that Begram was the site of both (Morris 2021). Older alternatives put Alexandria near Charikar and the ruins of Opian or at Jabal us-Siraj, a few km to the west and north-west (unchecked). All candidates lie within c. 25 km, in the same plain. The Pali Alasanda is usually taken to be this city (it is 200 yojanas from Sagala in the Milindapañha), though Alexandria in Arachosia and even Alexandria in Egypt have been proposed.",
   "modern": "Bagram",
   "modern_native": "بگرام",
   "population": null,
   "pop_year": null,
   "pop_source": "no figure found",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Begram (Burj-i Abdullah and the walled 'New Royal City'), near the confluence of the Ghorband and Panjshir rivers, Koh-i Daman plain north of Kabul",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "admin1": "Parwan",
   "admin2": "Bagram",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Paropamisadae",
   "lat": 34.9925,
   "lon": 69.3105,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "59668",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -329,
   "greek_until": -70,
   "phases": [
    [
     -329,
     -70
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Spring 329 BC: Alexander founded the city on the south side of the Hindu Kush before crossing to Bactria (Arrian 3.28.4); on his return in 327 BC he replaced its governor with Nicanor and added more settlers from the neighbourhood and from his unfit soldiers (Arrian 4.22.4-5).",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Rule: the city was a mint and capital of the Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kings in the Paropamisadae (Eucratides, Menander, Antialcidas and others) until the last of them, Hermaeus (c. 90-70 BC in Bopearachchi's dating (unchecked)); then came Indo-Scythian and Yuezhi-Kushan rule (Kujula Kadphises struck coins in the name of Hermaeus). Speech: the last sign of a Greek community is the Pali tradition of a Yona monk from Alasanda in the 2nd c. BC; nothing shows Greek speech at Kapisa after Greek rule. Ghirshman's earliest excavated phase (Begram I) runs by its coins from Apollodotus I (?) to Wima Kadphises, c. 176 BC to AD 127; the Kushan hoard of Roman, Indian and Chinese goods (1st-2nd c. AD) is imported luxury, not Greek speech. End estimated; range from the last Pali attestation to the Kushan conquest.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -140,
    50
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Pali: Yona thera Mahadhammarakkhita came 'from Alasanda, the city of the Yonas' with 30,000 monks to the founding of the Great Stupa at Anuradhapura (Mahavamsa 29.39; chronicle written c. 5th c. AD about the 2nd c. BC); the Milindapañha makes Alasanda the birthplace of Menander (c. 165-130 BC). Coins: Eucratides' copper of the city goddess of Kapisa with Zeus enthroned, Kharoshthi 'Kaviśiye nagaradevata' (c. 170-145 BC); Greek legends on Indo-Greek and early Kushan coins; Greek dropped from Kushan coins by Kanishka, c. AD 127 (Rabatak inscription). Xuanzang (AD 630) describes Kapisa as a Buddhist kingdom with no mention of Greeks.",
   "ended_by": "No named act ends the Greek community. The Indo-Greek kingdom of the Paropamisadae ended under Hermaeus; the Yuezhi-Kushan king Kujula Kadphises took Gaofu (Kabul) and conquered Puda and Jibin (Hou Hanshu 88), and at first struck coins in Hermaeus' name. No expulsion or massacre of the Greek settlers is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Greek foundation in or beside the native town of Kapisa",
   "founder": "Alexander, spring 329 BC (Arrian 3.28.4; Curtius 7.3.23; Diodorus 17.83.1-2), enlarged in 327 BC under the governor Nicanor (Arrian 4.22.4-5); a native town (Kapisa) on or near the site",
   "founder_group": "Alexander",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Royal mint and residence of the Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kings in the Paropamisadae (Eucratides to Hermaeus); Kushan summer capital (the Begram palace) (unchecked)",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "Kāpiśī (Sanskrit, Pāṇini 4.2.99)?",
   "pre_greek_note": "Pāṇini names Kāpiśī (and its wine, kāpiśāyana) (unchecked); Pliny 6.92 says Capisa was destroyed by Cyrus. Whether Kapisa lay exactly at Alexander's site depends on the identification.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Gandhari Prakrit (the Kharoshthi legends of the Kapisa coins) and the local Iranian speech of the Paropamisadae (unchecked)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Settled with Greek mercenaries, camp followers and unfit Macedonians together with about 7,000 natives (Diodorus 17.83.2; Curtius 7.3.23; Arrian 4.22.5); the Indo-Greek coins of the city goddess of Kapisa are labelled in Kharoshthi Prakrit.",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "No Greek inscription by residents has been found at Begram; Greek speech rests on the settler accounts of 329-327 BC and on the Pali Yona monk Mahadhammarakkhita of Alasanda (2nd c. BC in the chronicle's dating).",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 2,
   "evidence_basis": "Two independent text traditions: the classical foundation accounts with Greek settlers (Arrian, Curtius, Diodorus) and the Pali Alasanda, 'city of the Yonas', with its Yona monk; no Greek writing of residents has been found.",
   "status_evidence": "Arrian 3.28.4, 4.22.4-5; Curtius 7.3.23; Diodorus 17.83.1-2; Pliny 6.62, 6.92; Stephanus of Byzantium s.v. Alexandreia (unchecked); Mahavamsa 29.39; Milindapañha 3.7 (unchecked)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The rung depends on taking Alasanda as this Alexandria; without it the city rests on the foundation accounts alone (rung 3). The exact site (Begram, Opian or Jabal us-Siraj) is disputed, but the region is not.",
   "sources": [
    "Fraser, Cities of Alexander the Great (1996)",
    "Cohen, The Hellenistic Settlements in the East (2013), s.v. Alexandreia in the Caucasus (unchecked)",
    "Karttunen, India and the Hellenistic World (1997) (unchecked)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria_in_the_Caucasus",
    "Morris, The Begram Hoard and its Context (diss. Munich 2021): https://edoc.ub.uni-muenchen.de/28897/1/Morris_Lauren.pdf",
    "Pleiades 59668"
   ],
   "refoundations": "One entry for the Begram plain: if Alexander's city lay at Opian or Jabal us-Siraj rather than at Kapisa itself, Kapisa (Begram) is the native town beside it, not a separate Greek city.",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 22,
   "list_group": "The Paropamisadae, Swat and Taxila",
   "dates_shown": "c. 329 BC – c. 303 BC",
   "period": "1 The deportees and Alexander (to 323 BC)",
   "id": "a035",
   "latin": "The town of the Cadrusi (Cadrusium)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Cadrusi, 'whose town was founded by Alexander' (Pliny 6.92: oppidum ab Alexandro conditum); Cadrusium (Barrington Atlas, unlocated); Kadrusia/Kadrusium (Cohen 2013)",
   "identification": "Unlocated. Pliny puts the Cadrusi 'near the Caucasus' (here the Hindu Kush) in his list of the peoples between Bactria and India, after Cartana-Tetragonis and an Alexandria. It may be a town otherwise unknown, or another notice of one of Alexander's towns at the foot of the Hindu Kush (Alexandria in the Caucasus, Nicaea) (unchecked: modern views not read).",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Unlocated, at the foot of the Hindu Kush (Paropamisadae)",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "admin1": "",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Paropamisadae",
   "lat": 35.15,
   "lon": 68.95,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "60474",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -329,
   "greek_until": -303,
   "phases": [
    [
     -329,
     -303
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Pliny (6.92) says only that the town of the Cadrusi was founded by Alexander. Alexander was at the foot of the Hindu Kush in spring 329 BC and again in 327 BC, so the foundation belongs to one of those years.",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Known from a single sentence. Rule: the Paropamisadae stayed Macedonian until Seleucus I ceded them to Chandragupta, c. 305/303 BC (Strabo 15.2.9); Mauryan until the Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek conquest (c. 180 BC), then Greek again until the last Indo-Greek king of the region, Hermaeus (1st century BC). Speech: no later trace of the town or of Greeks in it. The phase ends with Macedonian rule in the province, as for Alexander's other towns known only from their foundation; the range runs to the end of Greek rule in the Paropamisadae, because survival cannot be excluded.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -329,
    -70
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Single mention, Pliny 6.92 (1st century AD, from earlier sources). No inscriptions, coins or later texts.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town is never mentioned again; Seleucus I ceded the province to Chandragupta, c. 305/303 BC (Strabo 15.2.9).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Alexander, 329 or 327 BC (Pliny 6.92)",
   "founder_group": "Alexander",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Nothing is known beyond the foundation notice.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: a foundation notice in Pliny (6.92), 'the Cadrusi, whose town was founded by Alexander'; admitted under the rule for text-only foundations.",
   "status_evidence": "Pliny 6.92",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Known from one sentence of Pliny; it may duplicate another of Alexander's towns at the foot of the Hindu Kush. The point is placed in the Hindu Kush foothills for the region only (Pleiades 60474 is the unlocated Cadrusium of the Barrington Atlas). It may be one of the known foundations of the Paropamisadae (Alexandria in the Caucasus or Nicaea) under another name; counted separately because Pliny names it apart.",
   "sources": [
    "Pliny, Natural History 6.92 (translation in P. Harland, 'Peoples of Arachosia and Ariana': https://www.philipharland.com/Blog/2023/06/peoples-of-arachosia-and-ariana-pliny-the-elder-on-peoples-between-baktria-and-india-first-century-ce/)",
    "Cohen, The Hellenistic Settlements in the East (2013): the entry is listed in the publisher's table of contents, https://www.ucpress.edu/books/the-hellenistic-settlements-in-the-east-from-armenia-and-mesopotamia-to-bactria-and-india/hardcover (the entry itself not read)",
    "Pleiades 60474"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 23,
   "list_group": "The Paropamisadae, Swat and Taxila",
   "dates_shown": "327 BC – c. 317 BC",
   "period": "1 The deportees and Alexander (to 323 BC)",
   "id": "a024",
   "latin": "Arigaeum",
   "greek": "Ἀριγαῖον",
   "other_names": "Arigaion; perhaps Acadira (Curtius 8.10.19) (unchecked)",
   "identification": "Unlocated town of the Aspasians, between the Kunar (Choes) and Bajaur; Nawagai in Bajaur has been proposed (unchecked); the Barrington Atlas places it near the lower Kunar.",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Unlocated, Bajaur or the lower Kunar valley",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "admin1": "Khyber Pakhtunkhwa",
   "admin2": "Bajaur (or the lower Kunar valley, Afghanistan)",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Gandhara (land of the Aspasians)",
   "lat": 34.6638,
   "lon": 71.161,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "59702",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -327,
   "greek_until": -317,
   "phases": [
    [
     -327,
     -317
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Winter 327/326 BC: Alexander found Arigaion burnt and deserted by its people and told Craterus to fortify it and settle in it those of the neighbours who wished and the soldiers unfit for service (Arrian 4.24.6-7) (unchecked: wording).",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Known only from the refoundation of 327/326 BC. Rule: Macedonian rule west of the Indus was weak from the start: the Assacenians killed the satrap Nicanor in 326 BC (Arrian 5.20.7) (unchecked), and Peithon son of Agenor, who held the satrapy from 321 BC, left India for Babylon in 316 BC (Diodorus 19.56.4); the land passed to the Mauryas and, in the 2nd century BC, to the Indo-Greeks, who held Bajaur and Swat until the Indo-Scythians in the 1st century BC. Speech: no source says what became of the neighbours and veterans settled there. The phase ends with Macedonian rule, as for Alexander's foundations in the Punjab; the range runs from the foundation (the settlers may have left early, as many of Alexander's colonists in Bactria did in 325 and 323 BC: Diodorus 17.99.5-6, 18.7) to the end of Greek rule in Gandhara, because survival cannot be excluded.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -326,
    -50
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Single episode, Arrian 4.24.6-7 (327/326 BC).",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town is never mentioned again. Macedonian rule west of the Indus ended without a recorded act against it (the Assacenians' killing of the satrap Nicanor, 326 BC, Arrian 5.20.7 (unchecked), concerns the province, not the town).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Aspasian town",
   "founder": "Alexander, through Craterus, 327/326 BC (Arrian 4.24.6-7): a native town refounded with neighbours and Macedonian invalids",
   "founder_group": "Alexander",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Arigaion is known only from Arrian; no non-Greek name is attested.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "local Indo-Iranian speech of the Aspasians (unknown)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Refounded with willing neighbours and with Macedonian soldiers unfit for service (Arrian 4.24.7).",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Only the settlement order: no later record of the town.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: an early text naming it a refoundation of Alexander with settlers, including Macedonian soldiers.",
   "status_evidence": "Arrian 4.24.6-7",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "A veterans' and natives' settlement ordered in passing; whether it became a lasting Greek or bilingual town is unknown.",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 4.24.6-7",
    "Cohen, The Hellenistic Settlements in the East (2013), s.v. Arigaion (unchecked)",
    "Pleiades 59702"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 24,
   "list_group": "The Paropamisadae, Swat and Taxila",
   "dates_shown": "327 BC – c. 303 BC",
   "period": "1 The deportees and Alexander (to 323 BC)",
   "id": "a025",
   "latin": "Nicaea (in the Paropamisadae)",
   "greek": "Νίκαια",
   "other_names": "",
   "identification": "Unlocated. Arrian names it between Alexandria in the Caucasus and the Kophen; Kabul has been suggested, and some think of the Jalalabad plain or of a doublet of Alexandria itself (unchecked).",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Unlocated, on the road from the Begram plain to the Kabul river (Kophen)",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "admin1": "Kabul",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Paropamisadae",
   "lat": 34.52,
   "lon": 69.17,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "60589",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -327,
   "greek_until": -303,
   "phases": [
    [
     -327,
     -303
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Named in spring 327 BC, when Alexander, coming from Alexandria, reached 'the city of Nicaea', sacrificed to Athena and went on towards the Kophen (Arrian 4.22.6). A victory name of this kind points to a Macedonian foundation, perhaps of 329 BC, but no source says who founded it.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Known from a single mention. Rule: the Paropamisadae stayed Macedonian (under the satrap Oxyartes (unchecked)) until Seleucus I ceded them to Chandragupta, c. 305/303 BC (Strabo 15.2.9; Appian Syr. 55); Mauryan until the Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek conquest (c. 180 BC), then Greek again until Hermaeus (1st century BC). Speech: no later trace of the town or of Greeks in it. The phase ends with Macedonian rule in the province, as for Alexander's other foundations known only from their foundation; the range runs from the only mention to the end of Greek rule in the Paropamisadae, because survival cannot be excluded.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -327,
    -70
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Single mention, Arrian 4.22.6 (327 BC). No inscriptions, coins or later texts.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town disappears from the record after 327 BC; Seleucus I ceded the province to Chandragupta, c. 305/303 BC (Strabo 15.2.9).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Probably Alexander, 329 or 327 BC (inferred from the name and context; Arrian 4.22.6 names the city but not its founder)",
   "founder_group": "Alexander",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Nothing beyond the Greek name and Alexander's sacrifice to Athena there.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: Arrian (4.22.6) names a city Nicaea, a victory name of the kind Alexander gave his foundations, on his march from Alexandria in the Caucasus to the Kophen; the foundation is inferred from the name, which counts as a royal foundation record under the rule used for Demetrias, Eucratidia and Alexandropolis.",
   "status_evidence": "Arrian 4.22.6",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Admitted on the strength of a name and one mention, which is the weakest case in this region; it may be an otherwise unknown Alexander foundation or a renamed native town. Pleiades 60589 is the unlocated Nikaia 'city in Paropamisadai?'; the point is placed at Kabul for the region only.",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 4.22.6",
    "Cohen, The Hellenistic Settlements in the East (2013), s.v. Nikaia (entry listed in the publisher's table of contents: https://www.ucpress.edu/books/the-hellenistic-settlements-in-the-east-from-armenia-and-mesopotamia-to-bactria-and-india/hardcover)",
    "Fraser, Cities of Alexander the Great (1996) (unchecked)",
    "Pleiades 60589"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 25,
   "list_group": "The Paropamisadae, Swat and Taxila",
   "dates_shown": "c. 180 BC – c. 50 BC",
   "period": "3 The Indo-Greeks and the last Greek kings of Bactria (180 BC - AD 10)",
   "id": "a026",
   "latin": "Taxila",
   "greek": "Τάξιλα",
   "other_names": "Takṣaśilā (Sanskrit); Takhaśila (Gandhari, Kharoshthi inscriptions); 'Takhkhasilaka', of Taxila (Prakrit, Besnagar pillar); Taxilae (Latin); Shichashiluo or Daxiashiluo (Chinese, Faxian and Xuanzang (unchecked)); Sirkap (modern name of the Indo-Greek and Saka-Parthian city); Bhir Mound (the earlier city); Sirsukh (the Kushan city)",
   "identification": "Secure for the city. Sirkap is the walled grid-plan city of the Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian periods (Marshall, Ghosh, Dani (unchecked)); the Bhir Mound is the city that received Alexander in 326 BC; Sirsukh is the Kushan city. One entry: the name stayed Taxila while the town moved within the valley.",
   "modern": "Taxila",
   "modern_native": "ٹیکسلا",
   "population": 136900,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, 2023 census (via citypopulation.de, 'Pakistan: Cities'; same figure in Wikipedia 'Taxila')",
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Sirkap, Taxila valley, beside the Bhir Mound and Sirsukh",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "admin1": "Punjab",
   "admin2": "Rawalpindi",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Taxila (Punjab)",
   "lat": 33.7551,
   "lon": 72.8291,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "60083",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -180,
   "greek_until": -50,
   "phases": [
    [
     -180,
     -50
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "About 180-170 BC: Taxila passed to the Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kings (Demetrius I or his successors), and the planned city of Sirkap was laid out in the 2nd c. BC (its founding is often credited to Demetrius, c. 180 BC (unchecked)). Alexander stayed at the older city (the Bhir Mound) in 326 BC (Arrian 5.8.2) and left a garrison and a satrap only.",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Rule: Taxila passed from the Indo-Greeks to the Indo-Scythian Maues (c. 90-80 BC (unchecked); the Taxila copper plate of Patika is dated in the reign of the great king Moga (unchecked)), then to Azes, to the Indo-Parthian Gondophares and, in the later 1st century AD, to the Kushans, who built a new city at Sirsukh. Speech: no Greek writing of residents survives; Greek-named people still appear in Kharoshthi in the 1st century BC and 1st century AD; Greek coin legends grew garbled under the Saka and Parthian kings and ended with Kanishka (c. AD 127). Philostratus (written c. AD 220) has a king Phraotes speak Greek c. AD 46, but the Life of Apollonius is a literary romance, the king is not securely attested (a coin legend read Prahata is a disputed match), and his Greek is presented as a royal education, not the speech of the town: it is a note, not evidence of a Greek-speaking community, and it does not extend the phase. The phase ends with the last Indo-Greek rule (Azes, c. 50 BC); the range runs from Maues to the Kushan conquest.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -90,
    60
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Heliodoros son of Dion, 'of Taxila', Greek envoy of Antialcidas at Vidisha, c. 110 BC (Besnagar pillar, Brahmi Prakrit); a pair of silver phialai from the house 2D hoard at Sirkap with Kharoshthi owner's inscriptions read as Theodoros, son of Theoros? (CKI 88, 89; Konow, Baums 2024; Saka-Parthian period (unchecked: date)); Greek legends on Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian coins of Taxila (Maues, Azes, Gondophares); Philostratus, Life of Apollonius 2.20-31 (written c. AD 220: Taxila 'fortified fairly well after the manner of Greek cities' but with narrow, irregular streets 'as in Athens'; king Phraotes speaks Greek, taught by his father, 2.29-31); Kanishka replaced Greek with Bactrian on coins, c. AD 127 (Rabatak).",
   "ended_by": "No named act ends the Greek community: Taxila passed from the Indo-Greeks to Maues (the great king Moga of the Taxila copper plate of Patika (unchecked)), Azes, Gondophares and the Kushans (Kujula Kadphises; the Taxila silver scroll of year 136, late 1st century AD, names a Kushan great king (unchecked)); none of them is recorded as expelling or killing Greeks.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Gandharan town",
   "founder": "Native capital of Taxiles (Ambhi), received Alexander in 326 BC (Arrian 5.8.2); the Indo-Greek kings built the grid-plan city of Sirkap in the 2nd c. BC (Demetrius I? Menander? (unchecked))",
   "founder_group": "Indo-Greek kings",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Rebuilt by the Indo-Parthians after an earthquake, c. AD 30 (Marshall); replaced by the Kushan city of Sirsukh (unchecked)",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Takṣaśilā (Sanskrit)",
   "pre_greek_note": "Named in Indian sources (Pāṇini 4.3.93, the Jatakas (unchecked)); the Bhir Mound city goes back to the 6th c. BC or earlier. An Aramaic inscription of the Mauryan period was found at Sirkap.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Greek",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Gandhari Prakrit",
   "bilingual_evidence": "A grid-plan city of the Indo-Greek kings (Sirkap) in the old Gandharan capital; a self-styled Yona from Taxila, Heliodoros son of Dion, envoy of Antialcidas (Besnagar pillar, c. 110 BC); Greek-named residents in Kharoshthi inscriptions.",
   "home_language": "unknown (the surviving writing of Greek-named residents is Gandhari Prakrit)",
   "greek_speech": "No Greek-language inscription by residents of Taxila is reported in the sources checked: the Greek writing found there is on coins, and excavation of the Indo-Greek levels of Sirkap has been very limited; Greek speech is inferred from the Indo-Greek capital, from Heliodoros, who served a Greek king as envoy, and from Philostratus' late and romantic account of a Greek-speaking king of Taxila c. AD 46, whose Greek is a court accomplishment learned from his father.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One positive strand of a Greek community, a self-styled Yona of Taxila (Heliodoros), beside the Greek-planned Indo-Greek city; no Greek writing of residents is known.",
   "status_evidence": "Arrian 5.8.2; Strabo 15.1.28; Besnagar pillar inscription of Heliodoros; Philostratus, Life of Apollonius 2.20-31; Marshall, Taxila (1951)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "The capital of the Indo-Greek kings east of the Indus, yet the evidence for Greek speech among its people is indirect. Pleiades 60083 is the city; Sirkap itself is 801825162.",
   "sources": [
    "Marshall, Taxila (1951)",
    "Rienjang, 'Sirkap (Taxila)', Gandhara Connections (2020): https://www.carc.ox.ac.uk/XDB/DMS/%7B1D20459F-3991-4402-81B7-F30B2DA04B35%7D.pdf",
    "Baums, 'Wine in the Gandharan epigraphic corpus' (2024): https://edizionicafoscari.it/media/pdf/books/978-88-6969-816-3/978-88-6969-816-3-ch-11_Ce28WMk.pdf",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirkap",
    "Karttunen, India and the Hellenistic World (1997) (unchecked)"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Bhir Mound (pre-Greek city), Sirkap (Indo-Greek and Saka-Parthian city) and Sirsukh (Kushan city) are one entry: the city kept its name, and the moves were within the same urban valley.",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 26,
   "list_group": "The Paropamisadae, Swat and Taxila",
   "dates_shown": "c. 150 BC – c. 50 BC",
   "period": "3 The Indo-Greeks and the last Greek kings of Bactria (180 BC - AD 10)",
   "id": "a023",
   "latin": "Bazira",
   "greek": "Βάζιρα",
   "other_names": "Beira (Curtius 8.10.22); Bir-kot-ghwandai (the mound); Barikot (modern town)",
   "identification": "Barikot = Bazira, first proposed by Stein (1930) and Tucci (1958) and accepted by the Italian Archaeological Mission in Swat (founded by Tucci in 1955; Callieri, Olivieri), which has worked at Barikot since the 1970s and excavated the lower town and its walls.",
   "modern": "Barikot",
   "modern_native": "بریکوٹ",
   "population": 115045,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, 2023 census (via citypopulation.de, 'Pakistan: Cities')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Bir-kot-ghwandai mound and the walled lower town, Barikot, lower Swat valley",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "admin1": "Khyber Pakhtunkhwa",
   "admin2": "Swat",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Gandhara (Swat)",
   "lat": 34.6813,
   "lon": 72.2128,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "59740",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -150,
   "greek_until": -50,
   "phases": [
    [
     -150,
     -50
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Mid-2nd century BC: the earliest Greek graffito (ΕΥΜΗ[) comes from a level of about 150 BC; the bastioned wall of the Indo-Greek town was built after 200 BC (a burial tied to its building is dated c. 130-115 BC). Alexander had besieged and taken the town in 327 BC (Arrian 4.27.5-4.28.4), leaving no settlers on record.",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Rule: the Indo-Greeks lost Swat in the 1st c. BC to the Indo-Scythians (Azes) and local dynasties (the Odi kings) (unchecked). Speech: the Greek graffiti end with the Indo-Greek levels (the latest from layers of the late 2nd to mid-1st c. BC); a sherd with [ ]ΟC of the 4th-5th c. AD or earlier, not Bactrian according to Sims-Williams, is unconfirmed. The town grew under the Kushans and was ruined by earthquakes in the 3rd c. AD.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    -100,
    50
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek graffiti: BKG 3985 (ΕΥΜΗ[, perhaps a name in Εὐμη-, Macrophase 3a2, c. 150 BC); BKG 516 (= Rougemont 85 = IK 65, 295: ΔΗ[ / ]ΥΝΤΑ[, probably Amyntas, Indo-Greek Macrophase 3a); BKG 852 (= Rougemont 86 = IK 65, 296: a single nu, Macrophase 3a2-4); a possible later sherd, BKG 202 ([ ]ΟC, probably 4th-5th c. AD). Hellenistic-style seal and black polished pottery imitating Attic wares. In Swat the meridarch Theodoros dedicated relics in Kharoshthi Prakrit, 1st c. BC (CKI 32).",
   "ended_by": "No named act: Indo-Scythian and local rule from the 1st c. BC; no destruction of the Greek community is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Gandharan town",
   "founder": "Native town of the Assakenoi, taken by Alexander in 327 BC and refortified by him (Arrian 4.27.5-4.28.4 (unchecked: wording)); walled anew as a planned town under the Indo-Greek kings in the 2nd c. BC (perhaps under Menander)",
   "founder_group": "Indo-Greek kings",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Wall reinforced before c. AD 80; Kushan town (1st-3rd c. AD) (unchecked)",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Bazira is known only in Greek and Latin. A Hindu Shahi inscription from the site is said to name Vajirasthāna, which may continue the name (unchecked), but it is far too late to count as a pre-Greek attestation.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Gandhari Prakrit (Brahmi and Kharoshthi graffiti)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Three Greek graffiti on fine red-ware bowls from inside the Indo-Greek walls (names in Εὐμη- and probably Amyntas), beside Brahmi graffiti on local vessel types of the same levels, which the editors read as local bilingualism (Tribulato and Olivieri 2017).",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Owners' names scratched in Greek letters on tableware, mid-2nd to early 1st c. BC; the editors see practical, possibly everyday use of Greek writing; Rougemont is more cautious (a vase with a graffito can travel).",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 2,
   "evidence_basis": "Two strands: the excavated walled town of the Indo-Greek period at Barikot, plus three Greek graffiti of residents from inside the walls.",
   "status_evidence": "Arrian 4.27.5-4.28.4; Curtius 8.10.22; Rougemont 2012, nos. 85-86; Tribulato and Olivieri, ZPE 204 (2017) 128-135",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The Greek corpus is three short graffiti, all probably owners' names; the case for a Greek-speaking community is real but thin, and Rougemont minimises it.",
   "sources": [
    "Tribulato and Olivieri, 'Writing Greek in the Swat region: a new graffito from Barikot', ZPE 204 (2017): https://iris.unive.it/bitstream/10278/3685857/2/zpe%20204_tribulato-olivieri.pdf",
    "Rougemont, Inscriptions grecques d'Iran et d'Asie centrale (2012), nos. 85-86",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barikot",
    "Callieri and Olivieri (eds), Ceramics from the excavations in the historic settlement at Bir-kot-ghwandai (2020) (unchecked)"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 27,
   "list_group": "The Paropamisadae, Swat and Taxila",
   "dates_shown": "c. 150 BC – c. 50 BC",
   "period": "3 The Indo-Greeks and the last Greek kings of Bactria (180 BC - AD 10)",
   "id": "a022",
   "latin": "Ora",
   "greek": "Ὦρα",
   "other_names": "Nora (Curtius 8.11.1) (unchecked); Udegram (modern); Raja Gira's castle (the Shahi fort above the town)",
   "identification": "Udegram = Ora, first proposed by Stein (1930) and Tucci (1958); the Italian Mission excavated the bazaar town below the castle (Gullini 1962).",
   "modern": "Udegram",
   "modern_native": "اوډيګرام / اوڈیگرام",
   "population": null,
   "pop_year": null,
   "pop_source": "no figure found",
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Udegram, the lower town (bazaar area) below Raja Gira's castle, Swat valley",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "admin1": "Khyber Pakhtunkhwa",
   "admin2": "Swat",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Gandhara (Swat)",
   "lat": 34.7706,
   "lon": 72.3155,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "59954",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -150,
   "greek_until": -50,
   "phases": [
    [
     -150,
     -50
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Indo-Greek period, 2nd c. BC (the stratum of the graffito). Alexander took Ora in 327 BC (Arrian 4.27.5-9) and made it a fort to hold the country (Arrian 4.28.4) (unchecked: wording).",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "As at Barikot: Indo-Greek rule in Swat gave way in the 1st c. BC to the Indo-Scythians and local kings; no Greek writing later than the Indo-Greek level. The town lived on into the Kushan period; the castle above it was a Shahi stronghold until the Ghaznavid conquest (11th c.).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    -100,
    50
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek graffito ΝΟΥ (Canali De Rossi, IK 65, 297 = Rougemont 87), Indo-Greek stratum V.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: rule passed in the 1st century BC to the Indo-Scythians (Azes) and the local Odi kings (unchecked); no destruction of the Greek community is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Gandharan town",
   "founder": "Native town of the Assakenoi taken by Alexander in 327 BC (Arrian 4.27.5-9); Greek writing appears in the Indo-Greek level",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Gandhari Prakrit",
   "bilingual_evidence": "One Greek graffito, ΝΟΥ, on a sherd from the Indo-Greek stratum (V) of the town, coeval with Macrophase 3a at Barikot: the first potsherd with Greek writing found in Swat (Pugliese Carratelli 1966; Rougemont 87 = IK 65, 297).",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "A single three-letter Greek graffito of the Indo-Greek period; nothing more.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: a single Greek graffito, ΝΟΥ (probably the genitive of a name, Nous), from the Indo-Greek level of an excavated town that Arrian calls a city.",
   "status_evidence": "Arrian 4.27.5-9, 4.28.4; Curtius 8.11.1 (unchecked); Rougemont 2012, no. 87; Gullini 1962",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Admitted only because the ladder lets a single resident's Greek graffito count; three letters on a sherd are very little, and the pot may have travelled.",
   "sources": [
    "Tribulato and Olivieri, ZPE 204 (2017) 128-135 (on the Udegram graffito): https://iris.unive.it/bitstream/10278/3685857/2/zpe%20204_tribulato-olivieri.pdf",
    "Rougemont, Inscriptions grecques d'Iran et d'Asie centrale (2012), no. 87",
    "Pugliese Carratelli, 'Greek inscriptions of the Middle East', East and West 16 (1966) 31-36, at 35-36 and fig. 11",
    "Pleiades 59954"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 28,
   "list_group": "The Punjab and Sindh",
   "dates_shown": "326 BC – c. 317 BC",
   "period": "1 The deportees and Alexander (to 323 BC)",
   "id": "a027",
   "latin": "Bucephala (Alexandria Bucephalous)",
   "greek": "Βουκεφάλα (Ἀλεξάνδρεια ἡ Βουκεφάλου)",
   "other_names": "Boukephala (Arrian; Ptolemy 7.1.46 (unchecked: section)); Bucephalia (Plutarch, Alex. 61; Strabo 15.1.29); Bucephale (Justin 12.8.8); Bucephala, chief town of the Asini (Pliny 6.77); Boukephalos Alexandreia (Periplus 47); possibly Bhadrāśva in the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya (proposal)",
   "identification": "Founded on the west bank of the Hydaspes (Jhelum) where Alexander crossed before the battle with Porus. Stein (1932) placed it under Jalalpur Sharif, now the usual view; others prefer the town of Jhelum or a mound near Dilawar. No excavation has identified it.",
   "modern": "Jalalpur Sharif (if Stein's site is right)",
   "modern_native": "جلالپور شریف",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Jalalpur Sharif, west bank of the Jhelum, Punjab, Pakistan (proposed)",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "admin1": "Punjab",
   "admin2": "Jhelum District",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Punjab (Hydaspes)",
   "lat": 32.6889,
   "lon": 73.4474,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "59750",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -326,
   "greek_until": -317,
   "phases": [
    [
     -326,
     -317
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "326 BC, founded after the battle with Porus (Arrian 5.19.4; Diodorus 17.89.6; Curtius 9.1.6 (unchecked: section); Strabo 15.1.29); repaired after monsoon damage on the return march, 326 BC (Arrian 5.29.5).",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Rule: Alexander's satraps held the Punjab until Eudemus left for the west with his elephants, 317 BC (Diodorus 19.14.8); the Indians had already 'killed his prefects' and Chandragupta took the land (Justin 15.4.12-19), and Seleucus ceded his claims by treaty, c. 305/303 BC (Strabo 15.2.9; Appian Syr. 55). Speech: no source says what became of the settlers. If any stayed, they lived under Mauryan rule until the Indo-Greek reconquest of the Punjab (Demetrius I, Menander, c. 185-130 BC), and the last Greek kings of the eastern Punjab fell c. AD 10 (Strato II; Rajuvula). The phase given ends with the end of Macedonian rule; the range runs to the end of Greek rule in the Punjab because survival cannot be excluded. The town itself survived as a name: Pliny (6.77) calls it the chief town of the Asini and the Periplus (47) still knows Boukephalos Alexandreia in the 1st c. AD, but neither says who lived there.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -325,
    10
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "326 BC: founded and then repaired by the army (Arrian 5.19.4, 5.29.5). 1st c. AD: named by Pliny 6.77 and the Periplus 47 (inland, among the peoples north of Barygaza). 2nd c. AD: Ptolemy lists Boukephala (section not checked). No Greek inscription or document from the site is known; Tarn's view that it was the capital of the Indo-Greek king Hippostratus rests on a coin symbol and is rejected.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the settlers' fate is unrecorded; Macedonian rule ended when Eudemus left India, 317 BC (Diodorus 19.14.8), and Chandragupta took the Punjab (Justin 15.4.12-19).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Alexander, 326 BC, named after his horse Bucephalus (Arrian 5.19.4; Plutarch, Alex. 61); Craterus was left to build and fortify the two Hydaspes cities (Arrian 5.20.2 (unchecked: section))",
   "founder_group": "Alexander",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "No source describes the settlers; as one of Alexander's cities it is presumed to have had Greek and Macedonian settlers (veterans and mercenaries), probably with Indians beside them.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: Arrian, Diodorus, Curtius, Strabo, Plutarch and Justin repeat the same foundation of Alexander, 326 BC; the name lived on (Periplus 47); no Greek writing of residents is known.",
   "status_evidence": "Arrian 5.19.4, 5.29.5; Diodorus 17.89.6; Justin 12.8.8; Strabo 15.1.29; Plutarch, Alex. 61; Pliny 6.77; Periplus 47; Ptolemy 7.1.46 (unchecked: section)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "The ancient writers do not make clear which of the two cities stood on which bank; most modern writers put Bucephala on the west bank (crossing point) and Nicaea on the battlefield. The Periplus mention shows only that the name lived on.",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 5.19.4, 5.29.5",
    "Diodorus 17.89.6 (Loeb, LacusCurtius: https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17E*.html)",
    "Fraser, Cities of Alexander the Great (1996)",
    "Cohen, The Hellenistic Settlements in the East (2013)",
    "Wikipedia, Boukephala and Nikaia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boukephala_and_Nikaia"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 29,
   "list_group": "The Punjab and Sindh",
   "dates_shown": "326 BC – c. 317 BC",
   "period": "1 The deportees and Alexander (to 323 BC)",
   "id": "a030",
   "latin": "Hephaestion's city on the Acesines",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "no name recorded",
   "identification": "On his way back from the Hyphasis Alexander found on the Acesines (Chenab) 'the city already built which he had instructed Hephaestion to fortify' and settled it, 326 BC (Arrian 5.29.3; the settlers' clause (unchecked: wording)). Unnamed and unlocated; some link Curtius' dockyards on the Acesines (Curtius 9.3.23 (unchecked: section)) to it.",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "somewhere on the Chenab between the Jhelum confluence and the hills, Punjab, Pakistan (unlocated)",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "admin1": "Punjab",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Punjab (Acesines)",
   "lat": 32.3,
   "lon": 73.9,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -326,
   "greek_until": -317,
   "phases": [
    [
     -326,
     -317
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "326 BC, settled on the return from the Hyphasis (Arrian 5.29.3 (unchecked)).",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Rule: Alexander's satraps held the Punjab until Eudemus left for the west with his elephants, 317 BC (Diodorus 19.14.8); the Indians had already 'killed his prefects' and Chandragupta took the land (Justin 15.4.12-19), and Seleucus ceded his claims by treaty, c. 305/303 BC (Strabo 15.2.9; Appian Syr. 55). Speech: no source says what became of the settlers. If any stayed, they lived under Mauryan rule until the Indo-Greek reconquest of the Punjab (Demetrius I, Menander, c. 185-130 BC), and the last Greek kings of the eastern Punjab fell c. AD 10 (Strato II; Rajuvula). The phase given ends with the end of Macedonian rule; the range runs to the end of Greek rule in the Punjab because survival cannot be excluded.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -325,
    10
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Only the foundation notice; no later mention.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the settlers' fate is unrecorded. Macedonian rule in the Punjab ended when the Indians put Alexander's governors to death, a liberation led by Sandrocottus (Chandragupta) (Justin 15.4.12-13), and Eudemus left India with his elephants, 317 BC (Diodorus 19.14.8).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Greek foundation",
   "founder": "Alexander, 326 BC; fortified by Hephaestion (Arrian 5.29.3 (unchecked))",
   "founder_group": "Alexander",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "an Indian language (unrecorded)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Arrian says Alexander settled in it those of the neighbouring Indians who wished and the mercenaries unfit for service (unchecked: wording).",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "The Greek element was the discharged mercenaries (Greeks for the most part); the Indian volunteers presumably spoke their own language.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: Arrian (5.29.3) records the foundation, with mercenaries unfit for service and volunteers from the neighbouring Indians as settlers; nothing later.",
   "status_evidence": "Arrian 5.29.3 (unchecked)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Cohen and Fraser count it among Alexander's foundations (unchecked); some modern lists call it Alexandria on the Hyphasis, but Arrian puts it on the Acesines. The point on the map marks only the river.",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 5.29.3",
    "Fraser, Cities of Alexander the Great (1996)",
    "Cohen, The Hellenistic Settlements in the East (2013)"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 30,
   "list_group": "The Punjab and Sindh",
   "dates_shown": "326 BC – c. 317 BC",
   "period": "1 The deportees and Alexander (to 323 BC)",
   "id": "a028",
   "latin": "Nicaea (on the Hydaspes)",
   "greek": "Νίκαια",
   "other_names": "Nikaia (Arrian 5.19.4; Strabo 15.1.29); possibly Ādirājya in the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya (proposal)",
   "identification": "Founded on the battlefield on the east bank of the Hydaspes. If Bucephala was at Jalalpur, Cunningham's Mong, about 10 km away across the river, is the likeliest site; Sukchainpur has also been proposed, and Stein thought the site could not be fixed. The river has shifted and little may survive.",
   "modern": "Mong (proposed)",
   "modern_native": "مونگ",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Mong, east bank of the Jhelum, Punjab, Pakistan (proposed)",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "admin1": "Punjab",
   "admin2": "Mandi Bahauddin District",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Punjab (Hydaspes)",
   "lat": 32.6312,
   "lon": 73.4895,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "59947",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -326,
   "greek_until": -317,
   "phases": [
    [
     -326,
     -317
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "326 BC, founded on the site of the victory over Porus and named for it (Arrian 5.19.4; Diodorus 17.89.6; Strabo 15.1.29); repaired on the return march (Arrian 5.29.5).",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Rule: Alexander's satraps held the Punjab until Eudemus left for the west with his elephants, 317 BC (Diodorus 19.14.8); the Indians had already 'killed his prefects' and Chandragupta took the land (Justin 15.4.12-19), and Seleucus ceded his claims by treaty, c. 305/303 BC (Strabo 15.2.9; Appian Syr. 55). Speech: no source says what became of the settlers. If any stayed, they lived under Mauryan rule until the Indo-Greek reconquest of the Punjab (Demetrius I, Menander, c. 185-130 BC), and the last Greek kings of the eastern Punjab fell c. AD 10 (Strato II; Rajuvula). The phase given ends with the end of Macedonian rule; the range runs to the end of Greek rule in the Punjab because survival cannot be excluded. Unlike Bucephala, Nicaea is not named again after Alexander's historians.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -325,
    10
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "326 BC: founded and repaired (Arrian 5.19.4, 5.29.5). No later mention, inscription or document is known.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the settlers' fate is unrecorded. Macedonian rule in the Punjab ended when the Indians put Alexander's governors to death, a liberation led by Sandrocottus (Chandragupta) (Justin 15.4.12-13), and Eudemus left India with his elephants, 317 BC (Diodorus 19.14.8).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Alexander, 326 BC, named for the victory over Porus (Arrian 5.19.4); Craterus was left to build and fortify the two cities",
   "founder_group": "Alexander",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "No source describes the settlers; presumed Greek and Macedonian settlers beside Indians, as at Bucephala.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: Arrian, Diodorus, Curtius and Strabo repeat the same foundation of Alexander on the Hydaspes battlefield, 326 BC; nothing later.",
   "status_evidence": "Arrian 5.19.4, 5.29.5; Diodorus 17.89.6; Justin 12.8.8; Curtius 9.1.6 (unchecked: section); Strabo 15.1.29",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Not to be confused with Nicaea on the Kophen (Arrian 4.22.6), west of the Indus. Pleiades also keeps an unlocated Nicaea/Nigaea (964138).",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 5.19.4",
    "Diodorus 17.89.6",
    "Strabo 15.1.29",
    "Wikipedia, Boukephala and Nikaia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boukephala_and_Nikaia"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 31,
   "list_group": "The Punjab and Sindh",
   "dates_shown": "325 BC – c. 317 BC",
   "period": "1 The deportees and Alexander (to 323 BC)",
   "id": "a032",
   "latin": "Alexandria among the Sogdoi (Sindh)",
   "greek": "Ἀλεξάνδρεια",
   "other_names": "the city at the royal seat of the Sogdoi (Arrian 6.15.4); Alexandria among the Sodrae and Massani, settled with 10,000 inhabitants (Diodorus 17.102.4), probably the same",
   "identification": "Arrian: Alexander sailed down to the capital of the Sogdoi, fortified another city there and made another dockyard. Diodorus: among the Sodrae and Massani on both banks he built a city Alexandria by the river and chose 10,000 inhabitants for it. The Sogdoi (Sodrae) lived in upper Sindh above the realm of Musicanus; Lendering (Livius) puts the town north of Rohri. Unlocated.",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Indus valley above Rohri, upper Sindh, Pakistan (unlocated)",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "admin1": "Sindh",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Sindh (upper Indus)",
   "lat": 28.1,
   "lon": 69.3,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -325,
   "greek_until": -317,
   "phases": [
    [
     -325,
     -317
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "325 BC (Arrian 6.15.4; Diodorus 17.102.4).",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Rule: Peithon son of Agenor held the lower Indus lands for the Macedonians from the confluence to the sea with Patalene (Arrian 6.15.4 (unchecked: section)) until he was moved to the satrapy next to the Paropamisadae at Triparadisus, 321 BC (Diodorus 18.39.6), and Macedonian rule on the Indus ended by 317 BC (Diodorus 19.14.8); the Mauryas held the land until the Indo-Greeks took Patalene (Strabo 11.11.1, from Apollodorus of Artemita), c. 180-150 BC, and the Indo-Scythians took it in the 1st c. BC (the 'Scythia' of the Periplus 38). Speech: no source says what became of the settlers; the phase given ends with Macedonian rule and the range runs to the Indo-Scythian conquest.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -323,
    -50
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "325 BC foundation notices only.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the settlers' fate is unrecorded. In 323 BC Peithon son of Agenor was sent 'to the colonies settled in India' (Justin 13.4.21); Macedonian rule on the lower Indus ended after he was moved to the satrapy beside the Paropamisadae (321 BC, Diodorus 18.39.6), and the land passed to the Mauryas.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Alexander, 325 BC (Arrian 6.15.4; Diodorus 17.102.4)",
   "founder_group": "Alexander",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Arrian says the city was founded at the royal seat (basileion) of the Sogdoi, so a native capital stood there; its Indian name is not recorded.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Diodorus gives 10,000 settlers but not their origin; most were probably Indians beside a Greek and Macedonian core [interpretation].",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "Two notices of the same foundation (Arrian; Diodorus, with 10,000 settlers); no later evidence.",
   "status_evidence": "Arrian 6.15.4; Diodorus 17.102.4",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Livius calls it probably a temporary military station; Diodorus' figure of 10,000 settlers argues for a real town. If Diodorus means the confluence city instead, this entry rests on Arrian alone.",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 6.15.4",
    "Diodorus 17.102.4 (Loeb, LacusCurtius: https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17E*.html)",
    "Lendering, Alexander's city foundations: https://www.livius.org/articles/misc/alexander-s-city-foundations/"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 32,
   "list_group": "The Punjab and Sindh",
   "dates_shown": "325 BC – c. 317 BC",
   "period": "1 The deportees and Alexander (to 323 BC)",
   "id": "a031",
   "latin": "Alexandria at the confluence of the Acesines and the Indus",
   "greek": "Ἀλεξάνδρεια",
   "other_names": "Alexandria on the Indus (modern); possibly the Alexandria of Diodorus 17.102.4 (see the Sogdian city)",
   "identification": "Arrian places it at the junction of the Acesines (here the united Punjab rivers, the Panjnad) and the Indus. The confluence lay further north in antiquity than at Mithankot today; Uch Sharif, whose citadel mound may cover an older town, is the usual proposal (Pleiades). Not excavated as a Greek site.",
   "modern": "Uch Sharif (proposed)",
   "modern_native": "اوچ شریف",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Uch Sharif, Bahawalpur District, Punjab, Pakistan (proposed); alternative Mithankot, Rajanpur District",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "admin1": "Punjab",
   "admin2": "Bahawalpur District",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Punjab / upper Sindh (confluence of the Indus)",
   "lat": 29.239,
   "lon": 71.0615,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "60406",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -325,
   "greek_until": -317,
   "phases": [
    [
     -325,
     -317
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Early 325 BC (winter 326/325), ordered by Alexander with dockyards, in the hope that it would become great (Arrian 6.15.2).",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Rule: Philip was murdered by his mercenaries in 325/324 BC (Arrian 6.27.2) and his province was left to Eudamus and Taxiles; Macedonian rule ended by 317 BC (Diodorus 19.14.8) and the Mauryas held the land. Speech: no later notice of the town; it lay inside the area the Indo-Greeks ruled from c. 180 BC until the Indo-Scythian conquest of the lower Indus in the 1st c. BC, so a survival cannot be excluded.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -323,
    -50
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "325 BC foundation notice only (Arrian 6.15.2).",
   "ended_by": "No named act: Philip's murder by his own mercenaries (Arrian 6.27.2) ended the satrapy's first government; the town's fate is not recorded.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Alexander, 325 BC; Philip son of Machatas, satrap, in charge (Arrian 6.15.2)",
   "founder_group": "Alexander",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Settlers not described. Arrian says Philip son of Machatas was left as satrap with all the Thracians; later writers (Livius, Wikipedia) speak of Thracian veterans and natives as settlers, which goes beyond Arrian's words.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: Arrian (6.15.2) records Alexander's order to found a city with dockyards at the confluence; nothing later.",
   "status_evidence": "Arrian 6.15.2",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Diodorus' Alexandria among the Sodrae and Massani with 10,000 inhabitants (17.102.4) may be this city or the next one downstream; it is counted once, under the Sogdian city.",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 6.15.2 (trans. Chinnock, Wikisource: https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Anabasis_of_Alexander/Book_VI/Chapter_XV)",
    "Wikipedia, Alexandria on the Indus: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandria_on_the_Indus",
    "Fraser, Cities of Alexander the Great (1996)"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 33,
   "list_group": "The Punjab and Sindh",
   "dates_shown": "325 BC – c. 317 BC",
   "period": "1 The deportees and Alexander (to 323 BC)",
   "id": "a033",
   "latin": "Xylinepolis (the harbour town at Patala)",
   "greek": "Ξυλινὴ πόλις?",
   "other_names": "Xylinepolis, 'wooden city' (Pliny 6.96); the harbour and dockyards at Patala (Arrian 6.18.1, 6.20.1); perhaps Barce, the city Alexander built at the Indus mouth 'in memory of his exploits', with altars, leaving a governor of the coastal Indians (Justin 12.10.6); Karttunen (New Pauly) equates Xylinepolis with Alexandrou Limen (Arrian, Indica 21.10)",
   "identification": "Pliny, following Onesicritus, says the voyage of Nearchus started from Xylinepolis, founded by Alexander, but that its river and place were not made clear. Most take it for Alexander's harbour town and naval base at Patala, where Hephaestion fortified the citadel and built a harbour and dockyards (Arrian 6.18.1, 6.20.1). Patala itself is unlocated: Thatta, Hyderabad and Brahmanabad (Bahmanabad, Lendering) have been proposed. Tarn held that Pliny misread a wooden Indian town for a foundation.",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "population": "",
   "pop_year": "",
   "pop_source": "",
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Indus delta, Sindh, Pakistan (unlocated; Thatta, Hyderabad and Brahmanabad proposed for Patala)",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "admin1": "Sindh",
   "admin2": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Sindh (Patalene)",
   "lat": 24.6497,
   "lon": 67.92,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "59677",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -325,
   "greek_until": -317,
   "phases": [
    [
     -325,
     -317
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Summer 325 BC, during Alexander's stay at Patala (Arrian 6.18.1, 6.20.1; Pliny 6.96).",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Rule: Peithon son of Agenor held the lower Indus lands for the Macedonians from the confluence to the sea with Patalene (Arrian 6.15.4 (unchecked: section)) until he was moved to the satrapy next to the Paropamisadae at Triparadisus, 321 BC (Diodorus 18.39.6), and Macedonian rule on the Indus ended by 317 BC (Diodorus 19.14.8); the Mauryas held the land until the Indo-Greeks took Patalene (Strabo 11.11.1, from Apollodorus of Artemita), c. 180-150 BC, and the Indo-Scythians took it in the 1st c. BC (the 'Scythia' of the Periplus 38). Speech: no source says what became of the settlers; the phase given ends with Macedonian rule and the range runs to the Indo-Scythian conquest. Lendering thinks the base was given up soon after Nearchus sailed (autumn 325 BC).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -325,
    -50
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "325 BC notices only (Arrian; Pliny from Onesicritus).",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the base's fate is unrecorded. In 323 BC Peithon son of Agenor was sent 'to the colonies settled in India' (Justin 13.4.21); Macedonian rule on the lower Indus ended after he was moved to the satrapy beside the Paropamisadae (321 BC, Diodorus 18.39.6), and the land passed to the Mauryas.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "foundation by ruler",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Alexander, 325 BC; works at Patala by Hephaestion (Arrian 6.18.1)",
   "founder_group": "Alexander",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "Pattala? (Patala, Arrian; the Indian form is not attested)",
   "pre_greek_note": "Patala was an Indian city whose people fled before Alexander (Arrian 6.17.5-6 (unchecked: section)); no Indian text names it securely, so the form is marked doubtful.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Settlers not described; the fleet, a garrison and dockyard workers are recorded at Patala in 325 BC.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: Pliny (6.96, from Onesicritus) names Xylinepolis a foundation of Alexander, and Justin (12.10.6) a city Barce at the Indus mouth, probably the same foundation; Arrian describes the harbour, dockyards and citadel built at Patala; nothing later.",
   "status_evidence": "Pliny 6.96; Arrian 6.18.1, 6.20.1; Justin 12.10.6",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Patala itself is left out as a native city with a garrison; the harbour town is entered here. Whether Pliny's name, Justin's Barce and the Alexandrou Limen of Nearchus are one place is unknown.",
   "sources": [
    "Pliny, NH 6.96",
    "Arrian, Anabasis 6.18.1, 6.20.1 (Wikisource: https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Anabasis_of_Alexander/Book_VI/Chapter_XVIII)",
    "Pleiades 59677 (Karttunen in New Pauly: Xylinepolis = Alexandrou Limen)",
    "Wikipedia, Xylinepolis: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xylinepolis",
    "Lendering, Alexander's city foundations: https://www.livius.org/articles/misc/alexander-s-city-foundations/"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 34,
   "list_group": "The Punjab and Sindh",
   "dates_shown": "c. 165 BC – c. AD 10",
   "period": "3 The Indo-Greeks and the last Greek kings of Bactria (180 BC - AD 10)",
   "id": "a029",
   "latin": "Sagala (Euthymedia)",
   "greek": "Σάγαλα ἡ καὶ Εὐθυμήδεια",
   "other_names": "Sāgala (Pali, Milindapañha); Śākala (Sanskrit, Mahābhārata, capital of the Madras); Euthymedeia (Ptolemy 7.1.46 (unchecked: section); often emended to Euthydemia, after King Euthydemus, a reading Tarn rejected as an early modern change); She-kie-lo (Xuanzang, 7th c.); Sialkot",
   "identification": "Generally identified with Sialkot (Cunningham). Whether it is also the Sangala that Alexander stormed and razed (Arrian 5.22-24) is disputed: Arrian has Alexander cross the Hydraotes (Ravi) before reaching Sangala, which suits a site east of the Ravi rather than Sialkot. Pleiades' point (59812, Euthymedeia/Sangala) lies south of Sialkot and merges the two.",
   "modern": "Sialkot",
   "modern_native": "سیالکوٹ",
   "population": 911817,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, 2023 census (via citypopulation.de, 'Pakistan: Cities')",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Sialkot, Punjab, Pakistan (old town mound and fort)",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "admin1": "Punjab",
   "admin2": "Sialkot District",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "Punjab (between the Acesines and the Hydraotes)",
   "lat": 32.4945,
   "lon": 74.5229,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "59812",
   "window": "A",
   "greek_from": -165,
   "greek_until": 10,
   "phases": [
    [
     -165,
     10
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Under Indo-Greek rule from the conquest of the eastern Punjab (Demetrius I or his successors, c. 190-170 BC); if the emended name Euthydemia is right, it was refounded in honour of Euthydemus I; Menander (c. 165/155-130 BC) made it his capital.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Rule: Sagala in the eastern Punjab was the last Greek stronghold in India; Strato II's kingdom there is thought to have ended c. AD 10, when the Saka satrap Rajuvula of Mathura took over the region (an inference from the coins: Bopearachchi, Iranica 2004). Speech: Greek on coins ends with Strato II; no evidence describes the townspeople's speech before or after. The phase ends with Greek rule; the range runs from the loss of the western Punjab to Azes (c. 50 BC) to the Kushan conquest, as at Taxila.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    -50,
    60
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "c. 150 BC: Menander's capital (Milindapañha). 2nd-1st c. BC: Indo-Greek coins with Greek and Kharoshthi legends; a hoard of Menander coins and Hellenistic pottery fragments at Siranwali near Sialkot. c. AD 10: Strato II's coinage, the last Greek royal issues. 2nd c. AD: Ptolemy's Sagala/Euthymedia (unchecked). 7th c.: Xuanzang's She-kie-lo, former capital of Mihirakula.",
   "ended_by": "No written source names the act: the Saka satrap Rajuvula of Mathura is held to have ended the kingdom of Strato II, c. AD 10, an inference from his coins, which copy Strato II's and replace them in the eastern Punjab (Bopearachchi); no act against the Greeks of Sagala is recorded.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Indian town (Śākala, capital of the Madras)",
   "founder": "Native city (Śākala); given the Greek name Euthymedeia (or, emended, Euthydemia, after Euthydemus I, which would point to Demetrius I) by an Indo-Greek king; capital of Menander I",
   "founder_group": "Graeco-Bactrian kings",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "Śākala (Sanskrit)",
   "pre_greek_note": "Śākala, capital of the Madras in the Mahābhārata; the epic's date is late, but the city is an Indian foundation older than the Indo-Greeks. The derivation of Sialkot from Śākala is uncertain and is not used.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Prakrit (Indian vernacular of the Punjab)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "The Milindapañha opens: 'There is in the country of the Yonakas a great centre of trade, a city that is called Sāgala', and gives King Milinda (Menander) a following of five hundred Yonakas; Ptolemy gives it the Greek second name Euthymedeia (often emended to Euthydemia, a dynastic name).",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Greek was the language of the court and coinage; the Milindapañha implies a Yonaka community at the capital, but it was written in Pali (from a lost earlier text) and does not describe the townspeople's speech.",
   "deportee_city": false,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "An Indian text calls it a city in the country of the Yonakas, the capital of a Greek king with a Yonaka following; the dynastic name in Ptolemy and the coins add no independent proof of resident Greek speakers.",
   "status_evidence": "Milindapañha 1.1-2 (Rhys Davids); Ptolemy 7.1.46 (unchecked: section); Strabo 11.11.1 (Menander's conquests); coins of Menander and Strato II",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "The Aśokāvadāna (in the Divyāvadāna) says Pushyamitra Shunga came as far as Śākala and set a price on the heads of monks, a legend not used here. No published excavation at Sialkot has reached the Indo-Greek levels (unchecked).",
   "sources": [
    "Milindapañha, trans. Rhys Davids (1890)",
    "Bopearachchi, Indo-Greek dynasty, Encyclopaedia Iranica (2004): https://iranicaonline.org/articles/indo-greek-dynasty",
    "Narain, The Indo-Greeks (1957)",
    "Wikipedia, Sagala: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sagala"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 35,
   "list_group": "The later Greek town",
   "dates_shown": "1949 – c. 1993",
   "period": "Later Greek town (window B)",
   "id": "a017",
   "latin": "Kentau",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Mirgalimsai (the lead mine and its workers' settlement, before 1955); Kentau (city from 1955); called the 'small Athens' of Kazakhstan",
   "identification": "The mining town of the Mirgalimsai lead mine and the Achisai polymetallic works in the Karatau hills, north of Turkistan.",
   "modern": "Kentau",
   "modern_native": "Кентау",
   "population": 74474,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Bureau of National Statistics of Kazakhstan, estimate at 1 Jan 2023 (via Wikipedia 'List of most populous cities in Kazakhstan', from citypopulation.de)",
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Kentau, at the foot of the Karatau range, Turkistan Region",
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "admin1": "Turkistan Region",
   "admin2": "Kentau (city administration)",
   "disputed": "",
   "ancient_region": "",
   "lat": 43.516,
   "lon": 68.505,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "",
   "window": "B",
   "greek_from": 1949,
   "greek_until": 1993,
   "phases": [
    [
     1949,
     1993
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "The deportation trains of the operation 'Volna' (June 1949) brought the Greeks to the Mirgalimsai mine; the town was formally created on 1 August 1955.",
   "date_basis": "documented foundation",
   "date_precision": "year",
   "until_text": "Rule: the special-settlement restrictions on the 1949 deportees were lifted by MVD order 0402 of 25 September 1956, and many Greeks moved away (the Greek share fell to 20.5% by 1959, below the bilingual line). Speech: a Greek minority remained, increasingly Russian-speaking, until the emigration to Greece: 512 people left Kentau for Greece in January 1990 alone, and the main exodus of the town's minorities came in 1991-1993 after the crisis of the Achisai combine. A small Greek community society remains.",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    1990,
    2000
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "1949: 5,076 Greeks assigned to Mirgalimsai; 1950: 2,236 Greek special settlers at the mine; 1951: over 15,000 deported Greeks reported; 1959 census: 8,249 Greeks (20.5%); 1970-1989 censuses: Greeks not listed separately in the town tables; 1990: first emigration wave to Greece.",
   "ended_by": "Brought by Stalin's deportation of the Greeks of Georgia and the Black Sea coast (Politburo decision of 7 May 1949; operation of 13 June 1949); dispersed after the 1956 release and by emigration to Greece in 1990-1993.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "later Greek settlement",
   "bilingual_base": "Soviet mining settlement",
   "founder": "Soviet government: deportation of Greeks to the Mirgalimsai mine, 1949 (MVD, operation 'Volna')",
   "founder_group": "Soviet deportations",
   "metropolis": "Abkhazia and Adjara (Georgia), Krasnodar region",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "A mining settlement at Mirgalimsai existed before 1949 (German and Japanese prisoners of war worked there).",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Russian (the common language of a town of about forty nationalities, with Kazakh)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Pontic Greeks deported from Abkhazia, Adjara and the Krasnodar region in June 1949 were the main labour force of the Mirgalimsai mine: 5,076 deportees were assigned to Mirgalimsai on 17 June 1949, 2,236 special settlers, all Greeks, worked at the mine and on the town's construction in autumn 1950, and more than 15,000 deported Greeks were reported in Kentau in 1951, when the settlement had about 20,400 people (1950). The 1959 census still counted 8,249 Greeks, 20.5% of Kentau's 39,997 residents.",
   "home_language": "",
   "greek_speech": "Most of the deportees of 1949 from Abkhazia, Adjara and the Krasnodar coast spoke Pontic Greek at home, some Turkish (unchecked); by the late 1980s most Soviet Greeks had shifted to Russian (Koigeldiev), so the share who spoke Greek fell with time.",
   "deportee_city": true,
   "evidence_rung": 3,
   "evidence_basis": "One strand: archival deportation figures (5,076 Greek deportees assigned to the Mirgalimsai mine, June 1949) against the settlement's population in 1950 (about 20,400) give about a quarter by nationality; the 1959 census gives 20.5%.",
   "status_evidence": "MVD memorandum of 5 August 1949 and South Kazakhstan figures (Koigeldiev); 1959 census of Kentau (KazNU Bulletin)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Kept as a close case, uncertain. Firm figures: 5,076 Greek deportees were assigned to the Mirgalimsai mine in a note of 17 June 1949, against about 20,400 inhabitants in 1950, so about a quarter by nationality; the 1959 census gives 8,249 Greeks, 20.5%. Koigeldiev's 'over 15,000 Greeks' of 1951 is for Kentau and Achisai together. Soviet censuses count nationality, not language: Greek speakers were fewer. The town met the quarter line, if at all, only c. 1949-1956.",
   "sources": [
    "Koigeldiev, deportation of Greeks to Kazakhstan: https://kaznpu.kz/docs/koigeldiyev/20.pdf",
    "KazNU Bulletin (history of Kentau): https://bulletin-history.kaznu.kz/index.php/1-history/article/download/244/248/499",
    "https://deportation.org.ua/deportations-of-pontian-greeks-in-1949/"
   ],
   "refoundations": "",
   "west_asia_entry": ""
  }
 ],
 "stories": [
  {
   "city": "Ai Khanoum",
   "title": "Delphi's sayings on the Oxus",
   "text": "In 1966 the French excavators of Ai Khanoum found, in the shrine of the city's founder Kineas, the stone base of a lost stele. It keeps an epigram and the end of a list of maxims. The epigram says that these wise words of famous men of old are dedicated in holy Pytho, that is Delphi, and that Clearchus copied them there with care and set them up, shining from afar, in the precinct of Kineas. The last lines of the list survive on the base: \"As a child, be well behaved; as a young man, self-controlled; in middle age, just; as an old man, of good counsel; at the end, without grief.\" Delphi lies about 4,100 km to the west as the crow flies. Louis Robert suggested, with reserve, that this Clearchus was Clearchus of Soli, a pupil of Aristotle. The stone dates from the early 3rd century BC.",
   "sources": [
    "Rougemont, Inscriptions grecques d'Iran et d'Asie centrale (2012), no. 97",
    "Robert, Comptes rendus de l'Academie des Inscriptions 1968",
    "Bernard, Fouilles d'Ai Khanoum"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Ai Khanoum",
   "title": "Hermes, Heracles and a lost dialogue",
   "text": "Ai Khanoum had what made a Greek city. Below the acropolis a theatre was built into the slope, with seats for some thousands. By the river stood one of the largest gymnasia known in the Greek world. There the excavators found a pillar topped by the head of a bearded old man, in the manner of a herm, dedicated to Hermes and Heracles, the gods of the gymnasium, by two brothers, Triballos and Straton, sons of Straton. In the palace treasury a papyrus had rotted away, but its ink had left a mirror image in the earth: lines of a philosophical dialogue, in the school of Plato or Aristotle, on the theory of Forms. On the treasury jars, notes in Greek record what each held and who checked it: officials with Greek names and with Iranian ones, such as Oxeboakes and Oxybazos.",
   "sources": [
    "Bernard, Fouilles d'Ai Khanoum",
    "Rougemont 2012, the Ai Khanoum texts",
    "Rapin, Fouilles d'Ai Khanoum VIII (1992), the treasury"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Ai Khanoum",
   "title": "The end of the city",
   "text": "The latest dated notes on the treasury jars name \"year 24\", usually taken as a regnal year of Eucratides I, about 147 BC. Soon after, the treasury was looted and the palace burnt, and the city was never rebuilt as a Greek town. Justin (41.6.5) tells how Eucratides, on his way back from India, was murdered by his own son and co-ruler, who drove his chariot through his father's blood and had the body thrown out unburied. Strabo (11.8.2) names the nomads who took Bactria from the Greeks, the Asii, Pasiani, Tochari and Sacarauli; the Chinese Shiji (123) tells how the Yuezhi crossed the Oxus and subdued Daxia, Bactria. No source names Ai Khanoum, and who sacked it is not known. Squatters lived for a while in the ruins. The French dug the site from 1964 to 1978; in the wars of the following decades looters riddled it with pits.",
   "sources": [
    "Justin 41.6.5",
    "Strabo 11.8.2",
    "Sima Qian, Shiji 123 (Watson's translation)",
    "Bernard, Fouilles d'Ai Khanoum",
    "Rougemont 2012"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Alexandria in Arachosia",
   "title": "The king who gave up hunting",
   "text": "In 1958 a rock at Chehel Zina, above Old Kandahar, was found to bear an edict of the Indian emperor Ashoka in Greek and Aramaic. In the Greek the king is Piodasses, from Priyadarsi, \"he who looks on with kindness\". Ten years after his accession, it says, he showed men piety (eusebeia), and since then men have grown more pious and all things prosper; the king abstains from killing living beings, and so do other men, and the king's hunters and fishermen have given up hunting. In 1963 a second Greek text came to light, on a limestone block: the end of Ashoka's Rock Edict XII and the start of XIII, in which the king tells of his conquest of Kalinga in his eighth year: a hundred and fifty thousand people captured and carried off, a hundred thousand killed and almost as many dead otherwise, and his remorse. The Greek is polished prose, written about 260 BC for a Greek reading public inside an Indian empire.",
   "sources": [
    "Rougemont 2012, nos. 82-83",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kandahar_Greek_Edicts_of_Ashoka",
    "Schlumberger, Robert, Dupont-Sommer and Benveniste, Journal asiatique 246 (1958)",
    "Schlumberger, Comptes rendus de l'Academie des Inscriptions 1964"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Alexandria in Arachosia",
   "title": "Sophytos son of Naratos",
   "text": "A stone that reached the antiquities market, reportedly from Kandahar, carries one of the finest Greek poems found in the East, written in the 2nd century BC. Read downward, the first letters of its lines spell \"by Sophytos son of Naratos\". Neither name is Greek; both are probably Indian. In elegiac verse Sophytos tells how the Fates destroyed his family's house while he was still young; how he took money on loan, left his home and travelled to many cities to trade, until he had won great wealth; and how he came back, rebuilt the house of his fathers, and set up this tomb and stele by the road, so that passers-by might read it. The poem uses Homeric words and the forms of Greek epitaphs: a local man, schooled in Greek, writing for Greek readers. It was published in 2004 by Paul Bernard, Georges-Jean Pinault and Georges Rougemont.",
   "sources": [
    "Bernard, Pinault and Rougemont, Journal des Savants 2004",
    "Rougemont 2012, no. 84",
    "SEG 54.1568"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Alexandria Eschate",
   "title": "A city walled in twenty days",
   "text": "In 329 BC Alexander reached the Jaxartes, the Syr Darya, which his men took for the Tanais, the Don. On its bank he chose a site for a city which, Arrian says (4.1.3), would grow great, serve as a base against the Scythians across the river and guard the land. The wall, Arrian writes (4.4.1), was built in twenty days; Curtius and Justin give seventeen. He settled there Greek mercenaries, those of the neighbouring natives who wished, and Macedonians no longer fit to fight. Meanwhile the Scythians gathered on the far bank and shouted insults across the water. Alexander had his men cross on rafts and on skins stuffed with chaff, while his catapults cleared the bank, and routed them. In the pursuit he drank bad water, fell ill with a violent flux and was carried back to camp. Khujand now stands on the site.",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 4.1.3-4, 4.3.6-4.4.9",
    "Curtius 7.6.25-27",
    "Justin 12.5.12"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Alexandria Eschate",
   "title": "Altars to Apollo beyond the river",
   "text": "Some thirty-five to fifty years after Alexander a Greek general crossed the Jaxartes again. Pliny the Elder (6.49), who says that he follows him above all others on these lands, names him: Demodamas, general of the kings Seleucus and Antiochus, who crossed the river and set up altars to Apollo of Didyma. Demodamas came from Miletus, whose great temple of Apollo stood at Didyma; an inscription there records his motion to honour Queen Apama, the Sogdian wife of Seleucus I, about 299 BC, for her kindness to Milesian soldiers. Pliny adds that the Scythians called the river Silis, and that Alexander and his men believed it to be the Tanais. Demodamas wrote an account of these lands, now lost. No source says where he crossed, or whether he started from Alexander's city.",
   "sources": [
    "Pliny, Natural History 6.49",
    "Didyma inscription honouring Apama (I.Didyma 480) (unchecked)",
    "Kosmin, The Land of the Elephant Kings (2014)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Maracanda",
   "title": "Spitamenes and the trap on the Polytimetus",
   "text": "Maracanda, Samarkand, was the chief town of Sogdiana when Alexander took it in 329 BC and left a garrison in its citadel. While he was on the Jaxartes, the Sogdian noble Spitamenes rose and besieged the garrison. Alexander sent to its relief 60 Companion cavalry, 800 mercenary horse and 1,500 mercenary foot, with Pharnuches, a Lycian who knew the local language (Arrian 4.3.7). Spitamenes drew them to the river Polytimetus, the Zeravshan, and there, with Scythian horsemen, cut them down: Arrian (4.6.2) says that no more than 40 horsemen and 300 foot escaped. It was one of the heaviest defeats of any part of Alexander's army. Spitamenes fought on until the winter of 328 BC; then the Massagetae killed him and sent his head to Alexander (Arrian 4.17.7). Curtius (8.3) says his own wife killed him. His daughter Apame married Seleucus at Susa in 324 BC (Arrian 7.4.6); their son Antiochus I built cities in her father's land.",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 4.3.6-7, 4.5-6, 4.17.7, 7.4.6",
    "Curtius 7.6-7, 8.3"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Maracanda",
   "title": "The death of Cleitus",
   "text": "In the autumn of 328 BC, at Maracanda, Alexander held a feast. Arrian (4.8.1-2) says that he sacrificed that day to the Dioscuri instead of Dionysus. As the wine went round, flatterers set Alexander above Heracles and the Dioscuri and belittled his father Philip. Cleitus, called the Black, who had saved Alexander's life at the Granicus and had just been named satrap of Bactria, would not let it pass. He praised Philip, mocked the flatterers and, in Plutarch's account (Alexander 51), quoted a line of Euripides' Andromache: when an army wins, the general takes the glory for the work of thousands. Alexander seized a spear from a guard and ran him through. Afterwards, Arrian says (4.9.4), he lay three days without food or drink. Some said that Dionysus, whose sacrifice had been neglected, had sent the madness.",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 4.8-9",
    "Plutarch, Alexander 50-52",
    "Curtius 8.1.19-8.2.12"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Town of the Branchidae",
   "title": "The story and the doubt",
   "text": "Curtius (7.5.28-35) tells that in 329 BC, between the Oxus and Maracanda, Alexander came to a small town of the Branchidae, descendants of the family that kept the temple of Apollo at Didyma near Miletus. Xerxes, he says, had settled them there after they handed over the god's treasure to him. They welcomed Alexander gladly. They had kept their ancestral customs, but were now bilingual, slowly losing their own tongue. Alexander left their fate to the Milesians in his army; they could not agree, and he had the town destroyed, its people killed and even its sacred groves cut down. Curtius himself remarks that the descendants paid for a crime committed before they were born. Strabo (11.11.4) gives the destruction in one sentence. Arrian says nothing, and Herodotus (6.19) has Didyma sacked by Darius in 494 BC, not by Xerxes. Some scholars think the massacre an invention or a later moral tale; others accept it. The town has never been found.",
   "sources": [
    "Curtius 7.5.28-35",
    "Strabo 11.11.4, 14.1.5",
    "Herodotus 6.19",
    "Parke, Journal of Hellenic Studies 105 (1985)",
    "Hammond, Classical Quarterly 48 (1998)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Bactra",
   "title": "The settlers who wanted to go home",
   "text": "Alexander left many thousands of Greek mercenaries in new towns around Bactra and in Sogdiana. They did not stay willingly. In 325 BC, on a false report that Alexander had died of his wound in India, about 3,000 of them rose and set out for home (Diodorus 17.99.5-6). Curtius (9.7.1-11) tells how the rebels seized the citadel of Bactra, and how their leader Athenodorus, who had taken the title of king, was murdered at a banquet at the instigation of a rival, Biton. When Alexander really died, in 323 BC, the settlers of the upper satrapies rose again: more than 20,000 foot and 3,000 horse, Diodorus says (18.7), under Philon the Aenianian. Perdiccas sent Peithon against them with 3,000 Macedonian foot and 800 horse. Peithon bribed one rebel commander, Letodorus, who led his 3,000 men away in mid-battle, and he accepted the surrender of the rest on oath. But the Macedonians broke faith and speared the Greeks, to take their goods.",
   "sources": [
    "Diodorus 18.7 (Geer's translation, Livius)",
    "Diodorus 17.99.5-6",
    "Curtius 9.7.1-11"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Bactra",
   "title": "Euthydemus makes peace",
   "text": "In 208 BC the Seleucid king Antiochus III came east to win back Bactria. He beat the cavalry of the Bactrian king Euthydemus on the river Arius (Polybius 10.49) and then, it is generally thought, besieged him in Bactra. Two years later they made peace. Euthydemus, a Greek from Magnesia, argued through his envoy Teleas that he was no rebel: he had won his throne by destroying \"the descendant of some who had been such\", that is, of men who had revolted against the Seleucids. He warned that \"great hords of Nomads were close at hand, who were a danger to both\"; if they were let in, the country would fall into barbarism. Antiochus received Euthydemus' young son Demetrius, judged him worthy of royal rank, and promised him one of his daughters. He let Euthydemus keep the title of king, took his elephants, and marched away over the Hindu Kush into India (Polybius 11.34).",
   "sources": [
    "Polybius 10.49, 11.34 (Paton's translation, Perseus/Scaife)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Alexandria in the Caucasus",
   "title": "From Alasanda, the city of the Yonas",
   "text": "The Great Chronicle of Sri Lanka, the Mahavamsa, written in Pali about the 5th century AD, describes the great ceremony of the Great Stupa at Anuradhapura, built by King Dutthagamani in the 2nd century BC. Monks came from all over the Buddhist world, and among them, it says (29.39), \"from Alasanda the city of the Yonas came the thera Yona Mahadhammarakkhita with thirty thousand bhikkhus\". A thera is an elder, bhikkhus are monks. Alasanda is the Pali form of Alexandria. The Questions of King Milinda make Alasanda the birthplace of Menander: asked where he was born, the king answers, in the island of Alasanda, at a village called Kalasi, two hundred yojanas from Sagala. Most scholars take this Alasanda to be Alexandria in the Caucasus, north of Kabul; Alexandria in Egypt has also been proposed. The thirty thousand monks are the chronicle's figure, written down centuries later.",
   "sources": [
    "Mahavamsa 29.39 (Geiger's translation, 1912)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahadharmaraksita",
    "Milindapanha 3.7.4 (Rhys Davids, Sacred Books of the East 35)",
    "Karttunen, India and the Hellenistic World (1997)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Alexandria in the Caucasus",
   "title": "The city under the Hindu Kush",
   "text": "In the spring of 329 BC, before crossing the Hindu Kush, which his men called the Caucasus, Alexander founded a city at its foot and named it Alexandria (Arrian 3.28.4). Curtius (7.3.23) says that 7,000 of the older Macedonians, and soldiers no longer fit for service, were allowed to settle there; Diodorus (17.83.2) speaks of 7,000 natives, 3,000 camp followers and volunteers from the mercenaries. Coming back two years later, in 327 BC, Alexander found the city badly run. He dismissed its governor, gave it to Nicanor, one of the Companions, and added more settlers from the neighbourhood and soldiers unfit for war (Arrian 4.22.4-5). The site is usually placed at Begram, north of Kabul. There, in 1937 and 1939, French archaeologists opened two sealed rooms of a much later, Kushan building, full of Roman glass and bronzes, Indian ivories and Chinese lacquer.",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 3.28.4, 4.22.4-5",
    "Curtius 7.3.23",
    "Diodorus 17.83.1-2",
    "Hackin, Recherches archeologiques a Begram (1939); Nouvelles recherches (1954)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Bucephala",
   "title": "A city named for a horse",
   "text": "Bucephalas, \"ox-head\", was Alexander's horse from his boyhood. Plutarch (Alexander 6) tells how no one at Philip's court could mount the costly animal until the young Alexander noticed that it shied at its own shadow, turned it toward the sun and rode it; Philip, in tears, told his son to seek a kingdom equal to himself, since Macedonia was too small for him. The horse carried Alexander to India. After the battle with Porus on the Hydaspes, the Jhelum, in 326 BC, it died: not wounded, Arrian says (5.19.5), but worn out by heat and age, about thirty years old. Plutarch (Alexander 61) gives the age of thirty from Onesicritus and says that most writers had it die of its wounds. Alexander founded a city where he had set out to cross the river and named it Bucephala. Nearly four centuries later the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (47) still names \"Bucephalus Alexandria\".",
   "sources": [
    "Plutarch, Alexander 6, 61",
    "Arrian, Anabasis 5.19.4-6",
    "Periplus Maris Erythraei 47 (Casson 1989)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Nicaea (Hydaspes)",
   "title": "The battle with Porus",
   "text": "Porus ruled the land east of the Hydaspes, the Jhelum. In the early summer of 326 BC he waited on the far bank with his army and, Arrian says (5.15.4), some 200 elephants. The monsoon rains had swollen the river. For nights Alexander kept Porus guessing with noise and feints, then crossed upstream, at night and in a storm, behind a wooded island. In the battle that followed, the Macedonian cavalry and phalanx broke the elephants and the Indian line. Porus, a very tall man, fought on from his elephant until he was wounded. Asked how he wished to be treated, he answered, Arrian says (5.19.2), \"Like a king\". Alexander gave him back his kingdom and added more land to it. On the battlefield he founded a city named Nicaea, for the victory, nike, and at the place where he had set out to cross the river, Bucephala (5.19.4).",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 5.9-19",
    "Plutarch, Alexander 60",
    "Curtius 8.13-14",
    "Diodorus 17.87-89"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Sagala",
   "title": "The questions of King Milinda",
   "text": "The Questions of King Milinda, a Buddhist dialogue in Pali, open in Sagala, \"a great centre of trade\" in \"the country of the Yonakas\", \"abounding in parks and gardens and groves and lakes and tanks\" (in Rhys Davids' translation). Its king is Milinda, the Indo-Greek Menander I, who ruled about 155-130 BC: \"learned, eloquent, wise, and able\", he had worsted every teacher who came to argue with him. Then the monk Nagasena arrives. Asked his name, Nagasena says that he is called Nagasena, but that the name is only a usage: no permanent self is found in it. The king objects. Nagasena asks how the king came: on foot or by chariot? By chariot. Then what is the chariot? The pole, the axle, the wheels, the frame? None of these, the king admits. \"Chariot\" is a name for the parts together, says Nagasena, and so is Nagasena. The king is won over, and the dialogue runs on for hundreds of pages.",
   "sources": [
    "Milindapanha 1-2 (Rhys Davids, Sacred Books of the East 35, 1890)",
    "Bopearachchi, Monnaies greco-bactriennes et indo-grecques (1991), for Menander's dates"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Sagala",
   "title": "The ashes of Menander",
   "text": "Menander, the Indo-Greek king who ruled from Sagala, was remembered in the Greek world too. Strabo (11.11.1), citing Apollodorus of Artemita, says that the Greek kings of Bactria conquered more peoples than Alexander, Menander above all, \"at least if he actually crossed the Hypanis towards the east\", the Beas, and went as far as the Isamus (some editors read Imaus). Plutarch, in his Precepts of Statecraft (28, 821D-E), tells how Menander, \"who had reigned graciously over the Bactrians\", died in camp. The cities held his funeral as usual, but quarrelled over his remains, and agreed with difficulty to share the ashes equally and each to build him a monument. Plutarch tells the story to show how peoples honour a just ruler. It recalls the division of the Buddha's own relics, and some scholars think the story came from Buddhist India; others see only a Greek honour for a founder.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 11.11.1",
    "Plutarch, Moralia 821D-E (Precepts of Statecraft 28)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menander_I",
    "Narain, The Indo-Greeks (1957; 2003)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Taxila",
   "title": "Taxiles and the contest of gifts",
   "text": "Taxila was the largest city between the Indus and the Hydaspes when Alexander reached it in the spring of 326 BC (Arrian 5.8.2). Its king, whom the Greeks called Taxiles after his city, had sent envoys to Alexander the year before and came out to meet him with gifts. Plutarch (Alexander 59) gives his greeting: why should the two of them fight, if Alexander had not come to take away their water or their food? If Taxiles was the richer, he was ready to give; if the poorer, he would gladly accept. Alexander took his hand and answered that their meeting would not end without a contest after all: Taxiles would not outdo him in kindness. They exchanged gifts until Alexander gave him a thousand talents in coin, which, Plutarch adds, annoyed his friends but won over many of the Indians. Taxiles sent 5,000 men to fight against Porus.",
   "sources": [
    "Plutarch, Alexander 59",
    "Arrian, Anabasis 4.22.6, 5.3.5-6, 5.8.2"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Taxila",
   "title": "The naked wise men",
   "text": "Near Taxila Alexander heard of Indian ascetics who went naked and lived in the open. He sent the philosopher Onesicritus to them; Strabo (15.1.63-65) gives his report. Onesicritus found fifteen men about 20 stades from the city, standing, sitting or lying naked in various postures in the burning sun. One, Calanus, told him to strip and lie on the stones if he wanted to learn. The eldest, Mandanis, rebuked Calanus, praised Alexander as a king who wished to learn, and asked whether such teachings were known among the Greeks; Onesicritus named Pythagoras, Socrates and Diogenes. Mandanis said that talking through three interpreters was like asking water to run clean through mud. Calanus followed the army west. Falling ill in Persia in 324 BC, he had a pyre built and burned himself alive before the army (Arrian 7.3).",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 15.1.63-65",
    "Arrian, Anabasis 7.2-3",
    "Plutarch, Alexander 65, 69"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Taxila",
   "title": "Heliodorus of Taxila, worshipper of Vasudeva",
   "text": "At Besnagar, by Vidisha in central India, stands a stone column once crowned with a Garuda, the bird of Vishnu. Its inscription, in Prakrit in Brahmi letters, was read in 1909. It says that this Garuda column of Vasudeva, god of gods, was set up by Heliodora, a devotee (bhagavata), son of Diya, of Takhkhasila, a Yona envoy who had come from the great king Amtalikita to King Kasiputa Bhagabhadra, the saviour, in the fourteenth year of his reign. Heliodora is Heliodoros, Diya is Dion, Takhkhasila is Taxila, Amtalikita the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas, of the late 2nd century BC. A second inscription on the column names three immortal steps that lead to heaven: self-control, generosity and care. A Greek from Taxila, at an Indian court, worshipped an Indian god and said so in an Indian language.",
   "sources": [
    "Besnagar pillar inscription (Marshall, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 1909)",
    "Salomon, Indian Epigraphy (1998)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliodorus_pillar"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Bazira",
   "title": "Bazira, the flight to Aornos and three Greek names",
   "text": "In 327 BC, after the fall of Massaga, Alexander sent Coenus against Bazira, a town of the Assakenoi in the Swat valley, hoping it would surrender. It stood on a height, strongly walled, and held out. When its people heard that the neighbouring town of Ora had fallen, Arrian says (4.28.1), they lost heart, left their town at night and fled to the rock of Aornos. Alexander garrisoned the towns of the region and went on to besiege the rock. Since 1984 the Italian mission in Swat, under Pierfrancesco Callieri and Luca Maria Olivieri, has dug Bir-kot-ghwandai, the mound of Barikot. In the 2nd century BC the town was walled anew, with square bastions, as a planned town under the Indo-Greek kings. Among the finds are three short Greek graffiti on pottery, probably owners' names.",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 4.27.5-4.28.4",
    "Callieri and Olivieri, reports of the Italian Archaeological Mission in Pakistan (Barikot)",
    "Rougemont 2012, nos. 85-86"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Antioch in Margiana",
   "title": "A wall round an oasis, and the prisoners of Carrhae",
   "text": "Margiana, the oasis of the Murghab at Merv, struck Greek writers by its fertility. Strabo (11.10.2) says that Antiochus I, admiring it, enclosed it with a wall of 1,500 stades and founded a city there, Antioch; the vines, he adds, had stocks two men could hardly reach round. Pliny (6.47) tells that Alexander had founded an Alexandria here, which barbarians destroyed, and that Antiochus son of Seleucus rebuilt it on the same site and called it Antioch; and he adds a darker note. To this city, he says, Orodes, the Parthian king, brought the Romans captured in the defeat of Crassus at Carrhae in 53 BC. Plutarch (Crassus 31) puts the prisoners at 10,000. Some, Horace complains (Odes 3.5), married barbarian wives and grew old in the service of their captors. The Seleucid city is the square of Gyaur Kala in the ruins of Ancient Merv.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 11.10.2",
    "Pliny, Natural History 6.46-47",
    "Plutarch, Crassus 31",
    "Horace, Odes 3.5.5-12",
    "Zav'yalov, on the fortifications of Gyaur Kala (2004)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Prophthasia",
   "title": "The plot that gave a town its name",
   "text": "In the autumn of 330 BC Alexander halted at Phrada, the chief town of the Drangians, at today's Farah. There a plot against his life came to light. A Macedonian named Dimnus had told it to his lover, whose brother Cebalinus went to Philotas, son of Parmenion and commander of the Companion cavalry. Philotas, though he saw the king every day, said nothing. Cebalinus reached Alexander through another man. Dimnus killed himself or was killed when arrested. Philotas was tried before the army, tortured, and put to death with others accused; and Alexander had his father Parmenion, far away at Ecbatana, killed on secret orders (Arrian 3.26; Curtius 6.7-7.2; Plutarch, Alexander 48-49). Stephanus of Byzantium says that Alexander renamed Phrada Prophthasia, \"Anticipation\"; the name is usually explained by the plot forestalled there. Plutarch counts Prophthasia among Alexander's cities, but puts it in Sogdiana.",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 3.26",
    "Curtius 6.7-7.2",
    "Plutarch, Alexander 48-49; On the Fortune of Alexander 328F",
    "Stephanus of Byzantium, s.v. Phrada",
    "Diodorus 17.79-80"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Alexandria among the Oreitai",
   "title": "A city on the road to the desert",
   "text": "In the autumn of 325 BC, marching west from the Indus, Alexander came to Rhambakia, the largest village of the Oreitai, in the Las Bela plain of present-day Balochistan. The place pleased him, Arrian says (6.21.5): he thought that a city founded there would grow great and prosperous, and he left Hephaestion to build it. Leonnatus stayed behind with the Agrianians, some archers and horsemen and Greek mercenaries, to wait for the fleet, settle the city and order the country (6.22.3). Alexander went on into the Gedrosian desert, where much of his army died of thirst. After he left, the Oreitai and their neighbours rose. Leonnatus beat them in a great battle; Nearchus' account (Arrian, Indica 23.5) says that 6,000 of them fell and, on his side, 15 horsemen, a few foot soldiers and Apollophanes, the satrap of Gedrosia. At Susa, in 324 BC, Alexander crowned Leonnatus with gold for the victory (Arrian 7.5.5).",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 6.21.3-6.22.3, 7.5.5",
    "Arrian, Indica 23.5-8",
    "Diodorus 17.104.8",
    "Curtius 9.10.7"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Xylinepolis",
   "title": "Where the fleet met the tide",
   "text": "In the summer of 325 BC Alexander reached Patala, where the Indus divides to form its delta. He had Hephaestion fortify the citadel and build harbours and docks there (Arrian 6.18.1), and wells were dug in the dry land around. Then he sailed down the western arm to the sea. The men, used to the almost tideless Mediterranean, were alarmed when the ebb left their ships stranded on dry ground, and again when the flood lifted them off, damaged or unhurt (6.19.1-2). Beyond the mouth, in the open sea, Alexander sacrificed bulls to Poseidon, poured wine from a golden cup, and threw the cup and golden bowls into the water, praying for the fleet that Nearchus would lead to the Persian Gulf (6.19.5). Pliny (6.96) says that the voyage began from Xylinepolis, a town founded by Alexander; where it lay is not known.",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 6.17.5-6.20.5",
    "Arrian, Indica 21",
    "Pliny, Natural History 6.96"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Alexandria among the Sogdoi",
   "title": "Peithon on the Indus",
   "text": "Going down the Indus in 325 BC, Alexander founded cities with docks for his fleet. At the junction of the Acesines, the Chenab, and the Indus he told the satrap Philip to found a city, hoping it would become great and famous (Arrian 6.15.2). Further down, at the royal seat of the Sogdoi, he founded another city and built docks (6.15.4), and he gave Peithon son of Agenor the land from the junction to the sea. When the local king Musicanus rose, Peithon captured him, and Alexander had him hanged in his own country, with the Brahmins who had urged him on (6.17.1-2). After Alexander's death Peithon kept the Indus lands; at Triparadisus, in 321 BC, he was given the borderlands of India next to the Paropamisus, the Hindu Kush (Diodorus 18.39.6; Arrian, Events after Alexander 1.36). He later went west and fell at the battle of Gaza in 312 BC. By then the Indus valley was passing to Chandragupta Maurya, and the river cities disappear from the record.",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 6.15.2-6.17.2",
    "Diodorus 17.102.4, 18.39.6, 19.85.2",
    "Curtius 9.8"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Kentau",
   "title": "The miners of 1949",
   "text": "In the summer of 1949 trains brought Greeks from Georgia and the Black Sea coast to the Mirgalimsai lead and zinc mine, at the foot of the Karatau hills in southern Kazakhstan. They had been deported on a decision of the Politburo of 7 May 1949, carried out from 13 June: Greeks who held Greek citizenship or had once held it and since taken Soviet citizenship, and their families. A note of 17 June 1949 on the Greeks in South Kazakhstan assigns 5,076 of them to the mine; the settlement had about 20,400 people in 1950. They lived as special settlers under police watch, could not leave, and many worked underground. In 1955 the mine settlement became the town of Kentau. The special regime ended in 1956, and many Greeks moved away, but the 1959 census still counted 8,249 Greeks, a fifth of the town. In January 1990 alone 512 people left Kentau for Greece; most of the rest followed by 1993.",
   "sources": [
    "MVD memorandum of 5 August 1949 and South Kazakhstan figures (Koigeldiev)",
    "1959 census of Kentau (Bulletin of KazNU)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Barca in Bactria",
   "title": "The Barcaeans of Bactria",
   "text": "Herodotus tells the strangest origin of any Greek community in the East. About 515 BC Pheretime, mother of the murdered king of Cyrene, Arcesilaus, persuaded Aryandes, the Persian governor of Egypt, to avenge her son, and a Persian army besieged Barca in Libya for nine months. The Persians dug tunnels toward the walls, but a smith found them by carrying a bronze shield round inside the walls: where the ground was hollow below, the shield rang (4.200). At last the Persians took the city by a trick: they swore a treaty over a trench covered with planks and earth, to last as long as the ground stayed as it was, and then broke the planks. Pheretime impaled the men she held guilty and cut off their wives' breasts. The rest of the Barcaeans were taken to Darius as slaves. He gave them a village in Bactria to live in; they named it Barca, and in Herodotus' day it was still inhabited (4.204).",
   "sources": [
    "Herodotus 4.200-204"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Karla (Karle) caves, donors from Dhenukakata",
   "title": "Yavana pillars at Karla",
   "text": "The great Buddhist cave hall at Karla, cut into a hillside of the Western Ghats between Mumbai and Pune about the 1st century AD, is among the largest of its kind. Its rows of pillars were gifts, and many donors had their names cut on them. Several are Yavanas: the Yavana Dhamma, the Yavana Yasavadhana, the Yavana Dhamadhaya and the Yavana Culayakha, all from Dhenukakata, and the Yavana Vitasamghata from Umehanakata. Their names are Indian and Buddhist; dhamma is the Buddha's teaching. Dhenukakata, home also of donors who were not Yavanas, was perhaps a trading town of the region; it has not been found. The inscriptions do not say what being a Yavana meant to these men: most likely families of Greek or north-western origin, settled for generations, who had taken Indian names and the Buddhist faith but kept the name of their people.",
   "sources": [
    "Senart, Epigraphia Indica 7 (1902-03), the Karle inscriptions",
    "Dehejia, Early Buddhist Rock Temples (1972)",
    "Ray, The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia (2003)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Nashik (Pandavleni caves), Cave 17",
   "title": "A Yavana's cave at Nashik",
   "text": "At Nashik, on the hill that the inscriptions call Tiranhu, Buddhist monks lived in caves cut into the rock. Cave 17 records the gift of a Yavana: Indragnidatta, son of Dhammadeva, a Yonaka and a northerner from Dattamitri, had the cave cut in the mountain, with a shrine (chaitya) and cisterns, together with his son Dhammarakhita. Both names are Indian, the son's Buddhist. Dattamitri has often been taken for a town named after a Demetrius, perhaps Demetrias in Arachosia, but that is a guess. In the same caves, about AD 150, the queen mother Gautami Balashri had an inscription cut that praises her son, King Gautamiputra Satakarni, as the destroyer of Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas. On one hill, then, Yavanas appear both as pious donors and as the enemies of the king.",
   "sources": [
    "Senart, Epigraphia Indica 8 (1905-06), the Nasik inscriptions",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yavana"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Muziris (Pattanam)",
   "title": "Seven million drachmas from Muziris",
   "text": "In the middle of the 2nd century AD a merchant in Egypt borrowed money for \"the trip to Muziris\", the pepper port of south-west India, near present-day Kodungallur and Pattanam in Kerala. Parts of the contract survive on a papyrus in Vienna. One side sets out the road home: across the desert by caravan, under guard, to the public warehouses at Koptos on the Nile, then down the river to Alexandria, to the warehouse where the quarter-tax was taken, a duty of 25 per cent. The other side values the cargo that came back on the ship Hermapollon: 60 boxes of Gangetic nard at 4,500 drachmas each, tusks and fragments of ivory, and other goods in a damaged part, together worth 1,154 talents and 2,852 drachmas, close to seven million drachmas. A Tamil poem of the same age, Akananuru 149, speaks of the large, well-built ships of the Yavanas that came to Muziris with gold and went away with pepper.",
   "sources": [
    "P.Vindob. G 40822 (SB 18.13167), translation at attalus.org",
    "Rathbone, 'The Muziris papyrus' (2000)",
    "De Romanis, The Indo-Roman Pepper Trade and the Muziris Papyrus (2020)",
    "Akananuru 149"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Taprobane: Roman merchants in the 6th c. (port of Mantai?)",
   "title": "Kosmas and the two coins",
   "text": "Kosmas, a merchant of Alexandria who became a monk and wrote his Christian Topography about AD 550, describes Taprobane, Sri Lanka, as a large island in the Indian sea, \"much frequented by ships from all parts of India and from Persia and Ethiopia\". It had a church of Persian Christians who had settled there, with a presbyter and a deacon appointed from Persia. He tells a story he heard from a Roman merchant, Sopatros, \"dead these five and thirty years past\", and his companions. At the king's court a Persian boasted that his king was the greater. Sopatros said only that the king had both rulers before him: let him look at their coins. The Roman gold piece rang true, bright and finely made; the Persian coin was silver. The king praised the Romans, had Sopatros mounted on an elephant and led round the city with drums beating, and the Persian went away ashamed.",
   "sources": [
    "Kosmas Indikopleustes, Christian Topography 11.13-19 (McCrindle's translation, Hakluyt Society 1897, sacred-texts.com)",
    "Christian Topography 3.65"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Alexandria in Areia",
   "title": "Satibarzanes and the Areians",
   "text": "In 330 BC Satibarzanes, the Persian satrap of the Areians, came to Alexander and submitted, and was left in his post. As soon as Alexander had marched on toward Bactra, Satibarzanes killed the small troop of Macedonian horse left with him under Anaxippus and gathered his men at Artacoana, the royal seat of Areia (Arrian 3.25). Alexander turned back by forced marches, and Satibarzanes fled to Bessus. The next year he returned with Bactrian horsemen. Erigyius and other officers were sent against him, and in the battle, Arrian says (3.28.2-3), Erigyius killed him with his own hand. Curtius (7.4.33-40) makes it a duel between the lines: Satibarzanes took off his helmet and challenged any Macedonian, and the veteran Erigyius rode out and speared him. Alexandria in Areia, at Herat, was founded in these years. Arrian never mentions it; Strabo, Pliny and the Greek lists of Alexandrias do.",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 3.25, 3.28.2-3",
    "Curtius 6.6.20-34, 7.3.2, 7.4.32-40",
    "Diodorus 17.78, 17.81.3, 17.83.4-6",
    "Strabo 11.10.1",
    "Pliny, Natural History 6.61, 6.93"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Hephaestion's city on the Acesines",
   "title": "The turn at the Hyphasis",
   "text": "In the summer of 326 BC, at the Hyphasis, the Beas, Alexander's army would go no further. The men had marched for eight years and fought through the monsoon rains. Coenus spoke for them (Arrian 5.27): let the king go home, see his mother, and lead new armies later if he wished. Alexander shut himself in his tent for three days. When the sacrifices for the crossing proved unfavourable, he announced the return, and the soldiers wept and cheered. On the bank he built twelve altars, as tall as great towers, to the twelve gods, as thank-offerings and memorials of his labours (5.29.1). Then he marched back to the Acesines, the Chenab, where Hephaestion had fortified a city on his orders. There Alexander settled those of the neighbouring people who wished, and those of the mercenaries unfit for war (5.29.3), and went on to the Hydaspes to build the fleet that would take him down to the sea.",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 5.25-29",
    "Curtius 9.2-3",
    "Diodorus 17.94-95",
    "Plutarch, Alexander 62"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Takht-i Sangin (Temple of the Oxus)",
   "title": "A vow to the river Oxus",
   "text": "On the right bank of the Amu Darya, in southern Tajikistan, Boris Litvinsky and Igor Pichikyan excavated from 1976 a temple built in the early Hellenistic period, which the finds show was dedicated to the river god Oxus. Among the thousands of offerings, many of them weapons, was a small limestone altar topped by a bronze figure of a naked satyr playing the double pipes, usually identified as Marsyas. On the altar a Greek inscription reads: \"Atrosokes dedicated [this] as a vow to Oxus.\" The dedicator's name is Iranian and the god is the river itself, but the figure and the letters are Greek: probably in the first half of the 2nd century BC, a Bactrian worshipper addressed his own god in Greek. Some think that the Oxus Treasure, the hoard of Achaemenid gold found nearby about 1877, began as offerings in this temple; it may also have come from elsewhere in the area, such as Takht-i Kuwad.",
   "sources": [
    "Encyclopaedia Iranica, 'Takht-i Sangin': https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/takht-i-sangin",
    "Litvinsky, Pichikyan and Vinogradov 1985 (the Atrosokes votive)",
    "Litvinsky and Pichikyan, Ellinisticheskii khram Oksa v Baktrii (2000) (unchecked: title)"
   ]
  }
 ],
 "left_out": [
  {
   "name": "Nisa (Mithradatkert; Old and New Nisa)",
   "greek": "Νισαία; Παρθαύνισα",
   "modern": "Bagyr (near Ashgabat)",
   "country": "Turkmenistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "The Arsacid royal fortress (Old Nisa, Mithradatkert) and the walled town beside it (New Nisa). Isidore 12 calls it Parthaunisa, which the Greeks call Nisaia, with royal tombs. Its marble statues, ivory rhyta with Greek scenes and one Greek inscription on a rhyton belong to the Parthian court; the more than 2,000 economic documents from the fortress are in Parthian, written in Aramaic script. No Greek civic institutions or Greek-speaking townspeople are attested, and no Greek foundation is recorded.",
   "lat": 37.9514,
   "lon": 58.2114
  },
  {
   "name": "Calliope and Charis (Parthyene)",
   "greek": "Καλλιόπη; Χάρις",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Iran or Turkmenistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Seleucus I's foundations in Parthia (Appian, Syrian Wars 57); Pliny (6.44, 6.113) places Calliope with Issatis on the west side of Parthia, in present-day Iran. Both are counted in Greek Cities in Present-Day West Asia (Iran), as uncertain cities placed by region, and shown here as grey points.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "The six towns near Margiana (Curtius 7.10.15)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkmenistan or Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Curtius says Alexander chose sites for six towns near Margiana, two facing south and four east, close together on high hills, as bridles on the conquered peoples: hill forts for garrisons, not cities. Their site is unknown; many place them north of the Oxus (one perhaps near Termez) rather than in the Merv oasis. Pliny's Alexandria in Margiana is counted under Antioch in Margiana.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Artacoana (Artakauan, Artacabene)",
   "greek": "Ἀρτακόανα",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "The Achaemenid royal seat of Areia, where Satibarzanes held out against Alexander (Arrian 3.25.5-7); Isidore 15 lists Artakauan beside Alexandria among the Arians, and Pliny 6.93 says Antiochus fortified Artacabene a second time, 50 stades across. Pliny's Artacoana and Artacabene are probably one town (Cohen 2013). A native town refortified by a Seleucid king, with no Greek settlers or institutions recorded. Ptolemy and Isidore keep it apart from Alexandria; if, as some think, Alexander's Alexandria was Artacoana repopulated, it is counted under Alexandria in Areia.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Candac (Areia), and Bis, Gari and Nia (Anauon)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Towns of Areia and its district Anauon in Isidore of Charax (15-16); native names, no Greek settlers or writing.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Nad-i Ali (Surkh Dagh) and Zaranj",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Zaranj",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Large Achaemenid and later mound near Zaranj, the medieval capital of Sistan (Zarang). The Encyclopaedia Iranica proposes it as the site of Prophthasia; if so, it is counted there. No Greek inscriptions or documents have been found at Nad-i Ali or Zaranj.",
   "lat": 30.9989,
   "lon": 61.849
  },
  {
   "name": "Alexandria in Sakastane",
   "greek": "Ἀλεξάνδρεια",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Isidore 18 names a city Alexandria next to the city Alexandropolis near Sigal. Tarn and the Encyclopaedia Iranica regard this Alexandria as a scribal repetition of the name that follows, so it is counted once, under Alexandropolis in Sakastane. If it was a separate town, nothing is known of it but the name.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Parin and Koroc (Zarangiane)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The two towns of Zarangiane in Isidore 17; native, no Greek evidence.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Sigal, Barda, Min and Palakenti (Sakastane)",
   "greek": "Σιγάλ",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan or Iran",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Towns of Sakastane in Isidore 18, Sigal being the royal seat of the Sakas; Saka and native towns, no Greek evidence. Alexandropolis, which Isidore places beside Sigal, is entered as a city.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Qal'a-ye Sam (Iranian Sistan)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Iran",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A walled site of the post-Achaemenid and possibly Parthian period in Iranian Sistan, excavated by an Italian mission (1959-61), with Greek ostraca (Pugliese Carratelli 1966). It lies in present-day Iran and is counted in Greek Cities in Present-Day West Asia, as uncertain; shown here as a grey point.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Dahan-i Ghulaman (Iranian Sistan)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Iran",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Achaemenid planned town in Iranian Sistan, abandoned before Alexander, with no Greek evidence; in present-day Iran, and listed as left out in Greek Cities in Present-Day West Asia.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Bost (Qala-i Bist, Lashkar Gah): Parabeste",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Lashkar Gah",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Pliny 6.92-95 has Parabeste of the Arachosii on the Erymanthus (Helmand); perhaps Isidore's Biyt. A native and later Ghaznavid town; no Greek settlers or writing are known.",
   "lat": 31.5025,
   "lon": 64.3566
  },
  {
   "name": "Biyt, Pharsana and Chorochoad (Arachosia)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Cities of Arachosia in Isidore 19, listed beside Demetrias and Alexandropolis; native names, no Greek evidence.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Ghazni (Gazaka)",
   "greek": "Γάζακα",
   "modern": "Ghazni",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Barrington and Pleiades (59694) place Arachosiorum oppidum, with the names Alexandria and Demetrias, at Ghazni, and some once put Alexandria in Arachosia here; but the Greek inscriptions are at Old Kandahar, and Ghazni has given no Greek writing. Its known ancient remains are the Buddhist monastery of Tapa Sardar (Kushan to 8th century).",
   "lat": 33.4986,
   "lon": 68.3885
  },
  {
   "name": "Gathar, Siroc and Saphri (Parthyene)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkmenistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Towns and a village of Parthyene after Nisa in Isidore 12; unlocated, native, no Greek evidence.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Apauarktika (Abiverd) and Ragau (Apauarktikene)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Kaka (near Abiverd)",
   "country": "Turkmenistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The towns of Apauarktikene in Isidore 13; the district is usually placed around Abiverd (Abiward) on the northern foot of the Kopet Dag, a Parthian, Sasanian and medieval town. No Greek settlers or writing.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Sarakhs (Turkmen side)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Saragt",
   "country": "Turkmenistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Sasanian and medieval town on the Tejen between Merv and Nishapur; no Greek foundation or writing known.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Roman prisoners of Carrhae at Antioch in Margiana",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkmenistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Orodes II settled the Roman soldiers captured with Crassus in 53 BC at Antioch in Margiana (Pliny 6.47). They were Latin-speaking soldiers, not a Greek community, and nothing is known of them afterwards.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Pura (royal seat of Gedrosia)",
   "greek": "Πούρα",
   "modern": "Bampur?",
   "country": "Iran",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The royal seat of the Gedrosians, reached by Alexander after the desert march (Arrian 6.24.1), usually placed at Bampur in Iranian Baluchistan; a native town, listed as left out in Greek Cities in Present-Day West Asia.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Coast stations of Nearchus in Gedrosia (Kokala, Malana, Bagisara, Kalama, Mosarna, Dendrobosa, Kyiza, Talmena and others)",
   "greek": "Κώκαλα",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Anchorages and fishing villages of the Oreitai and the Fish-eaters on the Makran coast (Arrian, Indica 22-29); at Kokala Leonnatus defeated the Oreitai. Nearchus took one small walled town of the Fish-eaters by a trick, but founded no settlement. No Greek towns.",
   "lat": 25.6558,
   "lon": 66.4551
  },
  {
   "name": "Quetta valley and Pishin",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Quetta",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "On the routes between Arachosia and the Indus; no Greek foundation, inscription or settlers are recorded. Greek and Indo-Greek coins found in Baluchistan are not evidence of Greek residents.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Barca, the village of the Barcaean deportees in Bactria",
   "greek": "Βάρκη",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Darius gave the Greeks deported from Barca in Libya, c. 510 BC, a village in Bactria, which they called Barca and which was still inhabited in Herodotus' day (Hdt. 4.204). Herodotus calls it a village (kome), not a town, and it is unlocated; it appears as a deportee settlement among the presence points.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Termez (Old Termez)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Termez",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "The Greek period at Termez is a fortress (phrourion) on the citadel guarding the river crossing, with Graeco-Bactrian pottery and coins but no Greek writing; the large town grew under the Yuezhi and Kushans (about 350 ha), when its name Tarmita appears and its language was Bactrian. The Peutinger Table names an 'Antiochia Tharmata' (unlocated in the Barrington Atlas, on its Bactrian map), which has been connected with Tarmita (unchecked: who proposed it not checked); it is entered as an uncertain city placed at Termez for the region only. Tarn's idea that Greek Termez was a Demetrias rests on no ancient text. Termez is also one proposed site of Alexandria Oxiana, which is not counted separately. The fortress without Greek writing is rung 4, as at Uzundara and Kurganzol, and appears among the presence points. An Antioch Tharmata on the Peutinger Table, perhaps in this area, is counted separately as an uncertain city placed by region.",
   "lat": 37.2643,
   "lon": 67.1925
  },
  {
   "name": "Dilberjin",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A walled town north-west of Balkh with a round citadel, founded perhaps in the 5th c. BC and laid out in its final form c. 150 BC or in early Kushan times, with a temple first painted with the Dioscuri. Its own inscriptions are Bactrian and Brahmi; a clay tablet naming one Diogenes is reported, but its language is not clear. At Jiga Tepe, a small mound about 7 km to the east, a terracotta plaque with six lines of Greek elegiac verse, probably from a funerary epigram, was found (Kruglikova 1977; Encyclopaedia Iranica, 'Epigraphy ii'): a Greek-writing resident of the oasis, entered as a presence point. Not enough for the town itself; it is one candidate for Eucratidia, entered separately.",
   "lat": 37.0228,
   "lon": 66.5264
  },
  {
   "name": "Tepe Nimlik",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Small site about 36 km from Balkh where a sherd with five Greek letters (ATROS) was found in 1946; not a town with Greek residents.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Tillya Tepe",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Burials of a nomad ruling family of the 1st c. AD laid in an older temple mound near Shibarghan; the rich goods in Greek style are not evidence of Greek speech.",
   "lat": 36.6946,
   "lon": 65.7897
  },
  {
   "name": "Drapsaka (Kunduz)",
   "greek": "Δράψακα",
   "modern": "Kunduz",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Bactrian town reached by Alexander after crossing the Hindu Kush (Arrian 3.29.1); Strabo (11.11.2, Darapsa or Adrapsa) lists it among the towns held by the Greek kings, and the Qunduz hoard of Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek coins was found near it (1946). Rule and coins only; no Greek community attested.",
   "lat": 36.7169,
   "lon": 68.8607
  },
  {
   "name": "Aornos in Bactria (Khulm, Tashkurgan)",
   "greek": "Ἄορνος",
   "modern": "Khulm",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Alexander took Aornos and Bactra, 'the largest cities of the Bactrians', and left a garrison in the citadel of Aornos under Archelaus (Arrian 3.29.1). A native town with a garrison; no Greek community. The garrison is a presence point.",
   "lat": 36.6833,
   "lon": 67.6833
  },
  {
   "name": "Cariatae",
   "greek": "Καριάται",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Bactrian town razed by Alexander, where Callisthenes was arrested (Strabo 11.11.4); unlocated; no Greek residents.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Alexander's eight or twelve cities in Bactria and Sogdiana",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Strabo (11.11.4) says Alexander founded eight cities in Bactria and Sogdiana; Justin (12.5.13) twelve, settled with the mutinous men of his army; Curtius and Arrian add forts and towns in Sogdiana and Margiana. Unnamed and unlocated: they count only where a named town can be pinned down (Alexandria Oxiana, perhaps Bactra's Greek colonies, and the Sogdian towns, entered separately).",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Other towns of Bactria in Ptolemy (Zariaspa, Charispa, Alicodra, Chomara, Menapia, Astacana, Maracodra and others)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Names in Ptolemy's list of the towns of Bactriana (6.11.7-9), unlocated and without any sign of Greek settlers or institutions.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Takht-i Sangin (Temple of the Oxus)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Tajikistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A fortified sanctuary of the river god Oxus near the meeting of the Vakhsh and Panj, built in the early Hellenistic period and used until the early 3rd c. AD. Its Greek dedications (an altar given 'as a vow to Oxus' by Atrosokes, a man with an Iranian name, probably in the first half of the 2nd c. BC; inscriptions naming Oxus on a stone basin; a mould naming Iromios son of Nemiskos; Greek letters as masons' marks on two platforms of the late 3rd or early 2nd c. BC) show worshippers writing Greek, but it is a sanctuary, not a town. It is a presence point.",
   "lat": 37.0987,
   "lon": 68.2851
  },
  {
   "name": "Kulob (find-spot of the Heliodotos dedication)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Kulob",
   "country": "Tajikistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A limestone block said to come from near Kulob carries Heliodotos' Greek verse dedication of an altar to Hestia in a grove of Zeus, for King Euthydemus and his son Demetrius, c. 200-190 BC. It shows a Greek-writing resident at an unknown sanctuary, not a town; it is a presence point.",
   "lat": 37.9146,
   "lon": 69.7845
  },
  {
   "name": "Kei-Kobad-Shah (Kobadian)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Tajikistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A square fortified town of the Hellenistic period in the Kobadian oasis (Dyakonov's excavations), continuing into Kushan times; no Greek writing by residents is known (unchecked).",
   "lat": 37.4048,
   "lon": 68.211
  },
  {
   "name": "Saksanokhur",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Tajikistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A large Hellenistic building with a peristyle court on the Kyzylsu, a palace or estate rather than a town; no Greek writing (unchecked).",
   "lat": 37.5146,
   "lon": 69.3414
  },
  {
   "name": "Iskandar Tepa",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A hilltop in Surkhandarya enclosed by a ditch and palisade (about 1.2 ha), with coins of Diodotus II, Euthydemus I and Demetrius I; read by its excavators (2026) as a temporary military camp of the 2nd c. BC, not a settlement.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Dalverzin Tepe",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Began as a small Graeco-Bactrian fortified place and grew into a walled town only in the 1st c. BC, under the Yuezhi; Attic column bases and antefixes are Greek in style, but the only writing reported is Kharoshthi on gold ingots. Perhaps an early Yuezhi capital.",
   "lat": 38.0995,
   "lon": 67.8607
  },
  {
   "name": "Khalchayan",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Town in the Surkhandarya valley known for the painted clay sculpture of a Yuezhi ceremonial hall of the 1st c. BC-1st c. AD; Greek-style art, no Greek writing.",
   "lat": 38.3155,
   "lon": 67.954
  },
  {
   "name": "Jandavlattepa",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Fortified town in the Sherabad oasis with Hellenistic to early medieval levels (Czech-Uzbek excavations); no Greek writing by residents is published (unchecked).",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Kara Tepe, Fayaz Tepe, Zar Tepe and Airtam (Termez area)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Buddhist monasteries and a fortified town of the Kushan period; their inscriptions are in Bactrian (in Greek letters), Kharoshthi and Brahmi, which is not Greek speech.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Surkh Kotal",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Dynastic temple of the Kushan kings, begun under Kanishka; its great inscription is Bactrian written in Greek letters (repaired under Huvishka by Nokonzok). A short Greek inscription naming one Palamedes is reported from the site (unchecked). A sanctuary, not a town.",
   "lat": 36.0505,
   "lon": 68.5656
  },
  {
   "name": "Rabatak",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Hilltop shrine where Kanishka's Bactrian inscription of his first year (c. AD 127) was found; it says that he 'issued a Greek edict and then put it into Aryan', the moment Bactrian replaced Greek as the written language of the Kushan state. A sanctuary, and Bactrian, not Greek.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Kohna Qala (Ai Khanoum plain)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Achaemenid-period fortified settlement in the plain about 6 km from Ai Khanoum; the predecessor of the Greek city, with no Greek phase of its own.",
   "lat": 37.2007,
   "lon": 69.467
  },
  {
   "name": "Shortughai",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Harappan trading outpost of c. 2000 BC near the Oxus; its Hellenistic interest is only the irrigation of the Ai Khanoum plain.",
   "lat": 37.3237,
   "lon": 69.5256
  },
  {
   "name": "Amul, Kelif and Zemm (Lebap bank of the Amu Darya)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkmenistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "River crossings and towns on the Turkmen bank (Amul at Turkmenabat; Kelif; Zemm at Kerki) known mostly from Islamic-period sources; no Greek settlement or writing is known (unchecked).",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Alexandria near Bactra (Stephanus of Byzantium)",
   "greek": "Ἀλεξάνδρεια",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Stephanus' list of Alexandrias includes one in or near Bactra (unchecked). Nothing else is known of it: it is probably Bactra itself or one of the Greek colonies Alexander placed around it (Curtius 9.7.1), and is counted under Bactra.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Takht-i Kuvad (Takht-i Qobad)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Tajikistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A fortress on the right bank of the Amu Darya below Takht-i Sangin, near one reported find-spot of the Oxus Treasure; no Greek settlers or writing are known.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Cyropolis (Kyra, Cyreschata)",
   "greek": "Κύρου πόλις; Κύρα; Κυρέσχατα",
   "modern": "Kurkat (or Istaravshan)",
   "country": "Tajikistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Persian frontier town attributed to Cyrus, the largest of the seven Sogdian towns that rose against Alexander; he stormed it in 329 BC (Arrian 4.2-4.3; Curtius 7.6.16-23 (unchecked); Strabo 11.11.4). No Greek settlement there is recorded. Located at Kurkat (Pleiades) or at Istaravshan (Ura-Tyube); the idea that Cyropolis lay at Khujand itself and was refounded as Alexandria Eschate has few followers. The statement found online that Cyropolis had a large population of resettled Ionian Greeks has no ancient source (perhaps a confusion with the Branchidae).",
   "lat": 40.1354,
   "lon": 69.262
  },
  {
   "name": "Gaza and the other Sogdian towns of 329 BC",
   "greek": "Γάζα",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Tajikistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Arrian 4.2.1-4.3.5: seven native towns on the Jaxartes, among them Gaza and Cyropolis, which rose against Alexander and were taken in a few days; the men were killed and the women and children enslaved. Native towns, some of whose people may have been moved to Alexandria Eschate; no Greek settlement.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Nautaka",
   "greek": "Ναύτακα",
   "modern": "Shahrisabz area (or Karshi)",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Sogdian town where Alexander wintered in 328/327 BC (Arrian 3.28.9, 4.18.1); identified with the Kesh oasis near Shahrisabz (Pleiades: Padaytak tepe) or with Erkurgan near Karshi. A royal camp, not a Greek town.",
   "lat": 39.1425,
   "lon": 66.7704
  },
  {
   "name": "Erkurgan (Nakhshab, Nasaf)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Karshi",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Large Sogdian city near Karshi, largest in Sogdiana in the 5th c. AD; Hellenistic finds do not include Greek writing of residents; Sogdian town.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Koktepe (Kök Tepe; Gabai?)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Fortified site on the Bulungur canal about 30 km north of Samarkand, excavated by Rapin, Isamiddinov and Khasanov: a major Sogdian town of the early Iron Age (8th-7th c. BC) that declined with the rise of Samarkand, later used for the tomb of a nomad princess (1st c. BC/AD); sometimes identified with Gabai of Arrian 4.17.4. No Greek community.",
   "lat": 39.8933,
   "lon": 66.9181
  },
  {
   "name": "Kurganzol",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Small fortress in the Baysun basin, built in 329/328 BC (dendrochronology) and abandoned early in the 3rd c. BC, with Greek-style pottery and a mixed garrison of Greeks and locals (Sverchkov and Boroffka); probably one of the six hill forts Alexander sited himself (Curtius 7.10.13-16). A garrison post, not a town (recorded as a presence point).",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Uzundara",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Seleucid mountain fortress (phrourion) on Mount Susiztag in the Baysun mountains, garrisoned from the first quarter of the 3rd c. BC against nomad raids, with coins from Alexander-type issues to the Graeco-Bactrian kings and Greek votive graffiti (a dedication to Demeter on a basin, a jug with ΖΗΝΑ); destroyed by nomads under Eucratides I. Greek-speaking, but a garrison fort, not a town (recorded as a presence point).",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Sangir-tepe",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Shahrisabz area",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Fortified site in the Kesh oasis with Achaemenid and Hellenistic phases (Rapin, Isamiddinov, Khasanov) (unchecked); Sogdian, no Greek writing published.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Bukhara",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Bukhara",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Sogdian town of the post-Greek period (the oasis had no central town in the Hellenistic period, Iranica); the Bukhara coins imitating Euthydemus I (unchecked) and later Sasanian types are Sogdian coinage with Greek or Persian models, not Greek speech. Later stories that Alexander founded it are legend.",
   "lat": 39.7776,
   "lon": 64.4155
  },
  {
   "name": "Paikend (Paykent)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Fortified Sogdian town in the Bukhara oasis from the Kangju period (1st c. BC/AD) to the Arab conquest; no Greek community.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Panjikent",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Panjakent",
   "country": "Tajikistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Sogdian town of the 5th-8th centuries AD, famous for its wall paintings; Greek and Indian themes in art are not Greek speech.",
   "lat": 39.4855,
   "lon": 67.6178
  },
  {
   "name": "Bunjikat (capital of Ustrushana)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Shahristan",
   "country": "Tajikistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Capital of the principality of Ustrushana in the 7th-9th c. AD; Sogdian-speaking, no Greek.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Tashkent (Shash, Chach) and Kanka",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Tashkent",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "In antiquity the oasis of Chach (Shash), with Kanka as its main early city, lay beyond the Greek frontier; no Greek finds. From 1949 some 11,000-12,000 Greek political refugees were settled in Tashkent (and nearby Chirchik), growing to about 35,000 by the late 1960s in a city of over a million: a large and organized minority, far below a quarter (recorded as a presence point).",
   "lat": 41.3,
   "lon": 69.24
  },
  {
   "name": "Dayuan (Ferghana) and its walled towns",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Ferghana valley",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Shiji 123 (Zhang Qian, c. 128 BC) describes Dayuan as a settled kingdom of over seventy towns large and small with several hundred thousand people, with vines, wine and fine horses, and the peoples from Dayuan west to Parthia as deep-eyed and bearded, skilled traders, speaking rather different but mutually understood languages; it says nothing of Greek speech or writing. The modern suggestion that the name Yuan renders Yavana (Ionians) and that Dayuan was a Greek or Hellenized kingdom (often repeated since Tarn) is unproven. No Greek inscription is known from Ferghana.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Ershi and Guishan, cities of Dayuan",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Kyrgyzstan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Ershi (貳師), the town of the 'heavenly horses', and Guishan, the capital of Dayuan, were the targets of the Han general Li Guangli's campaigns (104-101 BC; Shiji 123, Han shu 61). Some take Ershi to be the capital itself. Their sites are unknown (Kasan, Marhamat, Khujand and Ura-Tyube have been proposed (unchecked)); no Greek evidence.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Osh and Uzgen",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Osh; Uzgen",
   "country": "Kyrgyzstan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Ferghana towns of the Middle Ages (Uzgen a Qarakhanid capital); no Greek community. The claim that Osh or the Ferghana horses go back to Alexander is local legend.",
   "lat": 40.53,
   "lon": 72.8
  },
  {
   "name": "Toprak-kala",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Walled Chorasmian city and palace of the 1st-6th c. AD (Tolstov), with documents in Chorasmian written in an Aramaic-derived script; Chorasmia was never ruled by the Greeks (its king Pharasmanes met Alexander as an ally, Arrian 4.15.4), and its early coins imitating Eucratides I are Chorasmian coinage (unchecked).",
   "lat": 41.9273,
   "lon": 60.8229
  },
  {
   "name": "Koy-Krylgan-kala",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Round Chorasmian monument (a cult building, perhaps funerary or astral) of the 4th c. BC-4th c. AD; Chorasmian, no Greek.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Otrar and the Syr Darya towns",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Otrar (Farab) and the towns of the middle Syr Darya (the Jetiasar and Kangju sites) lay outside the Greek kingdoms; no Greek inscriptions or community. The Kultobe inscriptions are Sogdian.",
   "lat": 42.85,
   "lon": 68.3
  },
  {
   "name": "Kashgar (Shule)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Kashgar",
   "country": "China",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Oasis kingdom of the Tarim Basin in the Han histories; no Greek community. Strabo (11.11.1, from Apollodorus of Artemita) says the Graeco-Bactrian kings extended their rule as far as the Seres and the Phryni, but no Greek settlement or inscription is known in the Tarim; Greek-derived art and coin types arrived through Gandhara and the Kushans.",
   "lat": 39.47,
   "lon": 75.99
  },
  {
   "name": "Khotan (Yutian)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Hotan",
   "country": "China",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Saka kingdom of the southern Tarim; its Sino-Kharoshthi coins (1st-2nd c. AD) carry Gandhari and Chinese legends; Greek-style terracottas and seals are art, not speech.",
   "lat": 37.11,
   "lon": 79.93
  },
  {
   "name": "Niya and Loulan (kingdom of Kroraina, Shanshan)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "China",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "The 3rd-4th c. AD Kharoshthi documents of Niya and Loulan are in Gandhari Prakrit, with Chinese documents beside them; the clay seals on them showing Athena, Eros and other Greek figures (unchecked) are Greek-style art brought by way of Gandhara, not evidence of Greek speakers.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Liqian (Zhelaizhai, Yongchang, Gansu)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Zhelaizhai",
   "country": "China",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The idea that Roman soldiers captured at Carrhae (53 BC) fought for the Xiongnu at Zhizhi (36 BC) and were settled at Liqian (Dubs, 1941 and 1957) rests on a county name and a battle description; no Roman objects have been found at Zhelaizhai, and a Y-chromosome study (Zhou et al., Journal of Human Genetics, 2007) found the villagers to be a subgroup of the Han majority. Legend; and the soldiers would have been Latin-speaking, not Greek.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Shymkent and the Greek deportee settlements of South Kazakhstan",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Shymkent",
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Of the 37,108 Greeks deported to Kazakhstan in 1949, 24,882 went to the South Kazakhstan region (note of 17 June 1949, cited by Koigeldiev after Juha 2008): Ilyich district 6,550, Mirgalimsai mine 5,076, Kirov district 4,714, Pakhtaaral district 3,624, Kyzylkum 1,870, Arys 1,554, Keles 1,494; others went to the Zhambyl, Kyzylorda, Taldykorgan and Alma-Ata regions. Spread over more than seventy collective and state farms, they were minorities in Shymkent and the district towns. Some farm settlements may have been mostly Greek for a time, but no figure for any of them was found, and a farm settlement is a village, not a town, so none would count. Only the mining town of Kentau may have passed the quarter line (entered separately). Recorded as presence points.",
   "lat": 42.32,
   "lon": 69.59
  },
  {
   "name": "Panda (Pliny 6.49)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Sogdian town named by Pliny ('oppidum Panda'); native, no Greek settlement recorded.",
   "lat": 38.9611,
   "lon": 66.8994
  },
  {
   "name": "Ptolemy's other towns of Sogdiana (Drepsa the metropolis, Tribaktra, Oxiana)",
   "greek": "Δρέψα; Τριβάκτρα",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Names in Ptolemy's list of Sogdiana (6.12.6) beside Maracanda, Cyreschata and the two Alexandrias; unlocated native towns with no record of Greek settlers. (Alexandria Oxiana, also in this list, belongs with the Bactrian sites proposed for it.)",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Sogdian Rock, Rock of Chorienes, Gabai, Xenippa",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Mountain strongholds and districts taken by Alexander in 328-327 BC (Arrian 4.18-21; Curtius 7.11, 8.2); forts and districts, not Greek towns.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Pushkalavati (Peukelaotis): Bala Hisar and Shaikhan Dheri, Charsadda",
   "greek": "Πευκελαῶτις",
   "modern": "Charsadda",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "The old capital of western Gandhara (Sanskrit Puṣkalāvatī, Gandhari Pukhalavadi), surrendered to Alexander's generals after a 30-day siege and given a Macedonian garrison under Philip (Arrian 4.22.7-8, 4.28.6); Arrian (Indica 1.8) calls it a great city. Under the Indo-Greeks a new grid-plan town was built at Shaikhan Dheri in the 2nd c. BC (Dani's excavations, 1963-64), and a coin of the Indo-Greek or Indo-Scythian period shows the city goddess of Pushkalavati with a Kharoshthi legend (unchecked). But no Greek inscription or graffito by residents is known from either mound (unchecked), so the evidence is a garrison, royal coins and a Greek-style plan: rung 4. The Indo-Greek grid town is the strongest case in Gandhara without Greek writing.",
   "lat": 34.17,
   "lon": 71.74
  },
  {
   "name": "Kapisa (Begram)",
   "greek": "Καπίσα",
   "modern": "Bagram",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Counted under Alexandria in the Caucasus, which most scholars place at Begram. If Alexander's city lay instead at Opian or Jabal us-Siraj, Kapisa was the native town beside it; its own Greek evidence (the city-goddess coins of Eucratides, Greek coin legends, Kushan imports) is rung 4.",
   "lat": 34.9925,
   "lon": 69.3105
  },
  {
   "name": "Opian (Charikar) and Jabal us-Siraj",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Charikar",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Candidate sites for Alexandria in the Caucasus (Masson's Opian; Jabal us-Siraj), not separate Greek cities: the city is counted once, under Alexandria in the Caucasus.",
   "lat": 35.01,
   "lon": 69.17
  },
  {
   "name": "Kabul (Ortospana?)",
   "greek": "Ὀρτόσπανα",
   "modern": "Kabul",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Ortospana, 'the crossroads to Bactra' in Eratosthenes' road measurements (Strabo 11.8.9, 15.2.8; Pliny 6.61), and Ptolemy's Kaboura (unchecked), are usually placed at or near Kabul. It was a road junction and native town; the Chaman-i Hazuri hoard (4th c. BC) of Greek and Achaemenid coins is imported silver. No Greek community is attested. The idea that Alexander founded Kabul is modern guesswork, and Nicaea (Arrian 4.22.6) is only one candidate for the site.",
   "lat": 34.5208,
   "lon": 69.1713
  },
  {
   "name": "Laghman (Lampaka)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Mehtarlam",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Two Aramaic inscriptions of Ashoka (found in 1969 and 1973 (unchecked)) marking a road and its distances; Aramaic is the old imperial chancery language, not Greek. Greek versions of Ashoka's edicts are found only at Kandahar. No Greek community.",
   "lat": 34.65,
   "lon": 70.21
  },
  {
   "name": "Nagara or Dionysopolis (Nagarahara, Jalalabad)",
   "greek": "Ναγάρα ἡ καὶ Διονυσόπολις",
   "modern": "Jalalabad",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Ptolemy (7.1.43) lists 'Nagara, also called Dionysopolis', the Buddhist Nagarahara of the Chinese pilgrims. The Greek name is a cult name, probably from the Nysa story of Alexander's historians and a local Dionysus-like god, not a king's name and not a record of a foundation (unchecked). A Greek name alone is not enough, as for Cartana-Tetragonis and Theophila; no Greek inscriptions or settlers are known.",
   "lat": 34.4302,
   "lon": 70.4601
  },
  {
   "name": "Hadda",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Hadda",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Buddhist monastic centre (Tapa Shotor, Tapa Kalan and others, 1st-7th c. AD) famous for Gandharan stucco sculpture with Greek themes (Heracles as Vajrapani). Art is not speech, and it is a sanctuary, not a town.",
   "lat": 34.3661,
   "lon": 70.469
  },
  {
   "name": "Mes Aynak",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A copper-mining town with Buddhist monasteries of the Kushan to Shahi periods. A mine and monasteries; no Greek writing or community.",
   "lat": 34.264,
   "lon": 69.31
  },
  {
   "name": "Nysa (Alexander's city of Dionysus)",
   "greek": "Νῦσα",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A legend: Alexander's historians tell that the people of Nysa, between the Kophen and the Indus, claimed descent from the followers of Dionysus, and that Alexander spared them and let them keep their laws under Akouphis (Arrian 5.1-2; Indica 1.4-7; Curtius 8.10.7-18; Justin 12.7.6-8). The town is real but unlocated (lower Kunar, the Jalalabad plain or Swat have been suggested); the Greek descent was a story told by or about its people, not evidence of Greek speech.",
   "lat": 34.43,
   "lon": 70.33
  },
  {
   "name": "Kunar valley (Choes)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Asadabad",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Alexander campaigned here against the Aspasians in 327 BC; the only refounded town on record, Arigaion, is entered separately. No Greek community is attested in the valley.",
   "lat": 34.87,
   "lon": 71.15
  },
  {
   "name": "Massaga",
   "greek": "Μάσσαγα",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Capital of the Assakenoi, stormed by Alexander in 327 BC, when the Indian mercenaries who had surrendered were killed (Arrian 4.26-27; Diodorus 17.84; Plutarch, Alexander 59); Alexander made it a fort to hold the country (Arrian 4.28.4) (unchecked: wording). A garrisoned native fortress, unlocated (lower Swat, Dir or the Katgala pass have been suggested); no Greek settlers or writing.",
   "lat": 34.7619,
   "lon": 71.6859
  },
  {
   "name": "Aornos, the rock (Pir-Sar or Una-Sar)",
   "greek": "Ἄορνος",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The rock fortress near the Indus taken by Alexander in winter 327/326 BC (Arrian 4.28-30) and garrisoned under Sisicottus (Arrian 4.30.4); identified by Stein with Pir-Sar, by others with Una-Sar. A fort, not a city.",
   "lat": 34.7219,
   "lon": 73.2846
  },
  {
   "name": "Embolima (Ohind or Hund)",
   "greek": "Ἐμβόλιμα",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A town near Aornos where Craterus gathered supplies (Arrian 4.28.7); later Udabhandapura (Hund), the Shahi capital at the Indus crossing. Supply base and native town; no Greek community.",
   "lat": 34.649,
   "lon": 72.7938
  },
  {
   "name": "Bajaur",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Khar",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Bajaur has the Shinkot relic casket of the reign of Menander (Kharoshthi), the relic dedications of the Apraca kings and their strategoi (the Greek title written in Kharoshthi), and a seal of Theodamas, a ruler with a Greek name and the Kushan title 'Su'. These are Greek titles and names of a local dynasty and its officials, shown as a presence point; no Greek town is known (except, perhaps, the unlocated Arigaion).",
   "lat": 34.73,
   "lon": 71.52
  },
  {
   "name": "Dir (Chakdara, Andan Dheri, Damkot)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Dir",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Buddhist and fortified sites of Swat's western valleys excavated by Dani; no Greek writing or settlers known.",
   "lat": 34.65,
   "lon": 72.03
  },
  {
   "name": "Butkara I and Saidu Sharif (Mingora)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Mingora",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Buddhist sanctuaries of Swat (3rd c. BC to 10th c. AD) with Gandharan sculpture; sanctuaries, not towns, and art is not speech.",
   "lat": 34.77,
   "lon": 72.36
  },
  {
   "name": "Chitral and the Kalash",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Chitral",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The belief that the Kalash descend from Alexander's soldiers is a legend of the colonial period and later. An early estimate of 20-40% Greek admixture (Qamar et al. 2002) was rejected by later studies (Kivisild et al. 2003; Firasat et al. 2007; Ayub et al. 2015), which found no evidence of descent from Alexander's soldiers; a dated West Eurasian admixture signal reported by Hellenthal et al. (2014) has no specifically Greek source (unchecked). Descent in any case is not Greek speech, and no ancient Greek settlement or writing is known in Chitral.",
   "lat": 35.85,
   "lon": 71.79
  },
  {
   "name": "Hunza and the Burusho (Gilgit-Baltistan)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Karimabad",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Hunza and Nagar rulers' claims of descent from Alexander are legends; no ancient Greek settlement or writing is known. Gilgit-Baltistan is part of the Kashmir region, administered by Pakistan and claimed by India.",
   "lat": 36.32,
   "lon": 74.66
  },
  {
   "name": "Chilas and the Upper Indus rock inscriptions (Gilgit-Baltistan)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Chilas",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Thousands of rock carvings and inscriptions along the Karakoram road (Chilas, Shatial, Thalpan) in Kharoshthi, Brahmi, Sogdian, Bactrian (in Greek letters), Chinese, Tibetan and Hebrew, 1st to 10th c. AD; no Greek-language inscription is known (unchecked). A route and halting places of travellers, not a town. The area is part of the Kashmir region, administered by Pakistan and claimed by India.",
   "lat": 35.42,
   "lon": 74.1
  },
  {
   "name": "Peshawar (Purushapura)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Peshawar",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The winter capital of Kanishka, with his great stupa at Shah-ji-ki-Dheri. The casket inscription (AD 127 or soon after) was long read as naming a Greek overseer of works, 'Agisala' (Agesilaos); after cleaning the word is now read agnisala, the monastery's refectory, so the supposed Greek craftsman disappears. A Kushan city of the period after Greek rule; no Greek community is attested.",
   "lat": 34.0,
   "lon": 71.58
  },
  {
   "name": "Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra (Ashoka's rock edicts)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Shahbazgarhi",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Ashoka's Kharoshthi rock edicts mention the Yonas among the peoples of the empire's west and name five Greek kings (Rock Edict XIII). They are royal texts about Greeks, not evidence of Greeks living there.",
   "lat": 34.24,
   "lon": 72.16
  },
  {
   "name": "Bhir Mound (Taxila)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Taxila",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The older city of Taxila (6th to 2nd c. BC) that received Alexander in 326 BC; counted with Taxila (Sirkap) as one city.",
   "lat": 33.7437,
   "lon": 72.821
  },
  {
   "name": "Sirsukh (Taxila)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Taxila",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The Kushan city of Taxila, built after the Greek period (later 1st or 2nd c. AD); counted with Taxila, and Greek speech is not attested there.",
   "lat": 33.7743,
   "lon": 72.8494
  },
  {
   "name": "Jandial temple (Taxila)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Taxila",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A temple with Ionic columns outside Sirkap's north gate (1st c. BC or 1st c. AD), perhaps Zoroastrian; a sanctuary with Greek architecture, which is rung 4 on its own; it belongs to Taxila.",
   "lat": 33.7645,
   "lon": 72.8288
  },
  {
   "name": "Cartana, later Tetragonis",
   "greek": "Τετραγωνίς",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Pliny (6.92) names Cartana, a town at the foot of the Caucasus 'later called Tetragonis' (unchecked). 'The square one' is a descriptive name, not a king's dynastic or victory name, so it records a renaming, perhaps a new plan, but not a royal foundation with settlers: a Greek name alone is not enough, as for Nagara-Dionysopolis and Theophila. The town is also unlocated (the Pleiades point at Shahr-i Gholghola in the Bamiyan valley is a guess). Nicaea, a victory name of Alexander's kind on his own route, is admitted as uncertain under the same rule that admits Demetrias and Eucratidia.",
   "lat": 34.8224,
   "lon": 67.8368
  },
  {
   "name": "Kaspatyros or Kaspapyros",
   "greek": "Κασπάτυρος",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The town in the Paktyike land from which Scylax of Caryanda began his voyage down the Indus for Darius I, c. 515 BC (Herodotus 3.102, 4.44; Hecataeus calls it 'a Gandaric city'); perhaps Pushkalavati or a town near it. A Greek explorer started from it; no Greek community lived there.",
   "lat": 34.144,
   "lon": 71.6169
  },
  {
   "name": "Bamiyan",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Bamyan",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Buddhist kingdom and pilgrimage centre of the 3rd to 9th c. AD on the road over the Hindu Kush; no Greek community or writing.",
   "lat": 34.82,
   "lon": 67.83
  },
  {
   "name": "Patala",
   "greek": "Πάταλα",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "An Indian city at the head of the Indus delta whose people fled before Alexander; Hephaestion fortified its citadel and built a harbour and dockyards there, 325 BC (Arrian 6.18.1, 6.20.1). No text calls the native city a foundation or records settlers in it, only the fleet and a garrison, so it is left out, as Kapisa is beside Alexandria in the Caucasus; the harbour town that Pliny (6.96) calls Xylinepolis, founded by Alexander, and Justin (12.10.6) perhaps Barce, is entered as a city. The site is unknown (Thatta, Hyderabad and Brahmanabad have been proposed); the point is Pleiades' (59987).",
   "lat": 24.7224,
   "lon": 68.0651
  },
  {
   "name": "Musicanus' city (Alor?)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Aror, near Rohri",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "The capital of Musicanus in upper Sindh, usually placed at Alor (Aror) near Rohri. Craterus fortified its citadel and a garrison was left to control the neighbouring peoples (Arrian 6.15.7); after Musicanus revolted and was executed, Alexander garrisoned the cities of the land (Arrian 6.17.1-2 (unchecked: section)). A garrison in a native city does not make a Greek city; it is a presence point.",
   "lat": 27.666,
   "lon": 68.975
  },
  {
   "name": "Sangala",
   "greek": "Σάγγαλα",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The city of the Kathaioi that Alexander stormed and razed, giving its land to the Indians who had submitted (Arrian 5.22-24). No Greek settlement. Cunningham placed it at Sanglawala Tibba near Sangla Hill (the point given here (unchecked)); others put it east of the Ravi or equate it with Sagala (Sialkot), which is entered as a city for its Indo-Greek period.",
   "lat": 31.716,
   "lon": 73.383
  },
  {
   "name": "The city of the Malli (Multan?)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Multan",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The Mallian town where Alexander was gravely wounded, 326/325 BC (Arrian 6.9-11), often placed at Multan (Cunningham); others prefer Tulamba or a site further north. Stormed, not settled; no Greek community is recorded. Multan fell to Muhammad ibn al-Qasim in 713.",
   "lat": 30.1979,
   "lon": 71.4725
  },
  {
   "name": "Sindimana (Sehwan?)",
   "greek": "Σινδιμάνα",
   "modern": "Sehwan Sharif",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The capital of Sambus, which opened its gates to Alexander, 325 BC (Arrian 6.16.4); often placed at Sehwan. No Greek settlement is recorded.",
   "lat": 26.427,
   "lon": 67.861
  },
  {
   "name": "Harmatelia",
   "greek": "Ἁρματήλια",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A city of the Brahmins in lower Sindh taken by Alexander (Diodorus 17.103.1); a capture, not a foundation; unlocated (Pleiades 60523).",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "The altars on the Hyphasis (Alexandria on the Hyphasis)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "At the Hyphasis (Beas), where the army refused to go further, 326 BC, Alexander set up twelve altars to the twelve gods and an oversized camp (Arrian 5.29.1-2; Diodorus 17.95.1-2; Plutarch, Alex. 62). Some modern lists add an Alexandria on the Hyphasis, but no ancient author records a city there; the settled city of that march is the one on the Acesines (Arrian 5.29.3), entered as a city. The altars are a monument; their site on the Beas in Indian Punjab is unknown.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Alexandrou Limen and Krokala (Karachi area)",
   "greek": "Ἀλεξάνδρου λιμήν",
   "modern": "Karachi",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A sheltered harbour near the island of Krokala that Nearchus named Alexander's Harbour and where the fleet waited for the monsoon, 325 BC (Arrian, Indica 21.7-10 (unchecked: section)); a naval anchorage, not a town. Karttunen (New Pauly) identifies it with Pliny's Xylinepolis, which is entered as a city.",
   "lat": 24.86,
   "lon": 67.01
  },
  {
   "name": "Barbarikon",
   "greek": "Βαρβαρικόν",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The trading port at the Indus mouth where ships unloaded for Minnagara (Periplus 38-39). An emporium visited by Greek-speaking merchants of Roman Egypt; no resident Greek community is recorded. Often sought at or near Banbhore, east of Karachi.",
   "lat": 24.9241,
   "lon": 69.0215
  },
  {
   "name": "Minnagara in Sindh",
   "greek": "Μινναγάρ",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The inland capital of Scythia (Indo-Scythian Sindh), ruled in the 1st c. AD by Parthian princes (Periplus 38). An Indo-Scythian royal city; no Greek community is recorded. Unlocated (Thatta, Brahmanabad and other sites proposed); Ptolemy's Minnagara in Gujarat (Pleiades 59933) is another place.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Theophila",
   "greek": "Θεόφιλα",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A town with a Greek name in Ptolemy's lists for the lower Indus or Saurashtra (Ptolemy 7.1 (unchecked: section)); Pleiades 50769 puts it on the Patala-Ujjain route, unlocated. A Greek name alone is not evidence of Greek speakers, and nothing else is known of it.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Demetrias in Sind (Dattāmitri)",
   "greek": "Δημητριάς",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Tarn argued for a Demetrias founded by Demetrius I in Sind (Sauvīra), resting on a Yavana king Dattāmitra in the Mahābhārata. E. H. Johnston (JRAS 1939) showed from the critical edition that the epic's Dattāmitra is not the Yavana king, and Tarn (JRAS 1940) conceded that the city is no longer certain. Dattāmitri, home of the Yavana donor Indrāgnidatta, 'a northerner', at Nashik (Cave 17), is more often taken (Bhandarkar, Bühler) for the Demetrias of Arachosia in Isidore of Charax 19, which is entered as a city.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Kutch and the coasts conquered by the Indo-Greeks",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Strabo (11.11.1, after Apollodorus of Artemita) says the Greeks of Bactria took Patalene and the coast called Saraostus (Saurashtra) and Sigerdis; these are lands, not towns, and no Greek town in Kutch is recorded.",
   "lat": 23.5,
   "lon": 69.8
  },
  {
   "name": "Lahore (Labokla?)",
   "greek": "Λαβόκλα",
   "modern": "Lahore",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Ptolemy's Labokla in the Punjab has been identified with Lahore (unchecked); nothing Greek is recorded there beyond the name in a list.",
   "lat": 31.5497,
   "lon": 74.3436
  },
  {
   "name": "Harappa",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Harappa",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Bronze Age city of the Indus civilization; its later occupation shows no Greek community.",
   "lat": 30.6296,
   "lon": 72.8653
  },
  {
   "name": "Jalandhar, Sugh (Srughna), Agroha and other towns east of the Ravi",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "No Indo-Greek city is recorded east of the Ravi; finds of Indo-Greek coins in Indian Punjab and Haryana show circulation and perhaps rule, not resident Greek speakers.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "The Sibai (Shorkot?)",
   "greek": "Σίβαι",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A people of the lower Punjab who dressed in skins and carried clubs and were said to descend from Heracles' army (Diodorus 17.96.1-2; Arrian, Indica 5.12; Curtius 9.4.2 (unchecked: section)). A legend, not a Greek town.",
   "lat": 30.4276,
   "lon": 71.574
  },
  {
   "name": "Bairat (Viratnagar, Rajasthan)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Bairat (Viratnagar) yielded a hoard of Indo-Greek coins (unchecked) (for Madhyamika see its own entry); it shows no a Greek community.",
   "lat": 27.45,
   "lon": 76.18
  },
  {
   "name": "Mathura (Methora)",
   "greek": "Μέθορα",
   "modern": "Mathura",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "An Indian city, capital of the Surasenas, held or claimed for a time by Indo-Greek kings in the 2nd and 1st c. BC: the Yuga Purana has the Yavanas take it, and a well inscription from Maghera (c. 70 BC or 58 BC) is dated in year 116 of the Yavana kingdom. The donors are Indians writing Sanskrit; Indo-Greek rule and a dating era do not show Greek-speaking townspeople. Shown as a presence point.",
   "lat": 27.4835,
   "lon": 77.6788
  },
  {
   "name": "Saketa (Ayodhya)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Ayodhya",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Besieged by a Yavana king in the 2nd c. BC (Patanjali, Mahabhashya on Panini 3.2.111: arunad Yavanah Saketam; Yuga Purana). A raid or siege by an Indo-Greek army; no Greek community is attested.",
   "lat": 26.8,
   "lon": 82.2
  },
  {
   "name": "Madhyamika (Nagari, near Chittorgarh)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Nagari",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Besieged by a Yavana king in the 2nd c. BC (Patanjali: arunad Yavano Madhyamikam). A military campaign; no Greek community is attested.",
   "lat": 24.99,
   "lon": 74.67
  },
  {
   "name": "Pataliputra (Palibothra)",
   "greek": "Παλίβοθρα",
   "modern": "Patna",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The Maurya capital. Greeks there were ambassadors and their staff: Megasthenes, sent by Seleucus I to Chandragupta (c. 300 BC; Arrian, Indica; Strabo 15.1), Deimachus to Bindusara, Dionysius sent by Ptolemy II (Pliny 6.58). The Yuga Purana has the Yavanas reach Kusumadhvaja (Pataliputra) in the 2nd c. BC and withdraw. Envoys and a raid: no Greek community.",
   "lat": 25.6144,
   "lon": 85.135
  },
  {
   "name": "Kausambi",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Kosam",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Capital of the Vatsas on the Yamuna; Hellenistic-looking terracottas and coin finds are art and trade (unchecked). No Greek or Yavana community is attested.",
   "lat": 25.339,
   "lon": 81.3929
  },
  {
   "name": "Vidisha (Besnagar)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Vidisha",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Here Heliodorus son of Dion, of Taxila, a Greek envoy (Yonaduta) of king Antialcidas to king Kasiputra Bhagabhadra, set up a Garuda pillar to Vasudeva, c. 113 BC (reign of Antialcidas, c. 115–80 BC), with an inscription in Prakrit in Brahmi. An ambassador, not a community; the town was Indian.",
   "lat": 23.5231,
   "lon": 77.8145
  },
  {
   "name": "Sanchi",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Sanchi",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Buddhist monastic site near Vidisha, not a town; three Yonas, including 'the Yona of Setapatha', were among its donors (2nd–1st c. BC). Shown as a presence point.",
   "lat": 23.4794,
   "lon": 77.7398
  },
  {
   "name": "Setapatha",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Home town of a Yona donor at Sanchi; unidentified. One donor does not show a Greek or bilingual town.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Bharhut",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Bharhut",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The relief of a warrior in Greek-style dress on the stupa railing (c. 100 BC), often called the Bharhut Yavana, is art; no Yavana community is recorded there.",
   "lat": 24.45,
   "lon": 80.89
  },
  {
   "name": "Ujjain (Ozene)",
   "greek": "Ὀζήνη",
   "modern": "Ujjain",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "An Indian royal city, later capital of the Western Satraps; the Periplus (48) knows it as the inland source of goods for Barygaza. The Yavanajataka (a Greek astrological text put into Sanskrit under the Western Satraps; Pingree dated the translation AD 149/150, Mak argues for a later date) shows Greek learning in their realm, not a Greek community at Ujjain.",
   "lat": 23.1772,
   "lon": 75.7829
  },
  {
   "name": "Barygaza (Bharuch)",
   "greek": "Βαρύγαζα",
   "modern": "Bharuch",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "An Indian port of the Saka kings where Greek-speaking merchants from Roman Egypt traded and where old Indo-Greek drachmas of Apollodotus and Menander still circulated (Periplus 41–49). The merchants were visitors or a small minority (the minority rule). Shown as a presence point.",
   "lat": 21.7008,
   "lon": 72.9831
  },
  {
   "name": "Minnagara in Ariake (Gujarat)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Metropolis of the Saka kingdom inland from Barygaza (Periplus 41). The Periplus's 'traces of Alexander's expedition' in this region (old shrines, camp walls, great wells) is a legend; Alexander never came here.",
   "lat": 22.0608,
   "lon": 73.0758
  },
  {
   "name": "Girnar and Junagadh (Saurashtra)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Junagadh",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Rudradaman's inscription at Junagadh (AD 150) says the Sudarshana lake, built for Chandragupta Maurya by his governor Pushyagupta, was given conduits under Ashoka by the Yavanaraja Tushaspha, an official with an Iranian name. Strabo 11.11.1 says the Indo-Greeks conquered Saraostus (Saurashtra). A governor and a conquest, not a Greek town.",
   "lat": 21.5222,
   "lon": 70.4579
  },
  {
   "name": "Sopara (Souppara)",
   "greek": "Σουππάρα",
   "modern": "Nala Sopara",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "An Indian port of the Konkan with an Ashokan edict and a Buddhist stupa (Ptolemy; Periplus 52 (unchecked)); Roman trade passed through, but no Greek community is attested.",
   "lat": 19.4341,
   "lon": 72.8045
  },
  {
   "name": "Kalyan (Kalliena)",
   "greek": "Καλλίενα",
   "modern": "Kalyan",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "An Indian port; the Periplus (52) says Greek ships that put in here were sent under guard to Barygaza after Sandanes took the town. Merchants passing through, no community.",
   "lat": 19.2728,
   "lon": 73.1392
  },
  {
   "name": "Junnar",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Junnar",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "An Indian town of the Western Satrap and Satavahana age; three Yavana laymen with Indian names gave cisterns, a refectory and a hall front to its cave monasteries (1st, perhaps early 2nd c. AD). A minority in an Indian town (the minority rule). Shown as a presence point.",
   "lat": 19.2089,
   "lon": 73.8835
  },
  {
   "name": "Karla (Karle)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Karla",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Buddhist cave monastery, not a town; its Great Chaitya has six pillars given by Yavanas, five from Dhenukakata. Shown as a presence point.",
   "lat": 18.7834,
   "lon": 73.471
  },
  {
   "name": "Dhenukakata",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A merchants' town near Karla (unlocated; Danahu near Karla and Dhanyakataka on the Krishna have been proposed) that sent five Yavana donors to the Karla Chaitya, more than any other place. Its other donors were Indians and nothing shows that Yavanas were a quarter or more of the town; left out, shown as a presence point at Karla.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Nashik (Nasika)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Nashik",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "An Indian town; Cave 17 was cut by one Yavana family, Indragnidatta son of Dhammadeva, a northerner from Dattamitri, and his son Dhammarakhita (1st–2nd c. AD), writing Prakrit with Indian names. One family in an Indian town. Shown as a presence point.",
   "lat": 19.9932,
   "lon": 73.7777
  },
  {
   "name": "Dattamitri (Demetrias?)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Home town of the Yavana Indragnidatta son of Dhammadeva, 'a northerner from Dattamitri', who cut Cave 17 at Nashik (1st-2nd c. AD). Probably the Demetrias of Arachosia in Isidore of Charax 19, which is entered as a city; counted there, not separately.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Pitalkhora",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Buddhist cave monastery in the Satmala hills; I know of no Yavana donor among its inscriptions (unchecked: not checked). Not a town.",
   "lat": 20.31,
   "lon": 75.1
  },
  {
   "name": "Paithan (Pratishthana)",
   "greek": "Παίθανα",
   "modern": "Paithan",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The Satavahana capital, an inland market of the Periplus (51); no Greek community is attested.",
   "lat": 19.468,
   "lon": 75.3854
  },
  {
   "name": "Goa",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Goa",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "No Greek or Yavana community is attested on the Goa coast in this period.",
   "lat": 15.4,
   "lon": 73.9
  },
  {
   "name": "Nagarjunakonda (Vijayapuri)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The Ikshvaku capital in Andhra; an inscription of the 3rd c. AD (unchecked) lists the Yavana land among the lands converted by Buddhist monks, and some reliefs show foreigners. A list of countries and art, not a Yavana community.",
   "lat": 16.522,
   "lon": 79.2404
  },
  {
   "name": "Muziris (Pattanam)",
   "greek": "Μουζιρίς",
   "modern": "Pattanam",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "An Indian port of the Chera kingdom where Greek-speaking merchants from Roman Egypt traded and some lived (a temple of Augustus is marked there on the Peutinger Table); they were a minority (the minority rule). Shown as a presence point.",
   "lat": 10.154,
   "lon": 76.2131
  },
  {
   "name": "Nelkynda",
   "greek": "Νέλκυνδα",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Pandya port visited by Greek ships from Egypt (Periplus 54–56); an emporium, not a Greek town. Shown as a presence point.",
   "lat": 9.2726,
   "lon": 76.5588
  },
  {
   "name": "Arikamedu (Podouke)",
   "greek": "Ποδούκη",
   "modern": "Ariyankuppam",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Wheeler's 'Indo-Roman trading station' is an Indian port (Begley) where Mediterranean traders came in the late 1st c. BC and 1st c. AD and left pottery and amphorae; no Greek writing by residents is known (unchecked). Shown as a presence point.",
   "lat": 11.9023,
   "lon": 79.8198
  },
  {
   "name": "Kaveripattinam (Puhar)",
   "greek": "Χαβηρὶς ἐμπόριον",
   "modern": "Poompuhar",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "The Chola port; the Silappatikaram describes a Yavana quarter in its harbour district. A foreign quarter in a Tamil city, a minority (the minority rule). Shown as a presence point.",
   "lat": 11.1453,
   "lon": 79.8537
  },
  {
   "name": "Madurai (Modoura)",
   "greek": "Μόδουρα",
   "modern": "Madurai",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The Pandya capital; Tamil poems describe Yavana guards and Yavana-made lamps. Foreign guards in royal service, not a Greek town. Shown as a presence point.",
   "lat": 9.9084,
   "lon": 78.1225
  },
  {
   "name": "Korkai (Kolchoi)",
   "greek": "Κόλχοι",
   "modern": "Korkai",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The Pandya pearl-fishing port (Periplus 59; Ptolemy); no Greek community is attested.",
   "lat": 8.6395,
   "lon": 78.058
  },
  {
   "name": "Alagankulam",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Alagankulam",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Tamil port on the Vaigai with Roman coins, amphorae and a sherd with a drawing of a ship (unchecked): imported goods only, no Greek residents attested.",
   "lat": 9.3589,
   "lon": 78.9794
  },
  {
   "name": "Anuradhapura",
   "greek": "Ἀνουρόγραμμον",
   "modern": "Anuradhapura",
   "country": "Sri Lanka",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The capital of ancient Sri Lanka; the Mahavamsa says king Pandukabhaya set aside a ground for the Yonas near the western gate. A foreign quarter in a Sinhala city, known from a chronicle of c. AD 500 (and Yona may mean westerners in general). Shown as a presence point.",
   "lat": 8.3244,
   "lon": 80.4128
  },
  {
   "name": "Mantai (Mahatittha)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Mantai",
   "country": "Sri Lanka",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The chief harbour of ancient Sri Lanka, visited by western shipping (Kosmas, 6th c.); Roman coins and imports (unchecked). A port, not a Greek town.",
   "lat": 8.9563,
   "lon": 79.9613
  },
  {
   "name": "Tissamaharama",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Tissamaharama",
   "country": "Sri Lanka",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A capital of southern Sri Lanka (Ruhuna); excavations found Roman coins and western imports (unchecked: not checked). Imported goods, no Greek residents attested.",
   "lat": 6.2843,
   "lon": 81.2782
  },
  {
   "name": "Taprobane: the Persian Christians",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Sri Lanka",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Kosmas Indikopleustes (c. AD 550) found a church of Persian Christians on the island, with clergy ordained in Persia: a Persian (Syriac-using) community, not a Greek one. The Roman merchants he describes were visitors. Shown as a presence point.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Chandraketugarh",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Berachampa",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "An early historic city in the lower Ganges delta (perhaps part of Ptolemy's Gangaridai); its seals and pots carry Brahmi and Kharoshthi-Brahmi writing and ships; no Greek writing by residents and no Greek community are attested.",
   "lat": 22.69,
   "lon": 88.69
  },
  {
   "name": "Wari-Bateshwar",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Wari-Bateshwar",
   "country": "Bangladesh",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "An early historic fortified town in Bangladesh with rouletted ware and beads (identified by some with Ptolemy's Sounagoura (unchecked)); no Greek community is attested.",
   "lat": 24.08,
   "lon": 90.83
  },
  {
   "name": "Gange and Tamalites (Tamralipti)",
   "greek": "Γάγγη",
   "modern": "Tamluk",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The Ganges ports of the Periplus (63) and Ptolemy (7.1.73, 81 (unchecked)); markets known to Greek geographers, not Greek towns.",
   "lat": 22.2904,
   "lon": 87.916
  },
  {
   "name": "Lumbini and Kapilavastu (Nepal)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Lumbini",
   "country": "Nepal",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Buddhist sites with Ashoka's Prakrit pillar inscription; no Greek community is attested anywhere in Nepal.",
   "lat": 27.4833,
   "lon": 83.2767
  },
  {
   "name": "Bhutan",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Bhutan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "No Greek presence is attested.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Maldives",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Maldives",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "No Greek community is attested; stray Roman coins are reported (unchecked), but they show trade, not residents.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "The Yonas of Ashoka's edicts",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Rock Edicts V and XIII name the Yonas, with the Kambojas and Gandharas, among the peoples within Ashoka's realm, a frontier people of the north-west; the Greek and Aramaic edicts of Kandahar show where at least some of them lived. They were not in India beyond the Punjab and are treated with the north-western cities.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Reh (Fatehpur district)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Reh",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Brahmi inscription on a linga at Reh on the Yamuna was read by G. R. Sharma (1980) as naming the Indo-Greek king Menander as great king; Mukherjee, Salomon, Gupta and others reject the reading. Even if right it would show a ruler, not a Greek community.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Calcutta (Kolkata), 18th–20th c.",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Kolkata",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Greek merchant community with its own church (1780) and school, some 120 families c. 1800, in a city of hundreds of thousands: a small minority, never a quarter of the town. Shown as a presence point (window B).",
   "lat": 22.5726,
   "lon": 88.3639
  },
  {
   "name": "Dhaka, 18th–20th c.",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Dhaka",
   "country": "Bangladesh",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "About two hundred or more Greek merchants c. 1770–1800 and a church (1812) in a large Bengali city: a small minority. Shown as a presence point (window B).",
   "lat": 23.7337,
   "lon": 90.3966
  },
  {
   "name": "Benares (Varanasi)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "Varanasi",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Demetrios Galanos, the Greek Sanskrit scholar from Athens, lived here from 1792 until his death in 1833: one man, not a community.",
   "lat": 25.3176,
   "lon": 82.9739
  },
  {
   "name": "Alexandria Oxiana",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Ptolemy (6.12.6) lists an Alexandria on the Oxus in Sogdiana. Not counted separately: its candidate sites, Ai Khanoum and Kampyr Tepe, are both entered as cities, and Termez was a fort; counting the name as well would very probably count one city twice.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Orobatis (Aristobathra?)",
   "greek": "Ὠροβάτις",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A town on the road from the Kabul river to the Indus which Hephaestion and Perdiccas fortified for Alexander on their way to bridge the Indus, 327/326 BC (Arrian 4.28.5), leaving a garrison (unchecked); placed by the Barrington Atlas with Aristobathra (Pleiades 59703). A fortified post, not a Greek town; nothing later is known of it.",
   "lat": 33.9168,
   "lon": 72.4864
  },
  {
   "name": "Andaka",
   "greek": "Ἄνδακα",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan or Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A town of the Kunar-Bajaur country that came to terms with Alexander, 327 BC; he left Craterus there to subdue the towns that held out (Arrian 4.23.5 (unchecked)). Unlocated (Pleiades 60415); a native town, no Greek settlers recorded.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Alexandropolis in India (Appian)",
   "greek": "Ἀλεξανδρόπολις",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan or Pakistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Appian (Syrian Wars 57) lists, among the cities Seleucus I named after Alexander, an Alexandropolis 'among the Indians'. It is unlocated (Pleiades 60411) and is usually taken to be one of the known foundations rather than a separate city: Isidore's Alexandropolis, metropolis of Arachosia (Kandahar), or Rhambakia among the Oreitai, which Pleiades also calls Alexandropolis. Counted under those cities.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Kashmir (Kaspeiria; Srinagar)",
   "greek": "Κασπειρία",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Ptolemy's Kaspeiria and the Kaspeiraioi (7.1.42, 47 (unchecked)), the valley of Kashmir (Pleiades 59869 at Srinagar). No Indo-Greek rule, Greek inscription or Greek community is attested in the valley; Greek and Indo-Greek coins, Gandhara-style terracottas (Harwan, Semthan (unchecked)) and the Han histories' Jibin (whose king Yinmofu, son of the king of Rongqu, is sometimes linked with a Greek ruler, Han shu 96 (unchecked); Jibin is more often placed in Gandhara or Kapisa) are not evidence of Greek speakers. Part of the Kashmir region, administered by India and claimed by Pakistan.",
   "lat": 34.0908,
   "lon": 74.8247
  },
  {
   "name": "Gilgit (Gilgit-Baltistan)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Seat of the Palola Shahi kings (6th-8th c. AD), known for the Buddhist Sanskrit Gilgit manuscripts and the Kargah rock Buddha; its inscriptions are in Brahmi and Sanskrit, and no Greek settlement, writing or community is known. The local Alexander descent stories belong with Hunza (legend). Part of the Kashmir region, administered by Pakistan and claimed by India.",
   "lat": 35.92,
   "lon": 74.31
  },
  {
   "name": "Nuristan (Kafiristan)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The mountain valleys north of Jalalabad, whose people (the 'Kafirs' until their forced conversion in 1895-96) were said by 19th-century travellers to descend from Alexander's soldiers; it is also one of the regions proposed for Nysa. A legend: no ancient Greek settlement or writing is known there, and genetic studies of the related Kalash do not support Greek descent.",
   "lat": 35.3,
   "lon": 70.9
  },
  {
   "name": "Khwarazm (Chorasmia): Kath, Khiva, Kunya-Urgench, Akchakhan-kala",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan or Turkmenistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The oasis of the lower Amu Darya was never part of the Greek kingdoms: its king Pharasmanes came to Alexander as an ally (Arrian 4.15.4). Its ancient capitals (Kath, the old capital near Biruni; Akchakhan-kala with its painted palace and Chorasmian inscriptions; later Kunya-Urgench and Khiva) wrote Chorasmian in an Aramaic-derived script; no Greek community. The point is at Khiva.",
   "lat": 41.38,
   "lon": 60.36
  },
  {
   "name": "Ptolemy's other towns of the Paropamisadae (Naulibis, Niphanda, Drastoka, Parsiana, Barzaura, Lokharna and others)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Names in Ptolemy's list of the Paropanisadai (6.18.3-4 (unchecked)) beside Kapisa, Ortospana and Gazaka; unlocated or doubtfully located native towns with no record of Greek settlers. (Kapisa, Kabul/Ortospana and Ghazni/Gazaka are entered separately.)",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Alexandria in Opiane (Stephanus of Byzantium)",
   "greek": "Ἀλεξάνδρεια ἡ ἐν τῇ Ὀπιανῇ",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Stephanus' Alexandria in Opiane 'near India' (Pleiades 60408, unlocated) is generally taken to be Alexandria in the Caucasus, the district Opiane being the plain of Kapisa (Opian near Charikar keeps the name); counted once, under Alexandria in the Caucasus.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Jiga Tepe (Dilberjin oasis)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A small mound about 7 km east of Dilberjin, north-west of Balkh, with Hellenistic, Kushan and early Sasanian material (Pleiades 961918), where the Soviet-Afghan excavations found a terracotta plaque with six lines of Greek elegiac verse, probably part of a funerary epigram (Kruglikova 1977, pp. 425-26; Encyclopaedia Iranica, 'Epigraphy ii'). A Greek verse epitaph shows a Greek-writing resident of the Dilberjin oasis, but the find-spot is not a town and the neighbouring walled town of Dilberjin has no Greek writing of its own; shown as a presence point. If the plaque is shown to come from Dilberjin itself, Dilberjin reaches rung 3.",
   "lat": 37.0273,
   "lon": 66.6044
  },
  {
   "name": "Kara-Kamar caves (Surkhandarya)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Caves in the Baysun-Darband hills of northern Bactria, near the Uzundara fortress, with short rock inscriptions published by Ustinova (1990) as Greek and Latin, beside Bactrian and Brahmi graffiti of Buddhist monks (unchecked). Graffiti of passers-by or monks in caves, not a town; any Latin reading (and stories of Roman soldiers from Carrhae) is doubtful. The point is approximate.",
   "lat": 38.15,
   "lon": 67.0
  },
  {
   "name": "Garav-kala (Javan valley)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Tajikistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A site of southern Tajikistan (northern Bactria; Barrington Atlas 'Garav kala', Pleiades 971757), cited with Javan for fragmentary Greek graffiti on storage jars (Rapin 1983, no. 5; Schmitt, no. 44; Encyclopaedia Iranica, 'Epigraphy ii'). Jar marks of an estate or of the Graeco-Bactrian administration; the site is little known (unchecked: its nature), and fragments like these do not show a Greek town.",
   "lat": 38.5059,
   "lon": 68.7129
  },
  {
   "name": "The Stone Tower (Lithinos Pyrgos)",
   "greek": "Λίθινος Πύργος",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "China",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The halting place on the silk road where, according to Ptolemy (1.11-12, 6.13.2 (unchecked: sections)) after Marinus, the agents of the Macedonian merchant Maes Titianos met traders bound for the Seres; Pleiades (59897) places it at Tashkurgan in Xinjiang, others in the Alay valley of Kyrgyzstan (Daraut-Kurgan). A road station visited by Greek-speaking agents, not a Greek town. The point is at Tashkurgan.",
   "lat": 37.7746,
   "lon": 75.2293
  },
  {
   "name": "Badakhshan (kings descended from Alexander)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan or Tajikistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Marco Polo (late 13th c.) reports that the kings of Badakhshan claimed descent from Alexander and the daughter of Darius, and that their horses came from Bucephalus; similar claims were made by the mirs of Badakhshan, Wakhan, Shughnan and Darvaz until the 19th century. A legend: no Greek settlement or writing is known in Badakhshan (the Ai Khanoum region lies to its west). The point is at Faizabad.",
   "lat": 37.12,
   "lon": 70.58
  },
  {
   "name": "Miran (Lop Nor, Xinjiang)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "China",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Buddhist shrines of the kingdom of Shanshan (2nd-4th c. AD) whose wall paintings of winged figures and a garland frieze are in a Graeco-Roman style; a Kharoshthi inscription names the painter Tita, often read as Titus. A painter with a western name and Gandharan-Roman art, not a Greek community; the documents of the region are in Gandhari and Chinese.",
   "lat": 39.22,
   "lon": 88.97
  },
  {
   "name": "Lenger",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "A coal-mining town in the hills south-east of Shymkent (city status 1945 (unchecked)) which employed special settlers. The 1949 allocation of the Greek deportees to South Kazakhstan names the Arys, Ilyich, Keles, Kyzylkum, Kirov and Pakhtaaral districts and the Mirgalimsai mine (Koigeldiev), not Lenger; no figure shows Greeks as a quarter of the town, and any Greeks there are part of the scattered minority of the region (presence point). Not established.",
   "lat": 42.18,
   "lon": 69.88
  },
  {
   "name": "Achisai and Baizhansai (Karatau mines)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Mining settlements of the Kentau lead-zinc combine in the Karatau hills (Achisai near Kentau (unchecked); Baizhansai a lead mine further south-east (unchecked)). The figure of over 15,000 deported Greeks in 1951 is given for Kentau and Achisai together (Koigeldiev), so their Greeks are counted with Kentau; no separate figures for either settlement were found, and both were mine villages rather than towns.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Karatau (Zhambyl region)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A phosphorite-mining town of the Zhambyl region (the Chulaktau mine; town from 1963 (unchecked)). Greeks deported in 1949 to the Dzhambul region (6,000 families planned) were settled mostly on collective farms; no figure shows a Greek share of a quarter in Karatau. Not established; the Greeks of the region are a presence point.",
   "lat": 43.18,
   "lon": 70.47
  },
  {
   "name": "Chirchik",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "An industrial town north-east of Tashkent where two of the fourteen settlements of the Greek political refugees of 1949 were built (twelve were in Tashkent). The refugees of two settlements were a minority in a town of some 65,000 in 1959 (unchecked: population); counted with the Tashkent refugees as a presence point.",
   "lat": 41.47,
   "lon": 69.58
  },
  {
   "name": "Bombay (Mumbai) and Karachi, 19th-20th c.",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "India and Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Branches of Greek merchant houses, above all Ralli Brothers (Bombay and Karachi in the later 19th c. (unchecked)), employed some Greek clerks and partners; a few families at most in very large cities, with no church or school of their own known (unchecked). Not a community of the size of Calcutta's; the point is at Bombay.",
   "lat": 18.94,
   "lon": 72.84
  },
  {
   "name": "Udayagiri and the Hathigumpha inscription (Odisha)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "India",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Kharavela's Prakrit inscription in the Hathigumpha cave (1st c. BC (unchecked)) says that a Yavana king withdrew to Mathura on hearing of Kharavela's campaign; the king's name was once read Dimita (Demetrius), a reading now generally doubted (unchecked). A royal text about a Yavana army far to the north-west; no Greek community lived in Kalinga.",
   "lat": 20.263,
   "lon": 85.785
  },
  {
   "name": "Ptolemy's other towns of Margiana (Nisaia, Iasonion, Guriana and others)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Turkmenistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Names in Ptolemy's list of Margiana (6.10.4 (unchecked: list not checked)) beside Antioch; unlocated native towns with no record of Greek settlers or writing. (Antioch in Margiana is entered as a city.)",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "The other cities near Alexandria in the Caucasus (Diodorus 17.83.2)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Diodorus says that Alexander, after founding Alexandria at the foot of the Caucasus, founded other cities a day's journey from it (unchecked: wording); they are unnamed and unlocated. Like the unnamed foundations in Bactria and Sogdiana, they count only where a named city can be matched to them (Nicaea in the Paropamisadae is entered as a city).",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Nurata (Nur): Alexander's fortress",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A town at the edge of the Kyzylkum north-east of Bukhara whose ruined citadel local tradition calls the fortress of Alexander the Great (unchecked). A legend: no ancient text names a foundation here and no Greek writing or settlers are known.",
   "lat": 40.56,
   "lon": 65.69
  },
  {
   "name": "Takht-i-Bahi (Mardan)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A Buddhist hilltop monastery of Gandhara (1st-7th c. AD) whose Kharoshthi inscription is dated in the 26th year of the Indo-Parthian king Gondophares (year 103 of an era) (unchecked). A monastery with Gandharan art and Gandhari writing; no Greek community.",
   "lat": 34.286,
   "lon": 71.946
  },
  {
   "name": "Mir Zakah (Paktia)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A sacred well or spring deposit that yielded the largest coin hoards known from the region (found 1947 and in the early 1990s), with many Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek coins (unchecked). Coins, and a village site: not evidence of Greek residents.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Arbis (Pliny 6.97)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Pliny (6.97) names a town Arbis 'founded by Nearchus during his voyage' on the coast of the Arbies. Pleiades and the Barrington Atlas identify it with Rhambakia, Alexander's foundation among the Oreitai, so it is counted there, not twice.",
   "lat": 25.0,
   "lon": 66.75
  },
  {
   "name": "Dushanbe (Stalinabad)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Tajikistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Tajikistan's capital grew from a village with a Monday market (Persian dushanbe) after it became the capital of the Tajik republic in the 1920s (unchecked); it was called Stalinabad from 1929 to 1961. The Hisor valley around it was part of northern Bactria, and the Barrington Atlas marks ancient sites nearby (Garav-kala, Kampyr-kala, Khisor), but no Greek inscription, document or foundation is recorded at Dushanbe or in the valley (unchecked: excavation reports not checked). In Soviet times the Tajik SSR had a small Greek minority (590 Greeks in the 1989 census, Demoscope), far below a quarter of any town.",
   "lat": 38.5598,
   "lon": 68.787
  },
  {
   "name": "Mazar-i Sharif",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A medieval and modern town that grew around the shrine held to be the tomb of Ali, rebuilt in the late 15th century under the Timurids (unchecked); it replaced Balkh as the chief town of the oasis in the 19th century (unchecked). The Greek city of the oasis is Bactra, at Balkh about 20 km to the west, entered as a city; no Greek finds are recorded at Mazar-i Sharif itself.",
   "lat": 36.709,
   "lon": 67.11
  },
  {
   "name": "Hyderabad (Sindh)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The present city was founded by the Kalhora ruler Ghulam Shah in 1768 (unchecked). Hyderabad is one of the proposed sites of Patala at the head of the Indus delta (others are Thatta and Brahmanabad), where Hephaestion built a citadel, harbour and docks in 325 BC (Arrian 6.18.1, 6.20.1). Both the native city of Patala (left out) and the harbour town that Pliny calls Xylinepolis (entered as a city) are unlocated, and nothing Greek has been found at Hyderabad.",
   "lat": 25.396,
   "lon": 68.377
  },
  {
   "name": "Pazyryk kurgans (Altai Republic)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Russia",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Frozen burials of the Pazyryk culture in the Ulagan district of the Altai, excavated by Mikhail Gryaznov (barrow 1, 1929) and Sergei Rudenko (barrows 2-5, 1947-49), now dated to the 4th-3rd c. BC (Rudenko had first put them in the 5th). They preserved the oldest known knotted pile carpet, textiles of Achaemenid style and Chinese silk (unchecked: carpet and textiles as remembered), and bearded masks that en.wikipedia (after the literature) calls of Greek origin, inspired by the Greek kingdom of the Cimmerian Bosporus. These are goods and motifs that travelled across the steppe; no Greek lived in the Altai, and no Greek writing is known from these tombs.",
   "lat": 50.7464,
   "lon": 88.0725
  },
  {
   "name": "Arzhan kurgans (Tuva)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Russia",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Royal burial mounds of the early Scythian period (Arzhan 1, 9th-8th c. BC; Arzhan 2, 7th c. BC, with thousands of gold objects (unchecked); Pleiades 29276714 and 809343802). They are older than any Greek contact with inner Asia; their gold is steppe animal art, not Greek work.",
   "lat": 52.096,
   "lon": 93.7112
  },
  {
   "name": "The Siberian Collection of Peter the Great",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Russia",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Gold plaques and ornaments of the 7th-2nd c. BC (unchecked) dug from burial mounds of western Siberia and the southern Urals by treasure hunters and sent to Peter I in 1715-16 (now in the Hermitage) (unchecked). Steppe animal art with Achaemenid and Central Asian features (unchecked); finds of this kind show trade and art, not a Greek community, and no Greek settlement is known east of the Urals.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Noin-Ula (Noyon Uul) Xiongnu tombs",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Mongolia",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Xiongnu elite tombs in the hills north of Ulaanbaatar (Batsumber district, Tov province), found in 1913 and excavated by Pyotr Kozlov in 1924-25, and again by a Russian-Mongolian team from 2006 (Natalia Polosmak). Chinese lacquer cups are dated 9-2 BC, and one tomb has been taken for that of the chanyu Wuzhuliu (died AD 13). Woollen hangings embroidered with faces and figures in a style that is not Chinese are thought to have been made in Bactria under the Yuezhi (Yatsenko) or by a Bactrian or Parthian craftsman; some fabrics and a horse ornament made from a Hellenistic cup medallion are recognized as Greek work (en.wikipedia, after the excavators). They show that goods from the former Greek lands reached the Xiongnu; no Greek community or Greek writing is known in Mongolia. The point is approximate.",
   "lat": 48.6,
   "lon": 106.9
  },
  {
   "name": "The Xiongnu (Mongolia and Transbaikalia): Ivolga, Gol Mod",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Mongolia and Russia",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The steppe empire of the Xiongnu (from c. 209 BC) had a few walled settlements, such as Ivolga near Ulan-Ude in Buryatia (unchecked), and elite cemeteries (Noin-Ula, Gol Mod, Tsaram) with goods from the west, reportedly including Roman glass at Gol Mod (unchecked). The Xiongnu drove the Yuezhi west from Gansu (Shiji 123), and the Yuezhi later took Bactria from its last Greek kings, but no source records Greek subjects, settlers or captives among the Xiongnu. The point is at Ivolga (approximate).",
   "lat": 51.75,
   "lon": 107.3
  },
  {
   "name": "Karakorum (Mongol capital)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Mongolia",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The Mongol capital from 1235. William of Rubruck, there in 1254, describes foreign residents: the French silversmith Guillaume Boucher, a woman from Lorraine, the nephew of an English bishop and Nestorian clergy; on his journey he also met envoys of the Greek emperor at Nicaea (en.wikipedia, after Rubruck's account). Envoys and a few craftsmen are not a community, and no settled Greek community is recorded at Karakorum. Not a Greek or bilingual town.",
   "lat": 47.2,
   "lon": 102.8
  },
  {
   "name": "Nerchinsk silver works (Transbaikalia)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Russia",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "The silver works of Nerchinsk in Transbaikalia, from about 1700. Greek mining masters from the Ottoman lands are said to have been among the men who smelted its first silver around 1700-1704 (unchecked). At most a few specialists in the tsar's service, not a Greek community or town.",
   "lat": 51.31,
   "lon": 119.61
  },
  {
   "name": "Greek prisoners in the camps of Siberia, the Far East and Karaganda (1937-1950s)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Russia and Kazakhstan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "In the NKVD's Greek operation (from December 1937 (unchecked)) more than 20,000 Greeks of the Soviet Union were arrested (figure in Zerkalo Nedeli, Kyiv) and many were shot; those sentenced to camps were sent to the camp systems of the north, Siberia, the Far East and Kazakhstan (unchecked). Prisoners in camps are not a community living in a town, and no camp became a Greek settlement. The deported communities of 1944 and 1949 are shown as presence points.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Asian Russia: no Greek-majority town",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Russia",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "No town of the Urals east of the Ural river, Siberia, the Altai or the Russian Far East is known to have had a Greek majority or a quarter of Greeks at any time. The Greeks deported there in 1942 (to Krasnoyarsk Krai) and 1944 (the Crimean Greeks, to Sverdlovsk and Kemerovo oblasts) were spread over special settlements beside other deportees and local people, and no town-level figures were found; they are shown as presence points. Greeks who came later to the oil and gas towns of western Siberia as workers (unchecked) were scattered minorities.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Demetrias in Sogdiana",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan or Tajikistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Cohen (2013) has an entry 'Demetrias in Sogdiana' in his chapter on Aria, Sogdiana, Bactria and Arachosia (listed in the publisher's table of contents); its ancient basis was not read here. Tarn proposed that the Greek Termez was a Demetrias (unchecked), which rests on no ancient text. Left out for now; if Cohen's entry rests on an ancient text naming a Demetrias in Sogdiana, a king's dynastic name in a text would admit it as an uncertain city under the rule for text-only foundations. To be checked.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Rhoitia in Bactria and Thera in Sogdiana",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan or Uzbekistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Cohen (2013) has entries for a Rhoitia in Bactria and a Thera in Sogdiana (listed in the publisher's table of contents), names of Greek cities of the Troad and the Aegean carried east; their ancient basis was not read here (probably a name in Stephanus of Byzantium or Ptolemy (unchecked)). A Greek place name alone does not show a Greek town (rung 4), so both are left out; if either source is a foundation notice the rule for text-only foundations would admit it. To be checked.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Alexandria in Sogdiana and Alexandria by Porus (lists of Alexandrias)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan or Tajikistan; Pakistan",
   "close_call": true,
   "reason": "Cohen (2013) has entries for an Alexandria in Sogdiana and an Alexandria by Porus, names from the ancient lists of Alexandrias (unchecked: their sources not read). Neither is counted separately: an Alexandria in Sogdiana is most likely Alexandria Eschate or Alexandria Oxiana (both in the set, the latter under Kampyr Tepe and Ai Khanoum), and an Alexandria by Porus one of the two towns Alexander founded at the Hydaspes after his victory over Porus, Bucephala and Nicaea (both entered as cities). Counting the names as well would very probably count the same towns twice.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Greek-named places in Ptolemy's India (Byzantion, Pentapolis, Xoana, Pantipolis, Salagissa, Asterousia, Iomousa, Leuke)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "India, Bangladesh, Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Cohen (2013) lists these Greek or Greek-looking names in his India chapter (publisher's table of contents). Most come from Ptolemy's lists of Indian towns (unchecked): Byzantion on the Konkan coast, placed by the Barrington Atlas near Vijaydurg in Maharashtra (Pleiades 49929, with a query); Pentapolis on the coast of the Bay of Bengal near Chittagong (Pleiades 59990); Xoana unlocated (Pleiades 60714); the others not looked up. Greek geographers often gave or garbled names; a Greek name alone, without a foundation notice, Greek writing or Greek residents, does not show a Greek town (rung 4).",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Daidala (the Aspasian country)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan or Pakistan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "A place or district of the hill country between the Kunar and Swat that Alexander's army found deserted by its people, 327 BC (Curtius 8.10.19; Justin 12.7.9 has the 'Daedalian mountains') (unchecked: references not checked). Cohen (2013) has an entry for it. A native place, no Greek settlement.",
   "lat": null,
   "lon": null
  },
  {
   "name": "Almaty (Alma-Ata, Verny)",
   "greek": "",
   "modern": "",
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "close_call": false,
   "reason": "Founded as the Russian fort of Verny in 1854 (Alma-Ata from 1921) (unchecked). In antiquity the Semirechye was the land of the Saka and later the Wusun, beyond any Greek kingdom, and no Greek finds are known. The Greeks deported to the Alma-Ata region from 1942 and 1949, and the later Greek community of the city, were a small minority (shown as a presence point).",
   "lat": 43.238,
   "lon": 76.946
  }
 ],
 "presence_points": [
  {
   "place": "Barca in Bactria",
   "greek": "Βάρκη",
   "other_names": "the village of the Barcaeans",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "admin1": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 36.9,
   "lon": 67.0,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "deportee settlement",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "Greeks of Barca in Libya, taken by the Persian army c. 510 BC and settled by Darius in a village in Bactria",
   "evidence": "Herodotus 4.204 (the village named Barca, still inhabited in his time).",
   "from": -510,
   "until": -430,
   "until_text": "Still inhabited in Herodotus' day, c. 430 BC (Hdt. 4.204); nothing later is known.",
   "fate": "Unknown; no later source mentions it.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "A",
   "sources": [
    "Herodotus 4.200-204"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Takht-i Sangin (Temple of the Oxus)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Tajikistan",
   "admin1": "Khatlon",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 37.0987,
   "lon": 68.2851,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "garrison town",
   "language": "mixed",
   "origin": "Fortified sanctuary of the Oxus with its temple staff and worshippers; several dedicants had Iranian names but wrote in Greek",
   "evidence": "Greek dedications to Oxus: the altar of Atrosokes (Iranian name), probably first half of the 2nd c. BC (Iranica; mid-2nd c. in Iranica, Epigraphy ii); inscriptions naming Oxus on a stone basin; the mould of Iromios son of Nemiskos (with a Bactrian title); Greek masons' marks on two platforms of the late 3rd or early 2nd c. BC (Pichikyan); thousands of votive weapons.",
   "from": -280,
   "until": 100,
   "until_text": "Greek dedications from the early Hellenistic period to the first half of the 2nd c. BC (Atrosokes' altar); a mould naming Iromois son of Nemiskos is dated by Balakhvantsev to the second half of the 1st c. AD; the sanctuary was used until the early 3rd c. AD.",
   "fate": "The temple declined after the Kushan period; nothing Greek is known after the 1st c. AD.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "A",
   "sources": [
    "https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/takht-i-sangin",
    "Litvinsky and Pichikyan, The Temple of the Oxus (2000-2001) (unchecked)",
    "https://oskar-bordeaux.fr/handle/20.500.12278/83262"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Kulob area (Heliodotos' altar to Hestia)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Tajikistan",
   "admin1": "Khatlon",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 37.9146,
   "lon": 69.7845,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "Greek resident of eastern Bactria, loyal to the Euthydemid kings",
   "evidence": "Greek verse dedication by Heliodotos of an altar to Hestia in a grove of Zeus, for Euthydemus 'greatest of kings' and his son Demetrius 'Kallinikos' (Bernard, Pinault and Rougemont, Journal des Savants 2004).",
   "from": -200,
   "until": -190,
   "until_text": "A single dedication of c. 200-190 BC (Hollis: c. 195 BC); find-spot reported as near Kulob, the block now in a private collection.",
   "fate": "Unknown.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "A",
   "sources": [
    "Bernard, Pinault and Rougemont, 'Deux nouvelles inscriptions grecques de l'Asie centrale', Journal des Savants 2004, 227-356",
    "https://vestnik.spbgik.ru:443/vestnic_jurnal/2020-4/4_20-2-193-78-84.pdf"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Old Termez (Greek fortress on the citadel)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "admin1": "Surkhandarya",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 37.2643,
   "lon": 67.1925,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "garrison town",
   "language": "unknown",
   "origin": "Graeco-Bactrian garrison guarding the Oxus crossing",
   "evidence": "A phrourion on the citadel with Graeco-Bactrian pottery on virgin soil and coins of Euthydemus and Heliocles (French-Uzbek excavations).",
   "from": -280,
   "until": -140,
   "until_text": "Greek presence ends c. 140 BC with the nomad conquest (Leriche).",
   "fate": "The town grew under the Yuezhi and Kushans as Tarmita.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://ejournals.eu/en/journal/electrum/article/la-decouverte-de-lancienne-termez-metropole-de-la-bactriane-du-nord",
    "Leriche and Pidaev, Termez sur Oxus (2008)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Aornos (garrison of Archelaus)",
   "greek": "Ἄορνος",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "admin1": "Samangan",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 36.6833,
   "lon": 67.6833,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "garrison town",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "Alexander's garrison under Archelaus son of Theodorus",
   "evidence": "Arrian 3.29.1.",
   "from": -329,
   "until": -325,
   "until_text": "Garrison left by Alexander in 329 BC (Arrian 3.29.1); the Greek settlers of Bactria rose and many left in 325 and 323 BC (Curtius 9.7; Diodorus 17.99; 18.7).",
   "fate": "Unknown.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 3.29.1"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Kurganzol fortress",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "admin1": "Surxondaryo Region",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 38.2,
   "lon": 67.2,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "garrison town",
   "language": "mixed",
   "origin": "Greek troops of Alexander with local auxiliaries",
   "evidence": "Fortress in the Baysun basin, about 1 km south-west of Baysun station, found by L. M. Sverchkov in 2003 and excavated 2004-2008 with N. Boroffka: timber felled in 329/328 BC, Greek-style wheel-made pottery (kraters, fish plates), a fired clay bathtub, local hand-made pottery; read as a mixed garrison of Greeks and locals, probably one of the forts of Curtius 7.10.13-16.",
   "from": -328,
   "until": -290,
   "until_text": "Abandoned at the beginning of the 3rd c. BC, after an attack and a rebuilding of one wall.",
   "fate": "Abandoned",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Sverchkov and Boroffka, The Past: https://the-past.com/feature/the-fortress-of-kurganzol-on-the-trail-of-alexander-the-great-in-central-asia/"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Uzundara fortress",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "admin1": "Surxondaryo Region",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 38.2,
   "lon": 67.0,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "garrison town",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "Seleucid and Graeco-Bactrian garrison (Macedonians and Greeks)",
   "evidence": "Russian-Uzbek excavations (Dvurechenskaya): a Seleucid phrourion of the first quarter of the 3rd c. BC on Mount Susiztag, between the Kara-Kamar and Uzundara gorges, about 7 km south of the Darband wall; coins from Alexander-type issues and Antiochus I-II to the Graeco-Bactrian kings; Greek votive graffiti: a dedication to Demeter on a louterion, a jug with ΖΗΝΑ (perhaps from a hymn to Zeus), a jug with the letters σρω (Dvurechenskaya and Shelov-Kovedyaev, Vostok 2021.5, 250-258).",
   "from": -290,
   "until": -150,
   "until_text": "Destroyed in a nomad assault under Eucratides I and abandoned in the 2nd c. BC.",
   "fate": "Destroyed in a nomad assault",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "A",
   "sources": [
    "Dvurechenskaya and Shelov-Kovedyaev, Vostok (Oriens) 2021.5: https://publications.hse.ru/pubs/share/direct/793705357.pdf",
    "HeritageDaily 2021: https://www.heritagedaily.com/2021/09/archaeologists-excavate-the-bactrian-fortress-of-uzundara/141324"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Greek political refugees in Tashkent",
   "greek": "Τασκένδη",
   "other_names": "the Greek towns (gorodki) of Tashkent",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "admin1": "Tashkent",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.31,
   "lon": 69.25,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "refugee quarter",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "Fighters and families of the Democratic Army of Greece, after the civil war",
   "evidence": "About 11,000-12,000 refugees reached Tashkent by the end of 1949, housed in fourteen Greek quarters ('politeies', in former prisoner-of-war barracks), twelve in Tashkent and two in Chirchik, each with a school teaching Greek and Russian; Greek newspapers; about 35,000 by the late 1960s, with Pontic Greeks among them.",
   "from": 1949,
   "until": 1990,
   "until_text": "Most returned to Greece from the 1970s and especially after 1982, when Greece allowed the return of the civil-war refugees; a small community remains.",
   "fate": "Repatriation to Greece",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1949,
     "figure": 12000,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "Neos Kosmos 2026 (Wikipedia: about 11,000)"
    },
    {
     "year": 1968,
     "figure": 35000,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "Neos Kosmos 2026 (late 1960s)"
    },
    {
     "year": 1959,
     "figure": 20047,
     "basis": "census by nationality",
     "source": "Soviet census, Uzbek SSR (all Greeks)"
    },
    {
     "year": 1989,
     "figure": 10453,
     "basis": "census by nationality",
     "source": "Soviet census, Uzbek SSR (all Greeks)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Uzbekistan",
    "https://neoskosmos.com/en/2026/01/12/features/the-greek-miracle-in-tashkent-an-exhibition-on-the-resilience-of-hellenism-in-central-asia/",
    "Lampropoulos, York University MA thesis (2014): https://yorkspace.library.yorku.ca/items/67021349-fae6-488a-b8e9-a4a21d2e4cbb"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Greek deportees of South Kazakhstan (Shymkent and the farm districts)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Chimkent",
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "admin1": "Turkistan Region / Shymkent",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 42.32,
   "lon": 69.59,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "deportee settlement",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greeks deported from Georgia and the Black Sea coast in 1949",
   "evidence": "MVD memorandum of 5 August 1949: 8,911 families, 37,108 Greeks deported to Kazakhstan; 5,512 families (24,882 people) to South Kazakhstan, spread over the Arys (1,554), Ilyich (6,550), Keles (1,494), Kyzylkum (1,870), Kirov (4,714) and Pakhtaaral (3,624) districts and the Mirgalimsai mine (5,076) (note of 17 June 1949), on more than seventy farms.",
   "from": 1949,
   "until": 1995,
   "until_text": "Freed from the special-settlement regime in 1956; many left for Greece after 1989.",
   "fate": "Emigration to Greece",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1949,
     "figure": 24882,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "Koigeldiev (MVD figures)"
    },
    {
     "year": 1950,
     "figure": 44000,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "Koigeldiev (all Greeks in Kazakhstan)"
    },
    {
     "year": 1959,
     "figure": 55543,
     "basis": "census by nationality",
     "source": "Soviet census, Kazakh SSR (all Greeks)"
    },
    {
     "year": 1989,
     "figure": 46746,
     "basis": "census by nationality",
     "source": "Soviet census, Kazakh SSR (all Greeks)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://kaznpu.kz/docs/koigeldiyev/20.pdf",
    "https://deportation.org.ua/deportations-of-pontian-greeks-in-1949/",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Kazakhstan"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Greeks of Kyrgyzstan (Nookat and Osh region, Talas, Frunze)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Bishkek (Frunze)",
   "country": "Kyrgyzstan",
   "admin1": "Osh Region",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 40.27,
   "lon": 72.62,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "deportee settlement",
   "language": "mixed",
   "origin": "Greeks deported in the 1940s, some moving on from Siberia after the war",
   "evidence": "Settlements concentrated in Osh province (especially Nookat) and Talas; about 3,000 in the early 1990s (estimate). About 100-150 Greek families were sent to Kyrgyzstan in the deportation of 1942 (deportation.org.ua). Wikipedia's figure of 31,000 families sent to Bishkek in 1944-1949 is not credible and is not used.",
   "from": 1942,
   "until": 1995,
   "until_text": "Numbers fell from 1985 through labour migration; some 860 settled in Greece in the 1990s; 451 counted in 2009.",
   "fate": "Emigration and dispersal",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1992,
     "figure": 3000,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "Wikipedia, Greeks in Kyrgyzstan"
    },
    {
     "year": 2009,
     "figure": 451,
     "basis": "census by nationality",
     "source": "Kyrgyz census 2009, via Wikipedia"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Kyrgyzstan"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Greek deportees of the Dzhambul region",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Zhambyl; Taraz",
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "admin1": "Jambyl Region",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 42.9,
   "lon": 71.37,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "deportee settlement",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "Pontic Greeks deported in 1949",
   "evidence": "1949 deportation plan: 6,000 families (21,600 people) to the Dzhambul region.",
   "from": 1949,
   "until": 1995,
   "until_text": "Freed in 1956; emigration to Greece after 1989.",
   "fate": "Emigration to Greece",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1949,
     "figure": 21600,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "deportation.org.ua (planned figure)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://deportation.org.ua/deportations-of-pontian-greeks-in-1949/"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Greek deportees of the Alma-Ata region",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Almaty",
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "admin1": "Almaty Region",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 43.24,
   "lon": 76.89,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "deportee settlement",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "Greeks deported in 1949 from the Odesa and Izmail regions",
   "evidence": "Settled on collective farms of the Alma-Ata region (deportation.org.ua).",
   "from": 1949,
   "until": 1995,
   "until_text": "Freed in 1956; emigration to Greece after 1989.",
   "fate": "Emigration to Greece",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://deportation.org.ua/deportations-of-pontian-greeks-in-1949/"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Swat: the meridarch Theodoros",
   "greek": "Θεόδωρος μεριδάρχης",
   "other_names": "Theudora meridarkha (Gandhari)",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "admin1": "Khyber Pakhtunkhwa",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 34.77,
   "lon": 72.36,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "Buddhist donors",
   "language": "Prakrit with Greek identity",
   "origin": "Indo-Greek official (district governor) with a Greek name and title",
   "evidence": "Relic vase from Swat with the Kharoshthi text 'Theudorena meridarkhena pratithavida ime sarira sakamunisa bhagavato bahujanastitiye' (CKI 32, Lahore Museum).",
   "from": -100,
   "until": -50,
   "until_text": "A single dedication of the 1st c. BC, late in the Indo-Greek period in Gandhara.",
   "fate": "Unknown; Swat passed to Indo-Scythian and local rulers.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "A",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodorus_(meridarch)",
    "Konow, CII II.1 (1929), no. 1 (unchecked)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Khyber region: the meridarchs Kalliphon and Phoitokles",
   "greek": "Καλλιφῶν, Φοιτοκλῆς",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "admin1": "Khyber Pakhtunkhwa",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 34.1,
   "lon": 71.2,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "garrison town",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "Indo-Greek officials",
   "evidence": "A silver phiale with a Greek dedication, 'Kalliphon the meridarch, having made a vow, dedicated it to ΧΑΟΣΕΙ' (Falk's reading, questioned by Rougemont), with a Gandhari text (CKI 552), and a mastos 'through Phoitokles the meridarch, 50 drachms' (Falk 2009; Rougemont 2012).",
   "from": -150,
   "until": -50,
   "until_text": "Undated silver vessels of the Indo-Greek period (unchecked: date); findspot reported only as 'just north of the Khyber Pass'.",
   "fate": "Unknown.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Baums 2024, https://edizionicafoscari.it/media/pdf/books/978-88-6969-816-3/978-88-6969-816-3-ch-11_Ce28WMk.pdf",
    "Falk 2009 (unchecked: title)",
    "Rougemont 2012"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Bajaur: Apraca strategoi and Theodamas",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Shinkot; Bajaur",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "admin1": "Khyber Pakhtunkhwa",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 34.73,
   "lon": 71.52,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "Buddhist donors",
   "language": "Prakrit with Greek identity",
   "origin": "local dynasty and officials using Greek titles and names under Indo-Greek and Kushan overlords",
   "evidence": "Shinkot casket from Bajaur, first inscribed 'Minedrasa maharajasa' (of the great king Menander, 2nd c. BC; authenticity doubted by Falk, upheld by Baums) and later by the Apraca king Vijayamitra (c. 12 BC-AD 15); Apraca princes styled stratega (Greek strategos) in Kharoshthi, such as Indravarma and Aspavarma (unchecked); seal 'Su Theodamasa' from Bajaur (1st c. AD).",
   "from": -150,
   "until": 50,
   "until_text": "From the Shinkot casket of Menander's reign (mid-2nd c. BC) to the seal of Theodamas, with the Kushan title 'Su' (1st c. AD).",
   "fate": "Absorbed into the Kushan empire.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodamas",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinkot_casket",
    "Salomon, Indian Epigraphy (1998) (unchecked)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Taxila: Greek-named residents after Greek rule",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Sirkap",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "admin1": "Punjab",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 33.7551,
   "lon": 72.8291,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "town quarter",
   "language": "Prakrit with Greek identity",
   "origin": "descendants of the Indo-Greek period population",
   "evidence": "A pair of silver phialai from the house 2D hoard at Sirkap (Marshall, 1926 and 1929) with Kharoshthi owner's inscriptions, read by Konow as Theodoros and by Baums with a father Theoros (CKI 88, 89; Saka-Parthian period (unchecked: date)); Philostratus' Greek-speaking court of Phraotes, c. AD 46 (late and romantic).",
   "from": -50,
   "until": 100,
   "until_text": "Greek-named owners in Kharoshthi inscriptions on silver and other objects of the Saka-Parthian city; end estimated.",
   "fate": "No later trace; the Kushans moved the city to Sirsukh.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "Taxila",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Baums 2024",
    "Marshall, Taxila (1951)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Patala (garrison and naval base)",
   "greek": "Πάταλα",
   "other_names": "harbour town of Xylinepolis?",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "admin1": "Sindh",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 24.7224,
   "lon": 68.0651,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "garrison town",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "Alexander's fleet and garrison, 325 BC",
   "evidence": "Hephaestion fortified the citadel and built a harbour and dockyards (Arrian 6.18.1, 6.20.1); Nearchus' fleet waited there.",
   "from": -325,
   "until": -317,
   "until_text": "Last attested 325 BC; Macedonian rule on the lower Indus ended by 317 BC (Diodorus 19.14.8).",
   "fate": "Unknown; the base was probably given up after the fleet sailed.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "Xylinepolis (the harbour town at Patala)",
   "grade": "A",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 6.18.1, 6.20.1",
    "Pliny, NH 6.96"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Musicanus' city (Alor?)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Aror, near Rohri",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "admin1": "Sindh",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 27.666,
   "lon": 68.975,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "garrison town",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "Macedonian garrison placed by Alexander, 325 BC",
   "evidence": "Craterus fortified the citadel and a garrison was placed in it (Arrian 6.15.7); after Musicanus' revolt the cities were garrisoned (Arrian 6.17.1-2 (unchecked: section)).",
   "from": -325,
   "until": -317,
   "until_text": "Last attested 325 BC; Macedonian rule in Sindh ended by 317 BC.",
   "fate": "Unknown.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "A",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 6.15.7, 6.17.1"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Macedonian troops under Eudemus (Hydaspes region)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "",
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "admin1": "Punjab",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 32.69,
   "lon": 73.45,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "garrison town",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "Macedonian and Greek troops left with Eudemus and Taxiles after Philip's murder (Arrian 6.27.2)",
   "evidence": "Arrian 6.27.2; Diodorus 19.14.8. The exact posts are not named; the point marks the Hydaspes cities.",
   "from": -325,
   "until": -317,
   "until_text": "Eudemus killed Porus and left India with his elephants and troops to join Eumenes, 317 BC (Diodorus 19.14.8).",
   "fate": "Withdrawn west with Eudemus, 317 BC.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "Bucephala (Alexandria Bucephalous)",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Arrian, Anabasis 6.27.2",
    "Diodorus 19.14.8"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Mathura (Methora)",
   "greek": "Μέθορα",
   "other_names": "Mathura (Sanskrit); Methora (Arrian, Indica 8.5; Pliny 6.69); Modoura of the gods (Ptolemy 7.1.50) (unchecked)",
   "country": "India",
   "admin1": "Uttar Pradesh",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 27.4835,
   "lon": 77.6788,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "garrison town",
   "language": "unknown",
   "origin": "Indo-Greek kings who campaigned in the Ganges plain in the 2nd c. BC and held or claimed Mathura (the Yavana kingdom of the inscription); no Greek-speaking townspeople are attested",
   "evidence": "Yuga Purana: the Yavanas take Saketa, Pancala and Mathura and reach Kusumadhvaja (Pataliputra); Indo-Greek coins found in the Mathura region (unchecked); the Maghera well inscription (found 1988 at Maghera, 17 km north of Mathura; Sanskrit in Brahmi; Mathura Museum 88.150), dedication of a well and tank by Ahogani, mother of the merchant Virabala, a Brahmin family of the Maitreya gotra, dated the last day of year 116 of the Yavana kingdom (Fussman 1993). The donors are Indians; the text shows a Yavana dating era, not Greek residents. The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela may name a Yavana king retreating to Mathura (reading disputed) (unchecked).",
   "from": -150,
   "until": -58,
   "until_text": "Indo-Greek control or overlordship is shown only for the 2nd and earlier 1st c. BC; the Maghera inscription (year 116 of the Yavana kingdom = c. 70/69 BC, or 58 BC on Falk's era of 174 BC) is the last marker, and it is unclear whether the Yavanas still ruled when it was cut. Local Mitra and Datta kings and then the Saka satraps (Rajuvula, Sodasa) followed.",
   "fate": "No Greek community is attested at Mathura after the 1st c. BC; the Yavana era stayed in use for dating.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Fussman, Journal Asiatique 281 (1993) (Maghera inscription)",
    "Quintanilla, History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura (2007)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yavanarajya_inscription",
    "Mitchiner, The Yuga Purana (1986; 2002)",
    "Narain, The Indo-Greeks (1957; 2003)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Sanchi (Kakanava)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Kakanava / Kakanadabota in the Sanchi inscriptions (unchecked)",
   "country": "India",
   "admin1": "Madhya Pradesh",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 23.4794,
   "lon": 77.7398,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "Buddhist donors",
   "language": "Prakrit with Greek identity",
   "origin": "Yonas from other towns (Setapatha, unidentified) making gifts to the Buddhist stupas",
   "evidence": "Three donative inscriptions by Yonas; the clearest reads Setapathiyasa Yonasa danam, 'gift of the Yona of Setapatha'. Reliefs of foreigners in Greek-style dress on Stupa 2 (c. 115 BC) and the northern gateway of Stupa 1 are art, not evidence of residents.",
   "from": -150,
   "until": -50,
   "until_text": "The Yona donations belong to the donative inscriptions of the stupa railings and gateways, c. 2nd–1st c. BC (unchecked: exact dating of the three Yona records not checked). The donors came from elsewhere and no Yona community is attested at Sanchi itself.",
   "fate": "No later Yona donors recorded at Sanchi (unchecked).",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Marshall and Foucher, The Monuments of Sanchi (1940) (unchecked)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharhut_Yavana",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yavana"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Junnar (Shivneri and Manmodi caves)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Junnar; Shivneri, Manmodi and Lenyadri cave groups",
   "country": "India",
   "admin1": "Maharashtra",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 19.2089,
   "lon": 73.8835,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "Buddhist donors",
   "language": "Prakrit with Greek identity",
   "origin": "Buddhist Yavana laymen with Indian names, giving on behalf of the Gatas (a family, clan or guild)",
   "evidence": "Prakrit inscriptions in Brahmi: Shivneri cave 54, Yavanasa Irilasa Gatana deyadhama be podhiyo, 'gift of two cisterns by the Yavana Irila, in the name of the Gatas'; Shivneri cave 67, Yavanasa Citasa Gatana bhojanamatapo deyadhama saghe, 'gift of a refectory to the Sangha from Cita the Yavana, on behalf of the Gatas'; at Manmodi, yavanasa Chamdanam deyadhama gabhadara, 'the meritorious gift of the facade of the hall by the Yavana Chanda'. Further Yavana records are reported from Lenyadri (unchecked).",
   "from": 1,
   "until": 150,
   "until_text": "The Shivneri caves were cut in the first half of the 1st c. AD and the Yavana dedications are dated by script and context to the 1st (perhaps early 2nd) c. AD; the Western Satraps ruled Junnar in the early 2nd c. AD (Manmodi cave 7: gift of a hall and cistern by Ayama, minister of the Great Satrap Nahapana, year 46, usually taken as AD 124).",
   "fate": "Not recorded after the 2nd c. AD; the Yavanas of the Deccan inscriptions disappear from the record with the end of the Satavahana and Western Satrap age.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Burgess and Indraji, Inscriptions from the Cave-Temples of Western India (1881) (unchecked)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junnar",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shivneri_Caves"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Karla (Karle) caves, donors from Dhenukakata",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Karle; Valuraka (ancient name of the hill) (unchecked); Dhenukakata, the donors' town",
   "country": "India",
   "admin1": "Maharashtra",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 18.7834,
   "lon": 73.471,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "Buddhist donors",
   "language": "Prakrit with Greek identity",
   "origin": "Yavanas living at Dhenukakata, a merchants' town near Karla (unlocated: Danahu near Karla, or Dhanyakataka on the Krishna, have been suggested), with Buddhist Indian names",
   "evidence": "Pillar inscriptions of the Great Chaitya: gifts of pillars by the Yavana Dhamma, the Yavana Yasavadhana, the Yavana Dhamadhaya and the Yavana Culayakha, all 'from Dhenukakata', and by the Yavana Vitasamghata 'from Umehanakata'; a sixth Yavana pillar gift is partly legible. These are nearly half of the known pillar dedications. Other donors from Dhenukakata were not Yavanas (unchecked).",
   "from": 50,
   "until": 120,
   "until_text": "The Great Chaitya is dated c. AD 50–70 from the script of its donative inscriptions (Dehejia), and was finished before the inscription of Nahapana's son-in-law Ushavadata was cut (early 2nd c. AD); the pillar gifts belong to its building.",
   "fate": "No later Yavana record at Karla.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "A",
   "sources": [
    "Senart, Epigraphia Indica 7 (1902–03), Karle inscriptions",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yavana",
    "Dehejia, Early Buddhist Rock Temples (1972) (unchecked)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Nashik (Pandavleni caves), Cave 17",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Nasika (Ptolemy 7.1.63) (unchecked); Trirashmi hill (Tiranhu) in the inscriptions",
   "country": "India",
   "admin1": "Maharashtra",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 19.9413,
   "lon": 73.7486,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "Buddhist donors",
   "language": "Prakrit with Greek identity",
   "origin": "a Yavana family from Dattamitri in the north-west (probably a Demetrias, in Arachosia or Sindh), settled in or visiting the Nashik region",
   "evidence": "Inscription of Cave 17: the Yavana (Yonaka) Indragnidatta, son of Dhammadeva, a northerner (uttarahara) from Dattamitri, had the cave cut in Mount Tiranhu, with a chaitya and cisterns, together with his son Dhammarakhita. The names are Indian and Buddhist. The Nashik inscription of Gautami Balashri (c. AD 150) praises Gautamiputra Satakarni as destroyer of Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas.",
   "from": 50,
   "until": 150,
   "until_text": "Cave 17 is dated c. late 1st c. BC to early 2nd c. AD by different scholars (unchecked); one family is recorded, with no later trace.",
   "fate": "No later record.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "A",
   "sources": [
    "Senart, Epigraphia Indica 8 (1905–06), Nasik inscriptions, no. 18 (unchecked: number)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yavana"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Barygaza (Bharuch)",
   "greek": "Βαρύγαζα",
   "other_names": "Bharukaccha / Bhrgukaccha (Sanskrit); Bargose (Ptolemy) (unchecked); Bargosa (Strabo 15.1.73); Broach",
   "country": "India",
   "admin1": "Gujarat",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 21.7008,
   "lon": 72.9831,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "trading community",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "merchants from Roman Egypt (Greek-speaking) in a port of the Saka (Western Satrap) kingdom; earlier the region had been under Indo-Greek rule (Strabo 11.11.1 on the conquest of Saraostus)",
   "evidence": "Periplus 41–49: the harbour, the royal pilots, imports of Italian, Laodicean and Arabian wine, copper, tin, coral, Roman gold and silver coin, and for the king singing boys and beautiful girls; 47: 'to this day old drachmas are current in Barygaza, engraved in Greek letters, of Apollodotus and Menander'. Strabo 15.1.73 (from Nicolaus of Damascus): Zarmanochegas, 'an Indian from Bargosa', of the embassy to Augustus, burned himself at Athens.",
   "from": -20,
   "until": 250,
   "until_text": "Greek-speaking merchants from Roman Egypt traded here from the time of Augustus (the embassy from Barygaza to Augustus) through the Periplus (mid 1st c. AD) and the 2nd c.; the end is not recorded and is put here at the decline of direct Egyptian trade in the 3rd c. (estimate).",
   "fate": "Trade continued under the Western Satraps and later, with Persian and Arab shipping replacing the Egyptian Greeks; no resident Greek community is recorded.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "A",
   "sources": [
    "Casson, The Periplus Maris Erythraei (1989), sections 41–49",
    "Strabo 15.1.73; 11.11.1",
    "Ray, The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia (2003)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Muziris (Pattanam)",
   "greek": "Μουζιρίς",
   "other_names": "Muciri (Tamil, Akananuru 149); Muziris (Pliny 6.104; Periplus 53–54; Ptolemy 7.1.8); Pattanam (excavated site); often linked with Kodungallur",
   "country": "India",
   "admin1": "Kerala",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 10.154,
   "lon": 76.2131,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "trading community",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "merchants from Roman Egypt (Greek-speaking; the financiers in Alexandria) trading pepper and malabathrum; some probably lived here (a temple of Augustus is marked near Muziris on the Peutinger Table)",
   "evidence": "Periplus 53–56; Pliny 6.104 (pirates nearby; ships anchor offshore); Akananuru 149: the large well-made ships of the Yavanas come with gold and leave with pepper; the Peutinger Table (a medieval copy of a Roman map, information perhaps of the 2nd c. AD) marks a Templ(um) Augusti beside Muziris, widely taken as a temple of Augustus kept by Roman residents or long-staying visitors; the Muziris papyrus (P.Vindob. G 40822, mid-2nd c. AD), a loan contract for a voyage to Muziris and the cargo of the ship Hermapollon; Pattanam excavations (Cherian, from 2007): amphorae, terra sigillata, glass. Gurukkal regards Pattanam as at most a colony of Mediterranean merchants in an Indian port.",
   "from": -100,
   "until": 400,
   "until_text": "Mediterranean objects at Pattanam date from c. 100 BC to c. AD 400, with the peak of Roman trade between the 1st c. BC and the 4th c. AD; the Muziris papyrus is mid-2nd c. AD. No record of the community after Roman trade waned.",
   "fate": "The port declined; no Greek community recorded after late antiquity.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "A",
   "sources": [
    "Casson, Periplus (1989) 53–56",
    "Rathbone, 'The Muziris papyrus' (2000) (unchecked)",
    "Cherian and others, Pattanam excavation reports",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muziris",
    "Pliny NH 6.104"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Nelkynda",
   "greek": "Νέλκυνδα",
   "other_names": "Melkynda (Ptolemy) (unchecked); Nelcynda (Pliny 6.105); Bakare its port (Periplus 55); site uncertain, in central Kerala",
   "country": "India",
   "admin1": "Kerala",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 9.2726,
   "lon": 76.5588,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "trading community",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "merchants from Roman Egypt visiting a Pandya port; residence not recorded",
   "evidence": "Periplus 54–56: Nelkynda, of the Pandya kingdom, on a river; ships load at Bakare; imports of coin, topaz, textiles, wine; Pliny 6.105.",
   "from": 1,
   "until": 200,
   "until_text": "Attested in the Periplus and Pliny (1st c. AD) and Ptolemy (2nd c.); no later record.",
   "fate": "Unknown; the site is not securely located.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Casson, Periplus (1989) 54–56",
    "Pliny NH 6.105"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Arikamedu (Podouke)",
   "greek": "Ποδούκη",
   "other_names": "Poduke (Periplus 60); Podouke emporion (Ptolemy 7.1.14); Virampatnam (village)",
   "country": "India",
   "admin1": "Puducherry",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 11.9023,
   "lon": 79.8198,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "trading community",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "traders from the Roman Mediterranean, coming from Egypt (Greek-speaking, perhaps with Italians), in an Indian port; Wheeler called it an Indo-Roman trading station, Begley showed it was an Indian town where they came to trade",
   "evidence": "Periplus 60; Ptolemy 7.1.14; excavations by Wheeler (1945) and Begley and Raman (1989–92): Arretine and other sigillata, Koan and Campanian wine amphorae, Spanish garum and olive-oil amphorae (E. L. Will), glass, beside Tamil-Brahmi graffiti of local people. Will took the olive oil and garum as goods for a Roman trading community resident at Arikamedu, a reasonable inference but not proof.",
   "from": -50,
   "until": 100,
   "until_text": "Mediterranean imports (Italian terra sigillata, amphorae) are concentrated in the late 1st c. BC and 1st c. AD; the Indian port itself lasted from c. the 2nd c. BC to the 7th/8th c. AD (unchecked).",
   "fate": "Mediterranean imports stop after the 1st c. AD; the port went on as an Indian settlement.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "A",
   "sources": [
    "Wheeler, Ghosh and Deva, Ancient India 2 (1946)",
    "Begley and others, The Ancient Port of Arikamedu I–II (1996, 2004)",
    "Casson, Periplus (1989) 60"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Kaveripattinam (Puhar)",
   "greek": "Χαβηρὶς ἐμπόριον",
   "other_names": "Puhar, Kaveripumpattinam (Tamil); Khaberis emporion (Ptolemy 7.1.13); perhaps Kamara (Periplus 60)",
   "country": "India",
   "admin1": "Tamil Nadu",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 11.1453,
   "lon": 79.8537,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "town quarter",
   "language": "unknown",
   "origin": "foreign merchants called Yavanas living in the harbour district (Maruvurpakkam) of the Chola port; in Tamil texts of this age Yavana means westerners in general, first the Greek-speaking Roman traders and later perhaps others",
   "evidence": "Silappatikaram 5 (Indra festival canto): the dwellings of the Yavanas, whose wealth never declines, in the harbour quarter (unchecked: canto 5, lines c. 10–12); Pattinappalai on the foreign merchants of Puhar (unchecked); Ptolemy 7.1.13 Khaberis emporion; Roman coins and rouletted ware from excavations (unchecked).",
   "from": 100,
   "until": 500,
   "until_text": "The Yavana quarter is described in the Silappatikaram, an epic usually dated c. 5th–6th c. AD (tradition puts its story in the 2nd c.); the dates here are a broad estimate of the poem's world, not a recorded beginning or end.",
   "fate": "The port declined; no later record of a Yavana quarter.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "Silappatikaram, tr. Parthasarathy (1993) (unchecked)",
    "Ptolemy 7.1.13",
    "Ray, The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia (2003) (unchecked)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Madurai",
   "greek": "Μόδουρα",
   "other_names": "Modoura, royal seat of Pandion (Ptolemy 7.1.89) (unchecked); Kudal (Tamil)",
   "country": "India",
   "admin1": "Tamil Nadu",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 9.9084,
   "lon": 78.1225,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "garrison town",
   "language": "unknown",
   "origin": "Yavana bodyguards and craftsmen in the service of Pandya (and other Tamil) kings; probably westerners from the Roman trade, though Tieken takes them for Arabs",
   "evidence": "Mullaippattu c. 59–66: Yavanas of strong body and fierce eyes, in long coats, guard the king's tent; Nedunalvadai c. 101: a lamp held by a statue made by Yavanas (unchecked); Silappatikaram 14: Yavana swordsmen guard the gates of the Madurai fortress (unchecked); Roman coins, including late Roman copper, found in and near Madurai (unchecked).",
   "from": 1,
   "until": 500,
   "until_text": "The Yavana guards and craftsmen appear in Tamil poems whose dates are disputed (1st–3rd c. AD on the usual view; much later on Tieken's); the range is an estimate.",
   "fate": "No later record.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://karkanirka.org/2020/10/04/roman-soldiers-in-tamilnadu/ (text of Mullaippattu)",
    "Tieken, Kavya in South India (2001) (unchecked)",
    "Zvelebil, Tamil Literature (1975) (unchecked)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Anuradhapura",
   "greek": "Ἀνουρόγραμμον",
   "other_names": "Anourogrammon basileion (Ptolemy 7.4.10) (unchecked); Anuradhapura (Sinhala අනුරාධපුරය)",
   "country": "Sri Lanka",
   "admin1": "North Central Province",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 8.3244,
   "lon": 80.4128,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "town quarter",
   "language": "unknown",
   "origin": "foreign residents called Yonas, probably western traders; in later Sri Lankan usage Yona means Muslims and Arabs, so the Greek identity of this quarter is uncertain",
   "evidence": "Mahavamsa 10.90 (unchecked: verse): Pandukabhaya set aside a ground for the Yonas near the western gate of Anuradhapura. Ptolemy names the city; Roman coins are common in Sri Lanka.",
   "from": -100,
   "until": 500,
   "until_text": "The only source, the Mahavamsa (c. 5th–6th c. AD), places the Yona ground in the reign of the legendary king Pandukabhaya; the tradition is attested only by c. AD 400–500, so the dates are a broad estimate and the founding story is a legend.",
   "fate": "Not recorded later; by the medieval period Yona/Yonaka in Sri Lanka means Muslim traders.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "Mahavamsa, tr. Geiger (1912), ch. 10",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yona",
    "Weerakkody, Taprobane (1997) (unchecked)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Taprobane: Roman merchants in the 6th c. (port of Mantai?)",
   "greek": "Ταπροβάνη",
   "other_names": "Sielediba (Kosmas); Mantai = Mahatittha (Pali), the chief harbour of Anuradhapura",
   "country": "Sri Lanka",
   "admin1": "Northern Province",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 8.9563,
   "lon": 79.9613,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "trading community",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "Greek-speaking merchants from the eastern Roman empire (via Adulis and the Red Sea) visiting the island's emporium; a church of Persian Christians with a presbyter and deacon ordained in Persia",
   "evidence": "Kosmas Indikopleustes, Christian Topography 3.65 and 11.13–19 (unchecked: sections): Taprobane is a great emporium where ships come from India, Persia and Ethiopia; it has a church of Persian Christians who have settled there, with a presbyter appointed from Persia, a deacon and the full liturgy; the story of Sopatros, a Roman merchant, who showed the king a gold coin of the emperor beside a Persian silver drachma. Kosmas does not name the port; Mantai was the main harbour. Earlier, Pliny 6.84–91 on the freedman of Annius Plocamus and the embassy to Claudius.",
   "from": 500,
   "until": 550,
   "until_text": "Kosmas, writing c. AD 550, describes the trade of his own time and the visit of the merchant Sopatros some 35 years before he wrote; the Roman merchants were visitors. The resident Christian community he describes was Persian.",
   "fate": "Roman shipping to India faded after the 6th c.; Persian and then Arab shipping dominated.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "A",
   "sources": [
    "Kosmas Indikopleustes, Christian Topography 11, ed. Wolska-Conus (1968–73)",
    "Weerakkody, Taprobane (1997) (unchecked)",
    "Pliny NH 6.84–91"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Calcutta (Kolkata): Greek merchant community",
   "greek": "Καλκούτα",
   "other_names": "Kolkata; the Greek church of the Transfiguration, Amratolla Street (1780/82), later at Kalighat (1920s)",
   "country": "India",
   "admin1": "West Bengal",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 22.578,
   "lon": 88.353,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "trading community",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "Greek merchants from the Ottoman Balkans (Philippopolis, Adrianople) and later from Chios (Ralli Brothers), trading in Bengal textiles, salt, jute and tobacco",
   "evidence": "Greek church of the Transfiguration built 1780 (consecrated 1782) from the estate of the merchant Argyres of Philippopolis (Alexios Argyree Panaghiotis in Banglapedia, Panagiotes Alexandros Argyres in other accounts), who died in Dhaka in 1777; a Greek school; the community leader Constantine Partazes (1818–1842); Demetrios Galanos, the Sanskrit scholar, in Calcutta from 1786 before moving to Benares.",
   "from": 1713,
   "until": 1972,
   "until_text": "Greek tombstones of 1713 (lost) and 1728 are the first records; the community peaked c. 1800 and in the age of Ralli Brothers (Calcutta branch 1851); after independence and partition in 1947 the Greeks left, and the Kalighat church closed for lack of a congregation in 1972 (reopened 1991 at the request of the Greek embassy, with a single nun).",
   "fate": "Emigration after 1947; Ralli's Indian business passed to the Tatas in 1961; the church closed in 1972.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1800,
     "figure": 120,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "Live History India, 'Kolkata's Greeks: A Fading Memory' (around 120 Greek families in the early 19th c.; families, not persons)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://livehistoryindia.com/story/living-culture/kolkatas-greeks-a-fading-memory",
    "https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Greeks,_The",
    "Dodis, Greeks in India (2002) (unchecked)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Dhaka and Narayanganj: Greek merchant community",
   "greek": "Ντάκα",
   "other_names": "Dacca; the Greek church of Dhaka (1812) and the Greek Memorial at Ramna (Dhaka University)",
   "country": "Bangladesh",
   "admin1": "Dhaka Division",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 23.7337,
   "lon": 90.3966,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "trading community",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "Greek merchants from the Ottoman lands, trading in muslins, salt, lime and later jute",
   "evidence": "Banglapedia: 'about two hundred or more' Greeks in Dhaka and Narayanganj between 1770 and 1800; a church opened in Dhaka in 1812; the Ramna memorial holds ten gravestones of Greek merchants, their wives and a priest who died between 1800 and 1860.",
   "from": 1770,
   "until": 1947,
   "until_text": "Greeks traded in Dhaka cloth from the later 18th c. (Argyres died here in 1777); the Dhaka trade declined c. 1820–1840; Ralli Brothers ran a jute mill at Narayanganj from 1882; Greek commercial activity in Bengal ended with the Second World War and partition.",
   "fate": "The firms closed after 1947; only the memorial remains.",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1785,
     "figure": 200,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "Banglapedia, 'Greeks, The' ('about two hundred or more', 1770–1800)"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Greeks,_The",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Memorial,_Dhaka",
    "https://www.thedailystar.net/in-focus/news/history-the-greek-community-dhaka-2025501"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Jiga Tepe (Dilberjin oasis): Greek verse epitaph",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Jiga tepe",
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "admin1": "Balkh",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 37.0273,
   "lon": 66.6044,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "kind": "village",
   "language": "Greek",
   "origin": "Graeco-Bactrian settlers or Hellenized Bactrians of the Balkh oasis",
   "evidence": "A terracotta plaque with six lines of Greek elegiac distichs, probably from a funerary epigram (Kruglikova 1977, pp. 425-26; Encyclopaedia Iranica, 'Epigraphy ii').",
   "from": -250,
   "until": -130,
   "until_text": "Date of the plaque not checked (unchecked); placed in the Graeco-Bactrian period, before the nomad conquest of c. 145-130 BC.",
   "fate": "Unknown; the site continued in Kushan and early Sasanian times.",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/epigraphy-ii",
    "https://pleiades.stoa.org/places/961918"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Crimean Greek deportees in Sverdlovsk oblast (1944)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Yekaterinburg (Sverdlovsk) region, the Urals",
   "country": "Russia",
   "admin1": "Sverdlovsk oblast",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 56.84,
   "lon": 60.61,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "deportee settlement",
   "language": "mixed",
   "origin": "Greeks of the Crimea deported on 27-28 June 1944 with the Crimean Bulgarians and Armenians (State Defence Committee decree 5984ss of 2 June 1944 (unchecked: decree text not read))",
   "evidence": "The Greeks deported from the Crimea in June 1944 were sent to special settlements in the Molotov, Sverdlovsk and Kemerovo regions and the Bashkir ASSR, and to the Guryev region of the Kazakh SSR (deportation.org.ua, on the Pontic Greek deportations of 1942, 1944 and 1949); the number sent to Sverdlovsk oblast was not found. Totals for the Crimean Greeks differ: 14,300 in Beria's report before the deportation, 15,040 (Bugay, via en.wikipedia), 16,006 (deportation.org.ua).",
   "from": 1944,
   "until": 1956,
   "until_text": "The special-settlement regime of the Crimean deportees was lifted in 1956 (unchecked); return to the Crimea stayed barred for decades (unchecked). Whether any Greek community remained in the region is not established; the end date is that of the regime, not of the community.",
   "fate": "Special settlement; later dispersal (unchecked)",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://deportation.org.ua/deportation-of-pontic-greeks-in-1942-1944-and-1949/",
    "https://deportation.org.ua/deportation-of-ethnic-bulgarians-from-crimea-in-1944/",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Soviet_Greeks"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Crimean Greek deportees in Kemerovo oblast (Stalinsk, now Novokuznetsk), 1944",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Stalinsk (Novokuznetsk), Kuzbass, western Siberia",
   "country": "Russia",
   "admin1": "Kemerovo oblast",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 53.757,
   "lon": 87.136,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "deportee settlement",
   "language": "mixed",
   "origin": "Greeks of the Crimea deported on 27-28 June 1944 with the Crimean Bulgarians and Armenians",
   "evidence": "Kemerovo oblast is named among the places of exile of the Crimean Greeks of June 1944, and a deportation train arrived in Stalinsk (now Novokuznetsk) in September 1944 (deportation.org.ua); the last two trains from the Crimea, about 90 per cent Greek, carried 2,256 and 1,950 people (same source), but where each train went is not stated. No figure for the Greeks of the oblast was found.",
   "from": 1944,
   "until": 1956,
   "until_text": "The special-settlement regime of the Crimean deportees was lifted in 1956 (unchecked); what became of the group is not established.",
   "fate": "Special settlement; later dispersal (unchecked)",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://deportation.org.ua/deportation-of-pontic-greeks-in-1942-1944-and-1949/",
    "https://deportation.org.ua/deportation-of-ethnic-bulgarians-from-crimea-in-1944/"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Crimean Greek deportees in Guryev (now Atyrau) oblast (1944)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Guryev, Atyrau",
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "admin1": "Atyrau Region",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 47.0945,
   "lon": 51.9238,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "kind": "deportee settlement",
   "language": "mixed",
   "origin": "Greeks of the Crimea deported in 1944",
   "evidence": "Crimean Greeks deported in 1944 'had arrived in the Guryev region of the Kazakh SSR' (deportation.org.ua). A descendant's account (Current Time, 2024) tells of a Crimean Greek family of whom the grandfather, his mother and one sister were sent to Guryev (now Atyrau) and the other sisters to Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. No figure found.",
   "from": 1944,
   "until": 1956,
   "until_text": "The special-settlement regime of the Crimean deportees was lifted in 1956 (unchecked); many families later moved on (one returned to the Crimea). Whether a community remained is not established.",
   "fate": "Special settlement; later dispersal",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://deportation.org.ua/deportation-of-pontic-greeks-in-1942-1944-and-1949/",
    "https://www.currenttime.tv/a/rasskazyvayut-potomki-deportirovannyh/32952097.html"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Crimean Greek deportees in Uzbekistan and Tajikistan (1944)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Uzbek SSR; Tajik SSR",
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "admin1": "",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 41.0,
   "lon": 69.5,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "deportee settlement",
   "language": "mixed",
   "origin": "Greeks of the Crimea deported in 1944, some apparently with the Crimean Tatars in May (unchecked), others in June",
   "evidence": "en.wikipedia (Deportation of the Soviet Greeks): of about 15,040 Crimean Greeks deported in 1944 'many were sent to the Uzbek SSR'; the Uzbek SSR is also named for the Crimean Bulgarians of June 1944 (deportation.org.ua); a descendant's account names Tajikistan and Uzbekistan for two sisters of one family (Current Time, 2024). On 1 January 1953 there were 2,472 Greeks of foreign citizenship in special settlements in the Uzbek SSR (en.wikipedia), most of them probably deportees of 1949 rather than 1944. Places within the republics not found.",
   "from": 1944,
   "until": 1956,
   "until_text": "The special-settlement regime was lifted in 1956 (unchecked); the later history of these families is not known separately from the other Greeks of Uzbekistan.",
   "fate": "Special settlement; later merged with the other Greeks of Uzbekistan",
   "pop": [
    {
     "year": 1953,
     "figure": 2472,
     "basis": "estimate",
     "source": "Greeks of foreign citizenship in special settlements in the Uzbek SSR, 1 January 1953 (en.wikipedia, Deportation of the Soviet Greeks); not only 1944 deportees"
    }
   ],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "C",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Soviet_Greeks",
    "https://deportation.org.ua/deportation-of-ethnic-bulgarians-from-crimea-in-1944/",
    "https://www.currenttime.tv/a/rasskazyvayut-potomki-deportirovannyh/32952097.html"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Greek deportees in Krasnoyarsk Krai (1942)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Krasnoyarsk Territory, central Siberia",
   "country": "Russia",
   "admin1": "Krasnoyarsk Krai",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 56.01,
   "lon": 92.87,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "deportee settlement",
   "language": "mixed",
   "origin": "Greeks deported from the south of Russia and Ukraine in 1942 (the deportation of 1942 took 1,402 Greeks from Krasnodar Krai and Rostov oblast, among 16,376 people of several nations)",
   "evidence": "'In 1942, the route ran to Kazakhstan or the Krasnoyarsk region' (deportation.org.ua, on the Pontic Greek deportations of 1942, 1944 and 1949). No figure for the Greeks sent to Krasnoyarsk Krai was found.",
   "from": 1942,
   "until": 1956,
   "until_text": "The special-settlement regime of the deportees of the war years was lifted by 1956 (unchecked); what became of the group is not established.",
   "fate": "Special settlement; later dispersal (unchecked)",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://deportation.org.ua/deportation-of-pontic-greeks-in-1942-1944-and-1949/"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Greek deportees in the Karaganda and Pavlodar regions (1942)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "Karaganda, Pavlodar",
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "admin1": "Karaganda Region; Pavlodar Region",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 49.8,
   "lon": 73.1,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "deportee settlement",
   "language": "mixed",
   "origin": "Greeks deported in 1942 from the south of Russia and Ukraine",
   "evidence": "Destinations of the 1942 deportation included 'Kazakhstan (Alma-Ata, Karaganda, and Pavlodar regions)' (deportation.org.ua). No figure for these regions was found; the point is at Karaganda for both regions.",
   "from": 1942,
   "until": 1995,
   "until_text": "Freed from the special-settlement regime by 1956 (unchecked); most of the Greeks of Kazakhstan left for Greece after 1989.",
   "fate": "Emigration to Greece (unchecked)",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://deportation.org.ua/deportation-of-pontic-greeks-in-1942-1944-and-1949/"
   ]
  },
  {
   "place": "Greeks from Baku at the Trudovik collective farm, Petropavlovsk region (1942)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "North Kazakhstan Region",
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "admin1": "North Kazakhstan Region",
   "disputed": "",
   "lat": 54.87,
   "lon": 69.15,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "kind": "deportee settlement",
   "language": "mixed",
   "origin": "Greeks of Baku deported in 1942",
   "evidence": "'Baku Greeks went to the Trudovik collective farm in the Petropavlovsk region' (deportation.org.ua). A farm, not a town; no figure found.",
   "from": 1942,
   "until": 1956,
   "until_text": "The end date is that of the special-settlement regime (unchecked); the later history of the group is not known.",
   "fate": "Unknown",
   "pop": [],
   "at_city": "",
   "grade": "B",
   "sources": [
    "https://deportation.org.ua/deportation-of-pontic-greeks-in-1942-1944-and-1949/"
   ]
  }
 ],
 "seats": [
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Afghanistan (national capital); Kabul Province",
   "level": "national capital; province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Kabul",
   "seat_native": "کابل",
   "population": 5333284,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA (National Statistics and Information Authority), 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population of the city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan' and 'Kandahar')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 34.528,
   "lon": 69.172
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Badakhshan Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Fayzabad",
   "seat_native": "فیض‌آباد",
   "population": 44421,
   "pop_year": null,
   "pop_source": "GeoNames gazetteer figure (date and origin not stated); no NSIA figure for the town was found",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 37.117,
   "lon": 70.58
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Badghis Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Qala-i-Naw",
   "seat_native": "قلعه نو",
   "population": 9000,
   "pop_year": null,
   "pop_source": "GeoNames gazetteer figure (date and origin not stated); no NSIA figure for the town was found",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 34.987,
   "lon": 63.129
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Baghlan Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Pul-i-Khumri",
   "seat_native": "پل خمری",
   "population": 230112,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA (National Statistics and Information Authority), 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population of the city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan' and 'Kandahar')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 35.945,
   "lon": 68.715
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Balkh Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Mazar-i-Sharif",
   "seat_native": "مزار شریف",
   "population": 568013,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA (National Statistics and Information Authority), 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population of the city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan' and 'Kandahar')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 36.709,
   "lon": 67.111
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Bamyan Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Bamyan",
   "seat_native": "بامیان",
   "population": 103909,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA (National Statistics and Information Authority), 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population of the city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan' and 'Kandahar')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 34.822,
   "lon": 67.827
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Daykundi Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Nili",
   "seat_native": "نیلی",
   "population": 30058,
   "pop_year": null,
   "pop_source": "GeoNames gazetteer figure (date and origin not stated); no NSIA figure for the town was found",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 33.722,
   "lon": 66.13
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Farah Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Farah",
   "seat_native": "فراه",
   "population": 141091,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA (National Statistics and Information Authority), 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population of the city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan' and 'Kandahar')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "Prophthasia",
   "lat": 32.375,
   "lon": 62.116
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Faryab Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Maymana",
   "seat_native": "میمنه",
   "population": 108049,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA (National Statistics and Information Authority), 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population of the city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan' and 'Kandahar')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 35.921,
   "lon": 64.784
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Ghazni Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Ghazni",
   "seat_native": "غزنی",
   "population": 205965,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA (National Statistics and Information Authority), 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population of the city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan' and 'Kandahar')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 33.554,
   "lon": 68.421
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Ghor Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Chaghcharan (Firozkoh)",
   "seat_native": "چغچران / فیروزکوه",
   "population": 15000,
   "pop_year": null,
   "pop_source": "GeoNames gazetteer figure (date and origin not stated); no NSIA figure for the town was found",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 34.52,
   "lon": 65.251
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Helmand Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Lashkar Gah",
   "seat_native": "لشکرگاه",
   "population": 191458,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA (National Statistics and Information Authority), 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population of the city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan' and 'Kandahar')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 31.594,
   "lon": 64.372
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Herat Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Herat",
   "seat_native": "هرات",
   "population": 673273,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA (National Statistics and Information Authority), 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population of the city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan' and 'Kandahar')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "Alexandria in Areia",
   "lat": 34.348,
   "lon": 62.2
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Jowzjan Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Sheberghan",
   "seat_native": "شبرغان",
   "population": 213411,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA (National Statistics and Information Authority), 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population of the city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan' and 'Kandahar')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 36.668,
   "lon": 65.753
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Kandahar Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Kandahar",
   "seat_native": "کندهار",
   "population": 732629,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA (National Statistics and Information Authority), 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population of the city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan' and 'Kandahar')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "Alexandria in Arachosia",
   "lat": 31.613,
   "lon": 65.71
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Kapisa Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Mahmud-i-Raqi",
   "seat_native": "محمود راقی",
   "population": null,
   "pop_year": null,
   "pop_source": "no figure found",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 35.017,
   "lon": 69.333
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Khost Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Khost",
   "seat_native": "خوست",
   "population": 170615,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA (National Statistics and Information Authority), 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population of the city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan' and 'Kandahar')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 33.34,
   "lon": 69.92
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Kunar Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Asadabad",
   "seat_native": "اسعدآباد",
   "population": 48400,
   "pop_year": null,
   "pop_source": "GeoNames gazetteer figure (date and origin not stated); no NSIA figure for the town was found",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 34.873,
   "lon": 71.147
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Kunduz Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Kunduz",
   "seat_native": "کندز",
   "population": 413996,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA (National Statistics and Information Authority), 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population of the city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan' and 'Kandahar')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 36.729,
   "lon": 68.857
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Laghman Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Mihtarlam",
   "seat_native": "مهترلام",
   "population": 160123,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA (National Statistics and Information Authority), 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population of the city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan' and 'Kandahar')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 34.671,
   "lon": 70.209
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Logar Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Pul-i-Alam",
   "seat_native": "پل علم",
   "population": 130793,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA (National Statistics and Information Authority), 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population of the city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan' and 'Kandahar')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 33.995,
   "lon": 69.023
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Nangarhar Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Jalalabad",
   "seat_native": "جلال‌آباد",
   "population": 318733,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA (National Statistics and Information Authority), 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population of the city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan' and 'Kandahar')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 34.426,
   "lon": 70.452
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Nimruz Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Zaranj",
   "seat_native": "زرنج",
   "population": 49851,
   "pop_year": null,
   "pop_source": "GeoNames gazetteer figure (date and origin not stated); no NSIA figure for the town was found",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 30.96,
   "lon": 61.86
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Nuristan Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Parun",
   "seat_native": "پارون",
   "population": 1000,
   "pop_year": null,
   "pop_source": "GeoNames gazetteer figure (date and origin not stated); no NSIA figure for the town was found",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 35.421,
   "lon": 70.923
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Paktia Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Gardez",
   "seat_native": "گردیز",
   "population": 105278,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA (National Statistics and Information Authority), 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population of the city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan' and 'Kandahar')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 33.597,
   "lon": 69.226
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Paktika Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Sharana",
   "seat_native": "شرنه",
   "population": 7366,
   "pop_year": null,
   "pop_source": "GeoNames gazetteer figure (date and origin not stated); no NSIA figure for the town was found",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 33.146,
   "lon": 68.792
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Panjshir Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Bazarak",
   "seat_native": "بازارک",
   "population": 65000,
   "pop_year": null,
   "pop_source": "GeoNames gazetteer figure (date and origin not stated); no NSIA figure for the town was found",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 35.313,
   "lon": 69.515
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Parwan Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Charikar",
   "seat_native": "چاریکار",
   "population": 222751,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA (National Statistics and Information Authority), 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population of the city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan' and 'Kandahar')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 35.014,
   "lon": 69.171
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Samangan Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Aybak",
   "seat_native": "ایبک",
   "population": 130409,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA (National Statistics and Information Authority), 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population of the city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan' and 'Kandahar')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 36.265,
   "lon": 68.016
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Sar-e Pol Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Sar-e Pol",
   "seat_native": "سرپل",
   "population": 134809,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA (National Statistics and Information Authority), 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population of the city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan' and 'Kandahar')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 36.215,
   "lon": 65.932
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Takhar Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Taloqan",
   "seat_native": "تالقان",
   "population": 284990,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA (National Statistics and Information Authority), 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population of the city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan' and 'Kandahar')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 36.736,
   "lon": 69.535
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Uruzgan Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Tarinkot",
   "seat_native": "ترینکوت",
   "population": 127095,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "NSIA (National Statistics and Information Authority), 'Estimated Population of Afghanistan 2025-26' (Sept. 2025), settled population of the city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Afghanistan' and 'Kandahar')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 32.63,
   "lon": 65.878
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Wardak Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Maidan Shahr",
   "seat_native": "میدان شهر",
   "population": 1600,
   "pop_year": null,
   "pop_source": "GeoNames gazetteer figure (date and origin not stated); no NSIA figure for the town was found",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 34.396,
   "lon": 68.866
  },
  {
   "country": "Afghanistan",
   "unit": "Zabul Province",
   "level": "province (wilayat) seat",
   "seat": "Qalat",
   "seat_native": "قلات",
   "population": 12191,
   "pop_year": null,
   "pop_source": "GeoNames gazetteer figure (date and origin not stated); no NSIA figure for the town was found",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 32.106,
   "lon": 66.908
  },
  {
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "unit": "Pakistan (national capital); Islamabad Capital Territory",
   "level": "national capital; federal territory",
   "seat": "Islamabad",
   "seat_native": "اسلام آباد",
   "population": 1108872,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, 2023 census, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Pakistan: Cities')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 33.721,
   "lon": 73.043
  },
  {
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "unit": "Punjab",
   "level": "province seat",
   "seat": "Lahore",
   "seat_native": "لاہور",
   "population": 13004135,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, 2023 census, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Pakistan: Cities')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 31.558,
   "lon": 74.351
  },
  {
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "unit": "Sindh",
   "level": "province seat",
   "seat": "Karachi",
   "seat_native": "کراچی",
   "population": 18868021,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, 2023 census, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Pakistan: Cities')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 24.861,
   "lon": 67.01
  },
  {
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "unit": "Khyber Pakhtunkhwa",
   "level": "province seat",
   "seat": "Peshawar",
   "seat_native": "پشاور",
   "population": 1905975,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, 2023 census, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Pakistan: Cities')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 34.008,
   "lon": 71.578
  },
  {
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "unit": "Balochistan",
   "level": "province seat",
   "seat": "Quetta",
   "seat_native": "کوئٹہ",
   "population": 1565546,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, 2023 census, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Pakistan: Cities')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 30.184,
   "lon": 67.001
  },
  {
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "unit": "Gilgit-Baltistan",
   "level": "seat of an administrative territory",
   "seat": "Gilgit",
   "seat_native": "گلگت",
   "population": 56701,
   "pop_year": 1998,
   "pop_source": "Population census of 1998, town (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Pakistan by population', where the figure is marked as needing a citation)",
   "disputed": "part of the Kashmir region, administered by Pakistan and claimed by India",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 35.919,
   "lon": 74.312
  },
  {
   "country": "Pakistan",
   "unit": "Azad Jammu and Kashmir",
   "level": "seat of an administrative territory",
   "seat": "Muzaffarabad",
   "seat_native": "مظفرآباد",
   "population": 149913,
   "pop_year": 2017,
   "pop_source": "Population census of 2017, city (Planning and Development Department AJK, Statistical Year Book 2019, via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Pakistan by population')",
   "disputed": "part of the Kashmir region, administered by Pakistan and claimed by India",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 34.37,
   "lon": 73.471
  },
  {
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "unit": "Uzbekistan (national capital); Tashkent city",
   "level": "national capital; city with regional status",
   "seat": "Tashkent",
   "seat_native": "Toshkent / Тошкент",
   "population": 3112748,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "Statistics Agency of Uzbekistan, estimate at 1 Jan 2025, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Uzbekistan: Administrative Division')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 41.265,
   "lon": 69.216
  },
  {
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "unit": "Republic of Karakalpakstan",
   "level": "autonomous republic capital",
   "seat": "Nukus",
   "seat_native": "Nukus / Нөкис",
   "population": 344690,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "Statistics Agency of Uzbekistan, estimate at 1 Jan 2025, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Uzbekistan: Administrative Division')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 42.459,
   "lon": 59.606
  },
  {
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "unit": "Andijan Region",
   "level": "region (viloyat) seat",
   "seat": "Andijan",
   "seat_native": "Andijon / Андижон",
   "population": 492425,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "Statistics Agency of Uzbekistan, estimate at 1 Jan 2025, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Uzbekistan: Administrative Division')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 40.783,
   "lon": 72.351
  },
  {
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "unit": "Bukhara Region",
   "level": "region (viloyat) seat",
   "seat": "Bukhara",
   "seat_native": "Buxoro / Бухоро",
   "population": 300179,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "Statistics Agency of Uzbekistan, estimate at 1 Jan 2025, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Uzbekistan: Administrative Division')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 39.77,
   "lon": 64.431
  },
  {
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "unit": "Fergana Region",
   "level": "region (viloyat) seat",
   "seat": "Fergana",
   "seat_native": "Fargʻona / Фарғона",
   "population": 328409,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "Statistics Agency of Uzbekistan, estimate at 1 Jan 2025, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Uzbekistan: Administrative Division')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 40.384,
   "lon": 71.784
  },
  {
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "unit": "Jizzakh Region",
   "level": "region (viloyat) seat",
   "seat": "Jizzakh",
   "seat_native": "Jizzax / Жиззах",
   "population": 199942,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "Statistics Agency of Uzbekistan, estimate at 1 Jan 2025, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Uzbekistan: Administrative Division')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 40.134,
   "lon": 67.83
  },
  {
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "unit": "Namangan Region",
   "level": "region (viloyat) seat",
   "seat": "Namangan",
   "seat_native": "Namangan / Наманган",
   "population": 713385,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "Statistics Agency of Uzbekistan, estimate at 1 Jan 2025, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Uzbekistan: Administrative Division')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 40.998,
   "lon": 71.673
  },
  {
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "unit": "Navoiy Region",
   "level": "region (viloyat) seat",
   "seat": "Navoiy",
   "seat_native": "Navoiy / Навоий",
   "population": 166492,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "Statistics Agency of Uzbekistan, estimate at 1 Jan 2025, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Uzbekistan: Administrative Division')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 40.084,
   "lon": 65.379
  },
  {
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "unit": "Qashqadaryo Region",
   "level": "region (viloyat) seat",
   "seat": "Qarshi",
   "seat_native": "Qarshi / Қарши",
   "population": 300777,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "Statistics Agency of Uzbekistan, estimate at 1 Jan 2025, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Uzbekistan: Administrative Division')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 38.861,
   "lon": 65.789
  },
  {
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "unit": "Samarqand Region",
   "level": "region (viloyat) seat",
   "seat": "Samarkand",
   "seat_native": "Samarqand / Самарқанд",
   "population": 595818,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "Statistics Agency of Uzbekistan, estimate at 1 Jan 2025, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Uzbekistan: Administrative Division')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "Maracanda",
   "lat": 39.655,
   "lon": 66.964
  },
  {
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "unit": "Sirdaryo Region",
   "level": "region (viloyat) seat",
   "seat": "Guliston",
   "seat_native": "Guliston / Гулистон",
   "population": 102083,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "Statistics Agency of Uzbekistan, estimate at 1 Jan 2025, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Uzbekistan: Administrative Division')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 40.495,
   "lon": 68.775
  },
  {
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "unit": "Surxondaryo Region",
   "level": "region (viloyat) seat",
   "seat": "Termez",
   "seat_native": "Termiz / Термиз",
   "population": 207326,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "Statistics Agency of Uzbekistan, estimate at 1 Jan 2025, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Uzbekistan: Administrative Division')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 37.224,
   "lon": 67.278
  },
  {
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "unit": "Xorazm Region",
   "level": "region (viloyat) seat",
   "seat": "Urgench",
   "seat_native": "Urganch / Урганч",
   "population": 155690,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "Statistics Agency of Uzbekistan, estimate at 1 Jan 2025, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Uzbekistan: Administrative Division')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 41.552,
   "lon": 60.631
  },
  {
   "country": "Uzbekistan",
   "unit": "Tashkent Region",
   "level": "region (viloyat) seat",
   "seat": "Nurafshon",
   "seat_native": "Nurafshon / Нурафшон",
   "population": 57523,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "pop_source": "Statistics Agency of Uzbekistan, estimate at 1 Jan 2025, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Uzbekistan: Administrative Division')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 41.032,
   "lon": 69.363
  },
  {
   "country": "Tajikistan",
   "unit": "Tajikistan (national capital); Dushanbe city; the Districts of Republican Subordination",
   "level": "national capital; city with regional status; the Districts of Republican Subordination have no seat of their own and are governed from Dushanbe",
   "seat": "Dushanbe",
   "seat_native": "Душанбе",
   "population": 1242600,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "Agency on Statistics under the President of Tajikistan, estimate at 1 Jan 2024, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Tajikistan: Administrative Division')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 38.536,
   "lon": 68.779
  },
  {
   "country": "Tajikistan",
   "unit": "Sughd Region",
   "level": "region (viloyat) seat",
   "seat": "Khujand",
   "seat_native": "Хуҷанд",
   "population": 203800,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "pop_source": "Agency on Statistics under the President of Tajikistan, estimate at 1 Jan 2024, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Tajikistan: Administrative Division')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "Alexandria Eschate",
   "lat": 40.283,
   "lon": 69.622
  },
  {
   "country": "Tajikistan",
   "unit": "Khatlon Region",
   "level": "region (viloyat) seat",
   "seat": "Bokhtar",
   "seat_native": "Бохтар",
   "population": 111800,
   "pop_year": 2020,
   "pop_source": "Agency on Statistics under the President of Tajikistan, estimate at 1 Jan 2020, city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Tajikistan')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 37.837,
   "lon": 68.778
  },
  {
   "country": "Tajikistan",
   "unit": "Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region",
   "level": "autonomous region seat",
   "seat": "Khorugh",
   "seat_native": "Хоруғ",
   "population": 30500,
   "pop_year": 2020,
   "pop_source": "Agency on Statistics under the President of Tajikistan, estimate at 1 Jan 2020, city (via Wikipedia 'List of cities in Tajikistan')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 37.49,
   "lon": 71.553
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkmenistan",
   "unit": "Turkmenistan (national capital); Ashgabat city",
   "level": "national capital; city with regional status",
   "seat": "Ashgabat",
   "seat_native": "Aşgabat",
   "population": 1030063,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "State Committee for Statistics of Turkmenistan, census of 17 Dec 2022, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Turkmenistan: Cities')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 37.95,
   "lon": 58.383
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkmenistan",
   "unit": "Ahal Region; Arkadag city",
   "level": "region (welaýat) seat; city with regional status",
   "seat": "Arkadag",
   "seat_native": "Arkadag",
   "population": 567,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "State Committee for Statistics of Turkmenistan, census of 17 Dec 2022, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Turkmenistan: Cities')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 38.071,
   "lon": 58.066
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkmenistan",
   "unit": "Balkan Region",
   "level": "region (welaýat) seat",
   "seat": "Balkanabat",
   "seat_native": "Balkanabat",
   "population": 123190,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "State Committee for Statistics of Turkmenistan, census of 17 Dec 2022, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Turkmenistan: Cities')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 39.511,
   "lon": 54.367
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkmenistan",
   "unit": "Daşoguz Region",
   "level": "region (welaýat) seat",
   "seat": "Daşoguz",
   "seat_native": "Daşoguz",
   "population": 201142,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "State Committee for Statistics of Turkmenistan, census of 17 Dec 2022, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Turkmenistan: Cities')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 41.836,
   "lon": 59.967
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkmenistan",
   "unit": "Lebap Region",
   "level": "region (welaýat) seat",
   "seat": "Türkmenabat",
   "seat_native": "Türkmenabat",
   "population": 230861,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "State Committee for Statistics of Turkmenistan, census of 17 Dec 2022, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Turkmenistan: Cities')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 39.073,
   "lon": 63.579
  },
  {
   "country": "Turkmenistan",
   "unit": "Mary Region",
   "level": "region (welaýat) seat",
   "seat": "Mary",
   "seat_native": "Mary",
   "population": 167027,
   "pop_year": 2022,
   "pop_source": "State Committee for Statistics of Turkmenistan, census of 17 Dec 2022, city (via citypopulation.de, 'Turkmenistan: Cities')",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 37.594,
   "lon": 61.83
  },
  {
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "unit": "Kazakhstan (national capital); Astana city",
   "level": "national capital; city of republican significance",
   "seat": "Astana",
   "seat_native": "Астана",
   "population": 1354507,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Bureau of National Statistics of Kazakhstan, estimate at 1 Jan 2023, city (via Wikipedia 'List of most populous cities in Kazakhstan', from citypopulation.de)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 51.18,
   "lon": 71.446
  },
  {
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "unit": "Almaty city",
   "level": "city of republican significance",
   "seat": "Almaty",
   "seat_native": "Алматы",
   "population": 2161797,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Bureau of National Statistics of Kazakhstan, estimate at 1 Jan 2023, city (via Wikipedia 'List of most populous cities in Kazakhstan', from citypopulation.de)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 43.252,
   "lon": 76.912
  },
  {
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "unit": "Shymkent city",
   "level": "city of republican significance",
   "seat": "Shymkent",
   "seat_native": "Шымкент",
   "population": 1192120,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Bureau of National Statistics of Kazakhstan, estimate at 1 Jan 2023, city (via Wikipedia 'List of most populous cities in Kazakhstan', from citypopulation.de)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 42.31,
   "lon": 69.6
  },
  {
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "unit": "Abai Region (created 2022)",
   "level": "region (oblys) seat",
   "seat": "Semey",
   "seat_native": "Семей",
   "population": 308143,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Bureau of National Statistics of Kazakhstan, estimate at 1 Jan 2023, city (via Wikipedia 'List of most populous cities in Kazakhstan', from citypopulation.de)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 50.421,
   "lon": 80.25
  },
  {
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "unit": "Akmola Region",
   "level": "region (oblys) seat",
   "seat": "Kokshetau",
   "seat_native": "Көкшетау",
   "population": 174614,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Bureau of National Statistics of Kazakhstan, estimate at 1 Jan 2023, city (via Wikipedia 'List of most populous cities in Kazakhstan', from citypopulation.de)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 53.284,
   "lon": 69.394
  },
  {
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "unit": "Aktobe Region",
   "level": "region (oblys) seat",
   "seat": "Aktobe",
   "seat_native": "Ақтөбе",
   "population": 559911,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Bureau of National Statistics of Kazakhstan, estimate at 1 Jan 2023, city (via Wikipedia 'List of most populous cities in Kazakhstan', from citypopulation.de)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 50.28,
   "lon": 57.207
  },
  {
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "unit": "Almaty Region",
   "level": "region (oblys) seat",
   "seat": "Konaev",
   "seat_native": "Қонаев",
   "population": 39855,
   "pop_year": 2009,
   "pop_source": "2009 census (via Wikipedia 'Qonaev'); the 2021 census figure is not given there",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 43.867,
   "lon": 77.063
  },
  {
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "unit": "Atyrau Region",
   "level": "region (oblys) seat",
   "seat": "Atyrau",
   "seat_native": "Атырау",
   "population": 316468,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Bureau of National Statistics of Kazakhstan, estimate at 1 Jan 2023, city (via Wikipedia 'List of most populous cities in Kazakhstan', from citypopulation.de)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 47.105,
   "lon": 51.884
  },
  {
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "unit": "East Kazakhstan Region",
   "level": "region (oblys) seat",
   "seat": "Oskemen (Ust-Kamenogorsk)",
   "seat_native": "Өскемен",
   "population": 352894,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Bureau of National Statistics of Kazakhstan, estimate at 1 Jan 2023, city (via Wikipedia 'List of most populous cities in Kazakhstan', from citypopulation.de)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 49.971,
   "lon": 82.606
  },
  {
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "unit": "Jambyl Region",
   "level": "region (oblys) seat",
   "seat": "Taraz",
   "seat_native": "Тараз",
   "population": 427356,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Bureau of National Statistics of Kazakhstan, estimate at 1 Jan 2023, city (via Wikipedia 'List of most populous cities in Kazakhstan', from citypopulation.de)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 42.898,
   "lon": 71.373
  },
  {
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "unit": "Jetisu Region (created 2022)",
   "level": "region (oblys) seat",
   "seat": "Taldykorgan",
   "seat_native": "Талдықорған",
   "population": 168686,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Bureau of National Statistics of Kazakhstan, estimate at 1 Jan 2023, city (via Wikipedia 'List of most populous cities in Kazakhstan', from citypopulation.de)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 45.016,
   "lon": 78.374
  },
  {
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "unit": "Karaganda Region",
   "level": "region (oblys) seat",
   "seat": "Karaganda",
   "seat_native": "Қарағанды",
   "population": 515632,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Bureau of National Statistics of Kazakhstan, estimate at 1 Jan 2023, city (via Wikipedia 'List of most populous cities in Kazakhstan', from citypopulation.de)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 49.802,
   "lon": 73.102
  },
  {
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "unit": "Kostanay Region",
   "level": "region (oblys) seat",
   "seat": "Kostanay",
   "seat_native": "Қостанай",
   "population": 264466,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Bureau of National Statistics of Kazakhstan, estimate at 1 Jan 2023, city (via Wikipedia 'List of most populous cities in Kazakhstan', from citypopulation.de)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 53.214,
   "lon": 63.625
  },
  {
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "unit": "Kyzylorda Region",
   "level": "region (oblys) seat",
   "seat": "Kyzylorda",
   "seat_native": "Қызылорда",
   "population": 278638,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Bureau of National Statistics of Kazakhstan, estimate at 1 Jan 2023, city (via Wikipedia 'List of most populous cities in Kazakhstan', from citypopulation.de)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 44.853,
   "lon": 65.509
  },
  {
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "unit": "Mangystau Region",
   "level": "region (oblys) seat",
   "seat": "Aktau",
   "seat_native": "Ақтау",
   "population": 263893,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Bureau of National Statistics of Kazakhstan, estimate at 1 Jan 2023, city (via Wikipedia 'List of most populous cities in Kazakhstan', from citypopulation.de)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 43.661,
   "lon": 51.174
  },
  {
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "unit": "North Kazakhstan Region",
   "level": "region (oblys) seat",
   "seat": "Petropavl",
   "seat_native": "Петропавл",
   "population": 222636,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Bureau of National Statistics of Kazakhstan, estimate at 1 Jan 2023, city (via Wikipedia 'List of most populous cities in Kazakhstan', from citypopulation.de)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 54.873,
   "lon": 69.151
  },
  {
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "unit": "Pavlodar Region",
   "level": "region (oblys) seat",
   "seat": "Pavlodar",
   "seat_native": "Павлодар",
   "population": 334096,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Bureau of National Statistics of Kazakhstan, estimate at 1 Jan 2023, city (via Wikipedia 'List of most populous cities in Kazakhstan', from citypopulation.de)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 52.276,
   "lon": 76.969
  },
  {
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "unit": "Turkistan Region",
   "level": "region (oblys) seat",
   "seat": "Turkistan",
   "seat_native": "Түркістан",
   "population": 220159,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Bureau of National Statistics of Kazakhstan, estimate at 1 Jan 2023, city (via Wikipedia 'List of most populous cities in Kazakhstan', from citypopulation.de)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 43.295,
   "lon": 68.257
  },
  {
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "unit": "Ulytau Region (created 2022)",
   "level": "region (oblys) seat",
   "seat": "Jezkazgan",
   "seat_native": "Жезқазған",
   "population": 89092,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Bureau of National Statistics of Kazakhstan, estimate at 1 Jan 2023, city (via Wikipedia 'List of most populous cities in Kazakhstan', from citypopulation.de)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 47.794,
   "lon": 67.706
  },
  {
   "country": "Kazakhstan",
   "unit": "West Kazakhstan Region",
   "level": "region (oblys) seat",
   "seat": "Oral (Uralsk)",
   "seat_native": "Орал",
   "population": 253773,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "pop_source": "Bureau of National Statistics of Kazakhstan, estimate at 1 Jan 2023, city (via Wikipedia 'List of most populous cities in Kazakhstan', from citypopulation.de)",
   "disputed": "",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "lat": 51.246,
   "lon": 51.426
  }
 ],
 "later_greeks": {
  "timeline": [
   {
    "year": 100,
    "year_text": "1st-2nd c. AD",
    "place": "Karla, Junnar and Nashik (western Deccan)",
    "country": "India",
    "event": "Men who call themselves Yavanas (Greeks) pay for pillars, cisterns and cells in the Buddhist cave monasteries; they write in Prakrit and most bear Indian names (at Nashik, Indragnidatta son of Dhammadeva, a Yonaka of the north from Dattamitri).",
    "persons": [
     "Indragnidatta",
     "Irila (Junnar)",
     "Cita (Junnar)"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Karttunen 1997, India and the Hellenistic World",
     "Mairs 2014, The Hellenistic Far East, ch. 4",
     "Epigraphia Indica 8 (Nashik inscriptions) (unchecked)"
    ],
    "grade": "A",
    "note": "Their home language was Prakrit; whether any still spoke Greek is not known."
   },
   {
    "year": 127,
    "year_text": "c. AD 127",
    "place": "Rabatak (Baghlan province)",
    "country": "Afghanistan",
    "event": "The Rabatak inscription of Kanishka says that he issued an edict in Greek and then put it into Aryan (Bactrian); from early in his reign Greek disappears from Kushan coins and Bactrian, written in Greek letters, replaces it.",
    "persons": [
     "Kanishka"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Sims-Williams and Cribb 1996, Silk Road Art and Archaeology 4",
     "Falk 2001, Silk Road Art and Archaeology 7 (the era of AD 127)",
     "en.wikipedia, Rabatak inscription: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabatak_inscription"
    ],
    "grade": "A",
    "note": "Date of Kanishka's year 1 after Falk; others prefer slightly different dates."
   },
   {
    "year": 150,
    "year_text": "mid-2nd c. AD",
    "place": "Muziris (probably Pattanam, Kerala)",
    "country": "India",
    "event": "The Muziris papyrus (P. Vindob. G 40822), a Greek loan contract drawn up for a cargo shipped from Muziris to Egypt on the ship Hermapollon, shows Greek-speaking traders of Roman Egypt working the India run.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Casson 1989, The Periplus Maris Erythraei",
     "en.wikipedia, Muziris: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muziris",
     "inventory number P. Vindob. G 40822 (unchecked)"
    ],
    "grade": "A",
    "note": "The traders came and went with the monsoon; Tamil poems (the Cilappatikaram) describe Yavana traders at the ports, and the Peutinger map marks a temple of Augustus at Muziris, but no resident Greek town is attested."
   },
   {
    "year": 550,
    "year_text": "c. 547-550",
    "place": "Taprobane (Sri Lanka), Male (Malabar), Kalliana (near Mumbai)",
    "country": "Sri Lanka",
    "event": "Kosmas, a Greek-speaking merchant of Alexandria later called Indikopleustes, describes in his Christian Topography the Christian communities of Taprobane, Male and Kalliana, served by clergy ordained in Persia: Christians of the Church of the East, whose church language was Syriac, not Greek.",
    "persons": [
     "Kosmas Indikopleustes"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Kosmas, Christian Topography 3 and 11",
     "en.wikipedia, Cosmas Indicopleustes: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmas_Indicopleustes"
    ],
    "grade": "A",
    "note": "Kosmas was at Adulis about 525 and mentions the Malabar ports in 522; whether he reached India and Sri Lanka himself is uncertain. He also reports Greek-speaking Christians, descendants of Ptolemaic colonists, on the island of Dioskorides (Socotra), outside this area."
   },
   {
    "year": 781,
    "year_text": "781 and later",
    "place": "Northern Afghanistan (Tukharistan)",
    "country": "Afghanistan",
    "event": "The latest dated Bactrian documents, private letters and contracts on leather, are written in Greek letters but in the Bactrian language; inscriptions in this script go on into the 9th century (Tochi valley). This is Bactrian, not Greek speech.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Sims-Williams 2000-2012, Bactrian Documents from Northern Afghanistan I-III (unchecked: the latest date)"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1713,
    "year_text": "1713 and 1728",
    "place": "Calcutta",
    "country": "India",
    "event": "The earliest record of Greek merchants in India of this age: two Latin memorial tablets in Calcutta's Catholic cathedral, with death dates of 1713 and 1728.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Banglapedia, Greeks, The: https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Greeks,_The"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1750,
    "year_text": "1750",
    "place": "Bengal",
    "country": "India",
    "event": "Hadji Alexios Argyree (Argyris), a Greek merchant from Philippopolis (Plovdiv), comes to Bengal; he works as an interpreter and trades, and becomes the first recognised head of the Greek community of Bengal.",
    "persons": [
     "Hadji Alexios Argyree"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Banglapedia, Greeks, The",
     "The Telegraph (Kolkata), All Greek to Calcutta, 2017: https://obeta.ttef.in/culture/heritage/all-greek-to-calcutta/cid/1683507"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "His name is given in several forms (Alexios Argyree Panaghiotis in Banglapedia; Panagiotes Alexandros Argyres on Live History India)."
   },
   {
    "year": 1777,
    "year_text": "1777",
    "place": "Dhaka",
    "country": "Bangladesh",
    "event": "Argyree dies in Dhaka, having vowed during a storm at sea in 1770 to build a church in Calcutta; his tombstone (5 August 1777) is now in the Greek cemetery at Phoolbagan, Kolkata.",
    "persons": [
     "Hadji Alexios Argyree"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Banglapedia, Greeks, The",
     "The Telegraph (Kolkata), All Greek to Calcutta",
     "Live History India, Kolkata's Greeks: A Fading Memory: https://livehistoryindia.com/story/living-culture/kolkatas-greeks-a-fading-memory"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1781,
    "year_text": "June 1780 - 6 August 1781",
    "place": "Calcutta, Amratolla Street",
    "country": "India",
    "event": "The Greek church of the Transfiguration on Amratolla Street, Calcutta, paid for from Argyree's estate and by Greek and British merchants, with Warren Hastings heading the subscription with 2,000 rupees: foundation laid in June 1780, consecrated on 6 August 1781, the feast of the Transfiguration.",
    "persons": [
     "Warren Hastings",
     "Parthenios of Corfu"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Kinjal Bose, Greek Orthodox Church, Kolkata (2020, citing Cotton, Calcutta Old and New): https://kinjalbose.com/2020/12/29/greek-orthodox-church-kolkata/",
     "Greek City Times, Kolkata's Greek Orthodox Church: https://greekcitytimes.com/?p=227079",
     "The Telegraph (Kolkata), All Greek to Calcutta: https://obeta.ttef.in/culture/heritage/all-greek-to-calcutta/cid/1683507",
     "Banglapedia, Greeks, The (gives 1782)"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "Banglapedia gives 1782. Its priests were sent from the monastery of St Catherine on Mount Sinai (Vassiliades); Greek City Times names a Rev. Nikiforos as the first priest of the Amratolla church, others Parthenios of Corfu."
   },
   {
    "year": 1786,
    "year_text": "1786",
    "place": "Calcutta",
    "country": "India",
    "event": "Dimitrios Galanos of Athens arrives in Calcutta to teach at the Greek school.",
    "persons": [
     "Dimitrios Galanos"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Banglapedia, Greeks, The"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1793,
    "year_text": "1792/1793",
    "place": "Benares (Varanasi)",
    "country": "India",
    "event": "Galanos moves to Benares, where he spends the rest of his life studying Sanskrit with Brahmin teachers (among them Munshi Sital Singh) and translating Sanskrit works into Greek.",
    "persons": [
     "Dimitrios Galanos"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "en.wikipedia, Dimitrios Galanos: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimitrios_Galanos",
     "Banglapedia, Greeks, The (gives 1792)"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1812,
    "year_text": "1812",
    "place": "Dhaka",
    "country": "Bangladesh",
    "event": "A Greek church is opened in Dhaka for the Greek merchants of Dhaka and Narayanganj.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Banglapedia, Greeks, The"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1833,
    "year_text": "1833",
    "place": "Benares (Varanasi)",
    "country": "India",
    "event": "Galanos dies in Benares on 3 May 1833; his tombstone, inscribed in Greek, is in the Catholic cemetery of Varanasi (Banglapedia: the English cemetery). His translations, the Bhagavad Gita among them, are later edited in Athens by Georgios K. Typaldos. A marble tablet on the Greek church at Kalighat, Kolkata, also commemorates him.",
    "persons": [
     "Dimitrios Galanos"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "en.wikipedia, Dimitrios Galanos: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimitrios_Galanos",
     "Banglapedia, Greeks, The",
     "Greek City Times, Kolkata's Greek Orthodox Church: https://greekcitytimes.com/?p=227079"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "Sources differ on the cemetery."
   },
   {
    "year": 1851,
    "year_text": "1851",
    "place": "Calcutta",
    "country": "India",
    "event": "Ralli Brothers, the Chiot firm of London, open a branch in Calcutta under John (Eustratios) Ralli and Nicholas Paspati; the office is at 15 Lal Bazaar. A Bombay branch follows in 1861 under Pandia and Ambrose Ralli, and Karachi (Kurrachee) is among the firm's outlets by 1865. The firm becomes one of the largest exporters of jute and grain.",
    "persons": [
     "John (Eustratios) Ralli",
     "Nicholas Paspati",
     "Pandia Ralli",
     "Ambrose Ralli"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "London Metropolitan Archives catalogue (AIM25), Ralli Brothers Limited, administrative history: https://atom.aim25.com/index.php/ralli-brothers-limited",
     "Christopher Long, Ralli Brothers (family history pages): https://christopherlong.co.uk/per/rallibros.html",
     "Banglapedia, Greeks, The: https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Greeks,_The",
     "Live History India, Kolkata's Greeks: https://livehistoryindia.com/story/living-culture/kolkatas-greeks-a-fading-memory"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "en.wikipedia (Ralli Brothers) gives 1851 for both Calcutta and Bombay; the London Metropolitan Archives catalogue and Long give Bombay ten years later, 1861."
   },
   {
    "year": 1882,
    "year_text": "1882",
    "place": "Narayanganj",
    "country": "Bangladesh",
    "event": "Ralli Brothers come to Narayanganj, the jute port of Dhaka, where the firm owns a jute mill.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Banglapedia, Greeks, The"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1890,
    "year_text": "last quarter of the 19th c.",
    "place": "Ramna, Dhaka",
    "country": "Bangladesh",
    "event": "Ralli Brothers build the Greek memorial at Ramna, a small classical building that keeps ten gravestones of Greek merchants, wives and a priest who died between 1800 and 1860, most inscribed in Greek.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Banglapedia, Greeks, The"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "The exact year is not given in the source used."
   },
   {
    "year": 1925,
    "year_text": "3 November 1924 - 19 November 1925",
    "place": "Calcutta, Kalighat",
    "country": "India",
    "event": "After the sale of the Amratolla church and its cemetery land, the foundation stone of a new Greek church of the Transfiguration is laid at Kalighat (Library Road) on 3 November 1924, with money from members of the Ralli family; the first service is held on 19 November 1925. The cemetery moves to Phoolbagan.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Kinjal Bose, Greek Orthodox Church, Kolkata (2020, citing Cotton, Calcutta Old and New): https://kinjalbose.com/2020/12/29/greek-orthodox-church-kolkata/",
     "Greek City Times, Kolkata's Greek Orthodox Church: https://greekcitytimes.com/?p=227079",
     "The Telegraph (Kolkata), All Greek to Calcutta"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1937,
    "year_text": "11 December 1937",
    "place": "the USSR, with arrests in Central Asia too",
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "event": "NKVD directive 50215, signed by Nikolai Yezhov, orders the arrest of Greeks suspected of espionage in every republic and region; arrests begin on 15 December 1937 and go on to November 1938. Most of those arrested are shot and the rest sent to camps; sentences are passed on lists by a commission of Yezhov and the Prosecutor General Vyshinsky.",
    "persons": [
     "Nikolai Yezhov"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Altapress (Barnaul), 15 Dec 2018, day of remembrance of the victims of the Greek operation of the NKVD (citing Memorial for the national operations): https://altapress.ru/story/rasstrelivali-ili-ssilali-dekabrya-den-pamyati-zhertv-grecheskoy-operatsii-nkvd-233640",
     "en.wikipedia, Greek Operation: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Operation",
     "en.wikipedia, Mass operations of the NKVD: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_operations_of_the_NKVD",
     "CNN Greece, On this day, 15 December: the persecution of the Greeks in the USSR (figures without a stated source): https://www.cnn.gr/focus/story/340348/san-simera-15-dekemvriou-oi-diokseis-ton-ellinon-stin-essd"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "Totals are not settled. Altapress gives about 22,000 Greek victims, without a source; en.wikipedia gives 20,000-50,000 killed or disappeared (after Englund and Agtzidis); Dzhukha about 15,000 executed. Memorial's totals for all the national operations together (25 August 1937 - 15 November 1938) are 335,500 repressed and 247,200 sentenced to death. The often quoted 12,557 sentenced and 10,545 shot 'on the Greek line' could not be traced to a source here (unchecked). Country set to Kazakhstan, the main Central Asian destination; the operation itself covered the whole USSR. CNN Greece (no source stated) counts about 2,500 Greek camp prisoners in 1938, of whom 600-800 died by 1941: about 1,500 at Kolyma, 100 at Norilsk, more than 130 in Komi, more than 200 in Kazakhstan, 60-80 at Arkhangelsk; 5,000-6,000 victims in Ukraine alone."
   },
   {
    "year": 1942,
    "year_text": "29 May 1942",
    "place": "Krasnodar Krai, to the east",
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "event": "Stalin's order to remove Greeks and other minorities from Krasnodar Krai: 1,402 Greeks, 562 of them children under 16, are deported to the east.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Bugay 1996, p. 87, via en.wikipedia, Deportation of the Soviet Greeks: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Soviet_Greeks"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "Destination given only as the east; Kazakhstan is the usual reading (unchecked)."
   },
   {
    "year": 1944,
    "year_text": "2 June 1944",
    "place": "Crimea, Krasnodar, Rostov, Transcaucasia",
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "event": "State Defence Committee decree 5984ss orders the deportation of the Bulgarians, Greeks and Armenians of the Crimea; on 27-28 June the Crimean Greeks are loaded on trains (15,040 Greeks in the report to Stalin of 4 July 1944). They are sent to special settlements in the Sverdlovsk and Kemerovo oblasts, the Molotov oblast and the Bashkir ASSR, and to Guryev oblast in the Kazakh SSR. Further Greeks follow from Krasnodar, Rostov and Transcaucasia.",
    "persons": [
     "Stalin",
     "Lavrentiy Beria"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine, research paper on the deportations from the Crimea (citing the report to Stalin of 4 July 1944, no. 693/b): https://research.rada.gov.ua/uploads/documents/33558.pdf",
     "deportation.org.ua, Deportation of Pontic Greeks in 1942, 1944 and 1949: Reasons, Number of Deportees, and Places of Exile (citing Keshanidi 2015, Bazhan 2004, Dzhukha 2008 and 2011): https://deportation.org.ua/deportation-of-pontic-greeks-in-1942-1944-and-1949/",
     "deportation.org.ua, Deportations of Pontian Greeks in 1942 and 1944: Examining the Causes, Scale, and Locations: https://deportation.org.ua/?p=1555",
     "Bugay 1996, p. 88, via en.wikipedia, Deportation of the Soviet Greeks: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Soviet_Greeks"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "Counts differ: 15,040 Greeks (report to Stalin, 4 July 1944, no. 693/b); 16,006 Greeks (Bazhan 2004, via deportation.org.ua); a further 3,531 Greeks of foreign citizenship deported on 27-28 June under decree 6100ss (Rada paper). Bugay: 8,300 from Krasnodar and Rostov and 16,375 from Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan, the last sent to the Kazakh SSR and the RSFSR. Guryev oblast rests on M. K. Bogdanov's report (Keshanidi 2015, p. 128); the other destinations on deportation.org.ua without its own footnote. No source found sends the Crimean Greeks to the Uzbek SSR. The decree's own quotas by region (ru.wikisource) could not be opened. Pavel Feodoridi of Filia speaks of about 60,000 Greeks deported in 1944, settled mainly in the Pavlodar and Kzyl-Orda oblasts: more than the archival counts."
   },
   {
    "year": 1944,
    "year_text": "September 1944",
    "place": "Stalinsk (now Novokuznetsk), Kemerovo oblast",
    "country": "Russia",
    "event": "A convoy of Greeks deported from the Crimea reaches Stalinsk; the families are housed in tents while barracks are built in haste before the winter.",
    "persons": [
     "Pavlo Angelidi"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "deportation.org.ua, Deportation of Pontic Greeks in 1942, 1944 and 1949: Reasons, Number of Deportees, and Places of Exile (citing Keshanidi 2015, Bazhan 2004, Dzhukha 2008 and 2011): https://deportation.org.ua/deportation-of-pontic-greeks-in-1942-1944-and-1949/",
     "deportation.org.ua, Deportations of Pontian Greeks in 1942 and 1944: Examining the Causes, Scale, and Locations: https://deportation.org.ua/?p=1555"
    ],
    "grade": "C",
    "note": "One deportee's recollection (Pavlo Angelidi), quoted by deportation.org.ua; no count of the Greeks in Kemerovo oblast was found."
   },
   {
    "year": 1949,
    "year_text": "29 May - June 1949",
    "place": "South Kazakhstan, Dzhambul, Kzyl-Orda, Taldy-Kurgan and Alma-Ata oblasts",
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "event": "Council of Ministers decree 2214-856ss (29 May 1949) orders the removal of Greek citizens, former Greek citizens, Turks and Dashnaks from the Black Sea coast and Transcaucasia. In June and July 1949, 26 trains (19 from Georgia) bring 37,108 Greeks in 8,911 families to Kazakhstan; 24,882 of them are settled in South Kazakhstan oblast, 5,076 at the Mirgalimsai lead mine (later Kentau).",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Kaiser 2019, p. 87 (decree)",
     "Chilikova, Archive of the President of Kazakhstan: https://e-history.kz/storage/upload/library_en_files/iblock/10c/10c560916ec3cb52e415752f54a13b6c.pdf",
     "Shetkus and Pazilov, Forced labor of deported peoples in the industry of Southern Kazakhstan (the example of Kentau city), Bulletin of KazNU, History series 88 (2018), pp. 103-110 (citing Bugay 1995, Dzhukha 2008 and the Kentau regional state archive): https://bulletin-history.kaznu.kz/index.php/1-history/ru/article/download/186/194/397",
     "deportation.org.ua, Deportation of Pontic Greeks in 1942, 1944 and 1949: Reasons, Number of Deportees, and Places of Exile (citing Keshanidi 2015, Bazhan 2004, Dzhukha 2008 and 2011): https://deportation.org.ua/deportation-of-pontic-greeks-in-1942-1944-and-1949/",
     "Shagoyan, article on the 1949 deportation from Armenia, Tomsk State University journal (citing Pohl 1999, p. 123; Bugay 1995; Polian 2001; Ablazhey 2011): https://journals.tsu.ru/uploads/import/2658/files/eid83247054.pdf"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "The decree covered about 57,700 people of all groups (Shagoyan); by the count of 1953, 37,352 of the 56,142 deportees under it were Greeks (Pohl 1999, p. 123, via Shagoyan). The Kazakh MVD's 37,108 (memorandum of 5 August 1949; Bugay 1995, p. 83) agrees. De Waal's 27,000 equals the plan of MGB order 00525 (6,000 families or 21,600 people to Dzhambul oblast and 1,500 families or 5,400 to South Kazakhstan oblast), not the outcome; Kaiser's 31,386 is read by Topalidis as Georgia only; Voutira's about 50,000 and en.wikipedia's 'about 100,000' (Greeks in Russia) are not supported by the archival counts. About 75% of the 1949 deportees came from Abkhazia and 7% from Adjara (Shetkus and Pazilov). The Greeks went to Kazakhstan; the Armenians of the same operation went to the Altai Territory and Tomsk oblast. No source found sends 1949 Greek deportees to Uzbekistan or Kyrgyzstan. Further transports followed in February and August 1950."
   },
   {
    "year": 1949,
    "year_text": "1 October - December 1949",
    "place": "Tashkent",
    "country": "Uzbekistan",
    "event": "Fighters of the defeated Democratic Army of Greece are shipped from Durres and Vlore in Albania on Soviet ships (among them the Sukona, a Liberty ship, and the freighter Vladivostok) through the Dardanelles to Poti, then by train to Baku, across the Caspian to Turkmenistan and by train across the Karakum to Tashkent and Chirchik: about 12,000 people by the end of 1949, housed first in barracks that had held Japanese prisoners of war (Politis).",
    "persons": [
     "Nikos Zachariadis"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Eleni Nikolaidou, The great journey of the exodus from Greece of the political refugees of the civil war, Efimerida ton Syntakton, 8 Jan 2023: https://www.efsyn.gr/?p=1221096",
     "Neos Kosmos, The Greek miracle in Tashkent, 12 Jan 2026 (Costas Politis to AMNA): https://neoskosmos.com/en/2026/01/12/features/the-greek-miracle-in-tashkent-an-exhibition-on-the-resilience-of-hellenism-in-central-asia/",
     "Tsekou, EKT teaching text, table after Van Boeschoten (11,980 in the USSR in 1950): https://repository-edulll.ekt.gr/edulll/retrieve/11269/3482_01_3.5.1.%20%CE%A4%CF%83%CE%AD%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%85.pdf"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "Nikolaidou: the Vladivostok left Durres on 16 October 1949 with about 1,000 fighters and reached Tashkent on 4 November; Dimitris Zygouras counts four sailings; one group embarked on 1 October and one ship docked at Poti on 31 October. 11,997 settled in Tashkent in 1949 (Tashkent Greek Cultural Association, via Nikolaidou); 11,980 in the whole USSR in 1950 (8,573 men, 3,407 women; party count); a Soviet estimate of 17,500 in Tashkent, about 8,000 of them party members, is undated. The ships Kotovsky and Pobeda, sometimes named, were not confirmed."
   },
   {
    "year": 1953,
    "year_text": "1 January 1953",
    "place": "Kazakh and Uzbek SSRs",
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "event": "Count of special settlers: 21,057 Greek special settlers counted as foreign Greeks (Greek citizens or former Greek citizens (unchecked: the category)) in the Kazakh SSR and 2,472 in the Uzbek SSR; about 52,000 Greeks in all special settlements of the USSR.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Dundovich, Gori and Guercetti 2003, p. 85, and Tishkov 1996, p. 38, via en.wikipedia, Deportation of the Soviet Greeks"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "Voutira (2011) puts the 52,000 in the Central Asian republics, 74% of them in Kazakhstan."
   },
   {
    "year": 1955,
    "year_text": "September 1955",
    "place": "Tashkent",
    "country": "Uzbekistan",
    "event": "Violent clashes among the Greek political refugees of Tashkent between supporters of the KKE leader Nikos Zachariadis and his opponents, who backed the new Soviet line; Politis speaks of deaths and injuries, without figures.",
    "persons": [
     "Nikos Zachariadis"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Efimerida ton Syntakton, review of Eleni Nikolaidou, 'Kali patrida, syntrofe!' (Society for Contemporary History): https://www.efsyn.gr/tehnes/ekdoseis-biblia/404823_oi-politikoi-prosfyges-kai-o-nikos-zahariadis-se-ena-biblio/",
     "Neos Kosmos, The Greek miracle in Tashkent, 12 Jan 2026 (Costas Politis to AMNA): https://neoskosmos.com/en/2026/01/12/features/the-greek-miracle-in-tashkent-an-exhibition-on-the-resilience-of-hellenism-in-central-asia/",
     "Marxists Internet Archive, Nikos Zachariadis, biography: https://www.marxists.org/archive/zachariadis/biography.htm",
     "en.wikipedia, Nikos Zachariadis: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikos_Zachariadis"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "September 1955 is the month given in the review of Nikolaidou's book; Politis and other accounts give only 1955. The exact days (9-10 September) (unchecked) and the casualty figures were not found. In 1956 the KKE's 6th plenum, with the Soviet party intervening, removed Zachariadis as General Secretary (by May 1956: Marxists Internet Archive, en.wikipedia); he was expelled from the party in 1957 and died in exile at Surgut in 1973."
   },
   {
    "year": 1955,
    "year_text": "1 August 1955",
    "place": "Kentau (Mirgalimsai)",
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "event": "The workers' settlement of the Mirgalimsai lead mine, built largely by Greek deportees of 1949, is made the town of Kentau.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Shetkus and Pazilov, Forced labor of deported peoples in the industry of Southern Kazakhstan (the example of Kentau city), Bulletin of KazNU, History series 88 (2018), pp. 103-110 (citing Bugay 1995, Dzhukha 2008 and the Kentau regional state archive): https://bulletin-history.kaznu.kz/index.php/1-history/ru/article/download/186/194/397 (Kentau regional state archive, F. 57, Op. 7)"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1956,
    "year_text": "25 September 1956",
    "place": "Kazakhstan and Central Asia",
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "event": "MVD order 0402 lifts the special-settlement restrictions on the deported Greeks, without the right to return to their former homes or recover their property.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Bugay 1996, p. 94, via en.wikipedia, Deportation of the Soviet Greeks",
     "Chilikova (no right of return)"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1960,
    "year_text": "1960-1961",
    "place": "Islamabad",
    "country": "Pakistan",
    "event": "The Athens firm of the planner Constantinos Doxiadis, commissioned by the government of Pakistan, draws the master plan of the new capital, Islamabad (1960), and designs public buildings in West and East Pakistan, among them the Teacher-Student Centre of the University of Dhaka (1961).",
    "persons": [
     "Constantinos Doxiadis"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Vassiliades, introduction to Dione Marcos-Dodis, A Chronicle of the Greeks in India 1750-1950 (ELINEPA, 2003): https://elinepa.org/?p=952",
     "en.wikipedia, Constantinos Apostolou Doxiadis: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinos_Apostolou_Doxiadis"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "Greek professionals, not a community."
   },
   {
    "year": 1964,
    "year_text": "1964",
    "place": "Tashkent",
    "country": "Uzbekistan",
    "event": "The Association of Political Refugees in the Soviet Union is officially set up in Tashkent, with a three-storey building, a school and a 250-seat theatre.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Neos Kosmos, The Greek miracle in Tashkent (Politis)"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1965,
    "year_text": "1965-1988",
    "place": "Greece (from Central Asia)",
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "event": "A wave of emigration of Pontic Greeks, mainly from Central Asia, to Greece: about 30,000 settle there in 1965-1988.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Vergeti, Waves of immigration of Greeks from the former Soviet Union in the 20th century, Phasis 13-14 (2010-2011), pp. 436-441: https://phasis.tsu.ge/index.php/PJ/article/download/2040/2331/2813 (citing Kiahopoulos 1988)"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "Earlier departures: a few families in 1946-1948 (some with exit permits from Kokand), about a hundred families from Central Asia in 1957, families from Kentau in 1971 (Vergeti)."
   },
   {
    "year": 1972,
    "year_text": "1972",
    "place": "Calcutta, Kalighat",
    "country": "India",
    "event": "The Greek church at Kalighat is closed; it reopens in 1991 at the request of the Greek embassy.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "The Telegraph (Kolkata), All Greek to Calcutta",
     "Live History India, Kolkata's Greeks"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1973,
    "year_text": "1973",
    "place": "Surgut (Khanty-Mansi okrug)",
    "country": "Russia",
    "event": "Nikos Zachariadis, the KKE leader deposed in 1956 and expelled in 1957, dies in internal exile at Surgut in western Siberia.",
    "persons": [
     "Nikos Zachariadis"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "en.wikipedia, Nikos Zachariadis: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikos_Zachariadis",
     "Marxists Internet Archive, Nikos Zachariadis, biography: https://www.marxists.org/archive/zachariadis/biography.htm"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "The day and the circumstances of his death were not checked (unchecked)."
   },
   {
    "year": 1975,
    "year_text": "1974-1975",
    "place": "Tashkent",
    "country": "Uzbekistan",
    "event": "After the fall of the junta (July 1974) and the legalisation of the KKE, the return of the political refugees becomes general; in July 1975 the refugee paper Dimokratis counts 14,087 political refugees still in the USSR.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Tsekou, EKT teaching text, tables 10-11"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1982,
    "year_text": "1982",
    "place": "Greece",
    "country": "Uzbekistan",
    "event": "The Papandreou government allows all refugees who are Greeks by genus to return (Slav Macedonians excluded); 2,662 people return in 1982 alone from all host countries. In 1989 a law on lifting the consequences of the Civil War (1863/1989) is passed.",
    "persons": [
     "Andreas Papandreou"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "en.wikipedia, Refugees of the Greek Civil War: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Greek_Civil_War",
     "Tsekou, EKT teaching text (Ministry of Health, 1985)"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1990,
    "year_text": "January 1990",
    "place": "Kentau",
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "event": "512 people leave Kentau for Greece in a single month, at the head of the exodus of the town's Greeks, which peaks in 1991-1993.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "KazNU Bulletin (history of Kentau): https://bulletin-history.kaznu.kz/index.php/1-history/article/download/244/248/499"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1993,
    "year_text": "1993",
    "place": "Greece (from Kazakhstan and Central Asia)",
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "event": "The peak year of the emigration of Greeks from the former USSR to Greece: about 25,700 of those counted in Greece in 2000 had come that year.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Vergeti 2010-2011, via Topalidis: https://mail.pontosworld.com/images/History/Topalidis/Greeks_from_the_former_Soviet_Union.pdf"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 1993,
    "year_text": "1993",
    "place": "Almaty",
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "event": "The Greek communities of Almaty, Shymkent and Taraz found the association Filia; by 2014 it has 17 city communities.",
    "persons": [
     "Pavel Feodoridi"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "The Astana Times, 2014, Greek Association President Calls Kazakhstan 'Unique Place' (Pavel Feodoridi, president of Filiya): https://astanatimes.com/2014/11/greek-association-president-calls-kazakhstan-unique-place-hospitality/"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "Feodoridi was its president in 2014; the founders are not named."
   },
   {
    "year": 2000,
    "year_text": "2000",
    "place": "Greece",
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "event": "The special census of the General Secretariat for Repatriated Greeks counts about 155,000 Greeks from the former USSR who had come since 1987 and stayed; about 21% came from Kazakhstan (52% Georgia, 15% Russia).",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Vergeti; Diamanti-Karanou 2003, via Topalidis"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": "Voluntary survey, so an undercount; exact total 155,319 (unchecked)."
   },
   {
    "year": 2008,
    "year_text": "9 January 2008",
    "place": "Singapore (for South Asia)",
    "country": "India",
    "event": "The Holy Synod of the Ecumenical Patriarchate creates the Metropolis of Singapore and South Asia, covering Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei and East Timor and, in South Asia, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, Afghanistan and the Maldives; its first metropolitan, Konstantinos (Tsilis), is elected on 3 November 2011.",
    "persons": [
     "Konstantinos (Tsilis)",
     "Patriarch Bartholomew"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "en.wikipedia, Eastern Orthodox Metropolitanate of Singapore and South Asia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Metropolitanate_of_Singapore_and_South_Asia"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 2015,
    "year_text": "2015",
    "place": "Kalash valleys (Chitral)",
    "country": "Pakistan",
    "event": "A genome-wide study (Ayub and others, American Journal of Human Genetics) finds that the Kalash are an ancient isolated population and finds no evidence of admixture from Alexander's Greeks.",
    "persons": [],
    "sources": [
     "Ayub et al. 2015, AJHG 96: 775-783: https://www.research.unipd.it/retrieve/fbc7ce21-aefc-41e9-a989-21d20dc56a96/PIIS0002929715001378.pdf",
     "en.wikipedia, Kalash people: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalash_people"
    ],
    "grade": "A",
    "note": ""
   },
   {
    "year": 2020,
    "year_text": "2020-2025",
    "place": "Tashkent",
    "country": "Uzbekistan",
    "event": "A new board under Costas Politis re-establishes the Greek community of Tashkent as the Centre for Greek Culture in Uzbekistan and restores the old refugees' building, which the city had given to the Red Cross in 1996.",
    "persons": [
     "Costas Politis"
    ],
    "sources": [
     "Neos Kosmos, The Greek miracle in Tashkent"
    ],
    "grade": "B",
    "note": ""
   }
  ],
  "communities": [
   {
    "city": "Calcutta (Kolkata), the Greek community",
    "country": "India",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "merchant community",
    "language": "Greek (with English and Bengali for trade)",
    "start": "Greek merchants from Adrianople and Philippopolis, arriving overland from the early 18th century; memorial tablets of 1713 and 1728; an organised community under Hadji Alexios Argyree from c. 1750-1770",
    "peak": "about 120 Greek families (not persons) at the beginning of the 19th century (Live History India); Banglapedia has somewhat fewer than the 200 or more of Dhaka in 1770-1800; a blog's 'around five hundred' when the church was built is not supported",
    "peak_year": 1800,
    "peak_basis": "estimate",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "Church of the Transfiguration, Amratolla Street (foundation June 1780, consecrated 6 August 1781); Greek school (from 1786; refounded by Constantine Partazes, community head 1818-1842); new church of the Transfiguration at Kalighat, 2A Library Road (foundation stone 3 November 1924, first service 19 November 1925, paid for by members of the Ralli family; a Grade I heritage building); Greek cemetery, now at Phoolbagan (more than 200 graves; Argyree's stone of 1777)",
    "notable": "Hadji Alexios Argyree (d. 1777); Father Parthenios of Corfu (in Bengal from 1775; first priest of the Amratolla church in Cotton, via Bose, while Greek City Times and Live History India make Nikiforos the first); priests sent from the monastery of St Catherine on Mount Sinai, among them Nikiforos (from c. 1772); Dimitrios Galanos (teacher, 1786-1792/93); the Ralli Brothers office (1851, under John Ralli and Nicholas Paspati); the last Greek priest, Constantine Halvatzakis-Velladios, sent the church's archives to the Archdiocese of Athens in 1975; Rev. Dionysius George, minister for forty years (d. 23 January 1829)",
    "end": "Small trading houses had faded by the mid-19th century; the big firms (Ralli Brothers) carried the community to the Second World War. Decline after independence (1947); the church was closed in 1972.",
    "today": "The Kalighat church reopened in 1991 at the Greek embassy's request; it is served from the Metropolis of Singapore and South Asia (priest Fr. Raphael Maity), with Sunday services in Bengali for local Orthodox Christians. A Greek nun, Sister Nectaria Paridisi, runs orphanages at Bakeswar and was described as the only Greek left in the city.",
    "lat": 22.5726,
    "lon": 88.3639,
    "sources": [
     "Banglapedia, Greeks, The: https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Greeks,_The",
     "The Telegraph (Kolkata), All Greek to Calcutta: https://obeta.ttef.in/culture/heritage/all-greek-to-calcutta/cid/1683507",
     "Live History India, Kolkata's Greeks: A Fading Memory: https://livehistoryindia.com/story/living-culture/kolkatas-greeks-a-fading-memory",
     "Vassiliades, introduction to Dione Marcos-Dodis, A Chronicle of the Greeks in India 1750-1950 (ELINEPA, 2003): https://elinepa.org/?p=952",
     "Kinjal Bose, Greek Orthodox Church, Kolkata (2020, citing Cotton, Calcutta Old and New): https://kinjalbose.com/2020/12/29/greek-orthodox-church-kolkata/",
     "Greek City Times, Kolkata's Greek Orthodox Church: https://greekcitytimes.com/?p=227079"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Dhaka, the Greek community",
    "country": "Bangladesh",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "merchant community",
    "language": "Greek",
    "start": "18th century: Greek merchants exporting Dhaka cloth to Europe and the Levant via Basra",
    "peak": "probably about 200 or more Greeks in Dhaka and Narayanganj together, 1770-1800",
    "peak_year": 1785,
    "peak_basis": "estimate",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "Greek church opened in 1812; the Greek memorial at Ramna (built by Ralli Brothers in the last quarter of the 19th c.) with ten gravestones of 1800-1860, now beside the Teacher-Student Centre of the University of Dhaka",
    "notable": "Hadji Alexios Argyree died here in 1777",
    "end": "Pushed out of the cloth export by the East India Company, the Greeks turned to inland trade in salt and lime (chunam); Dhaka declined c. 1820-1840 under Lancashire competition. The last Greek firms left after 1947.",
    "today": "The memorial survives on the university campus; no Greek community.",
    "lat": 23.7104,
    "lon": 90.4074,
    "sources": [
     "Banglapedia, Greeks, The: https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Greeks,_The"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Narayanganj, Ralli Brothers' jute station",
    "country": "Bangladesh",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "merchant community",
    "language": "Greek (staff) and Bengali",
    "start": "Greek traders with those of Dhaka in the late 18th c.; Ralli Brothers from 1882",
    "peak": "",
    "peak_year": null,
    "peak_basis": "",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "Ralli Brothers' jute mill and offices",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "Ralli Brothers and most Greek firms stopped trading after partition (1947).",
    "today": "None.",
    "lat": 23.6238,
    "lon": 90.499,
    "sources": [
     "Banglapedia, Greeks, The: https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Greeks,_The"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Benares (Varanasi), Dimitrios Galanos",
    "country": "India",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Greek, Sanskrit, Hindi and Persian (one scholar)",
    "start": "1792/1793: Galanos settles in Benares",
    "peak": "",
    "peak_year": null,
    "peak_basis": "",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "none",
    "notable": "Dimitrios Galanos (Athens 1760 - Benares 1833), the first Greek Indologist; his teacher and friend Munshi Sital Singh",
    "end": "A single scholar, not a community; he died in Benares on 3 May 1833 and his tombstone stands in the Catholic cemetery of Varanasi (Banglapedia: the English cemetery).",
    "today": "Galanos is remembered by Greek and Indian scholars; his translations were printed in Athens after his death.",
    "lat": 25.3176,
    "lon": 82.9739,
    "sources": [
     "en.wikipedia, Dimitrios Galanos: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimitrios_Galanos",
     "Banglapedia, Greeks, The: https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Greeks,_The"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Bombay (Mumbai), Ralli Brothers and Greek merchants",
    "country": "India",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "merchant community",
    "language": "Greek (staff) and English",
    "start": "1861: Ralli Brothers branch under Pandia and Ambrose Ralli (1851 in en.wikipedia)",
    "peak": "",
    "peak_year": null,
    "peak_basis": "",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "Ralli Brothers office; from 1948 Rallis India Ltd",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "The firm's Indian business was hit by the crash of 1929; Rallis India, reborn after independence, passed to the Tata group in the 1960s.",
    "today": "Rallis India survives as a Tata company with the old name; no Greek community.",
    "lat": 18.9388,
    "lon": 72.8354,
    "sources": [
     "en.wikipedia, Ralli Brothers: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralli_Brothers",
     "Live History India, Kolkata's Greeks: A Fading Memory: https://livehistoryindia.com/story/living-culture/kolkatas-greeks-a-fading-memory",
     "London Metropolitan Archives catalogue (AIM25), Ralli Brothers Limited, administrative history: https://atom.aim25.com/index.php/ralli-brothers-limited",
     "Christopher Long, Ralli Brothers (family history pages): https://christopherlong.co.uk/per/rallibros.html"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Karachi, Ralli Brothers and Greek merchants",
    "country": "Pakistan",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "merchant community",
    "language": "Greek (staff) and English",
    "start": "by 1865: Karachi (Kurrachee) listed among Ralli Brothers' outlets; Greek merchant families in the 19th-20th c. (the chronicler Dione Marcos-Dodis was born there into a Greek family)",
    "peak": "",
    "peak_year": null,
    "peak_basis": "",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "Ralli Brothers' Karachi office (listed among the firm's outlets in 1865); other Greek trading firms",
    "notable": "Dione Marcos-Dodis, author of A Chronicle of the Greeks in India 1750-1950",
    "end": "Not established; the Greek firms of the subcontinent wound up after 1947 (unchecked: Karachi).",
    "today": "No Greek community. The Metropolis of Singapore and South Asia has one priest in Pakistan, Father John Tanveer, serving Pakistani Orthodox Christians.",
    "lat": 24.8607,
    "lon": 67.0011,
    "sources": [
     "Vassiliades, introduction to Dione Marcos-Dodis, A Chronicle of the Greeks in India 1750-1950 (ELINEPA, 2003): https://elinepa.org/?p=952",
     "en.wikipedia, Eastern Orthodox Metropolitanate of Singapore and South Asia",
     "Christopher Long, Ralli Brothers (family history pages): https://christopherlong.co.uk/per/rallibros.html"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Tashkent, the Greek political refugees",
    "country": "Uzbekistan",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "refugee quarters",
    "language": "Greek and Russian",
    "start": "October-December 1949: fighters of the Democratic Army of Greece and the KKE's cadres, shipped from Durres and Vlore to Poti and taken by train via Baku, the Caspian and the Karakum",
    "peak": "about 12,000 by the end of 1949 (Politis); 11,997 settled in Tashkent in 1949 (Tashkent Greek Cultural Association, via Nikolaidou); 11,980 political refugees in the whole USSR in 1950, 2,954 of them Slav Macedonians (Greek Communist Party data, after Van Boeschoten); a Soviet estimate of 17,500 in Tashkent (undated, via Nikolaidou); Politis' 'about 35,000 by the end of the 1960s, with several thousand Pontians' is not supported by the census (Uzbek SSR 1970: 32,422 Greeks of all origins)",
    "peak_year": 1949,
    "peak_basis": "estimate",
    "series": "1949: 11997 [count by the community association (settled in Tashkent in 1949); Eleni Nikolaidou, The great journey of the exodus from Greece of the political refugees of the civil war, Efimerida ton Syntakton, 8 Jan 2023: https://www.efsyn.gr/?p=1221096]; 1950: 11980 [party count (political refugees in the whole USSR); Tsekou, EKT teaching text on the political refugees: https://repository-edulll.ekt.gr/edulll/retrieve/11269/3482_01_3.5.1.%20%CE%A4%CF%83%CE%AD%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%85.pdf]; 1975: 16200 [count by the refugees' committee (KEPPE petition, 10 Jan 1975; whole USSR, with children born there); Tsekou, EKT teaching text on the political refugees: https://repository-edulll.ekt.gr/edulll/retrieve/11269/3482_01_3.5.1.%20%CE%A4%CF%83%CE%AD%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%85.pdf]; 1975: 14087 [count in the refugee paper Dimokratis, 30 July 1975 (whole USSR); Tsekou, EKT teaching text on the political refugees: https://repository-edulll.ekt.gr/edulll/retrieve/11269/3482_01_3.5.1.%20%CE%A4%CF%83%CE%AD%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%85.pdf]",
    "institutions": "Fourteen settlements (politeies, Russian gorodki), twelve in Tashkent and two in Chirchik, by Politis' count, each with a school (Greek and Russian) and a club; the Association of Political Refugees in the Soviet Union (1964) with a three-storey building and a 250-seat theatre; Greek-language newspapers (Neos Dromos (unchecked))",
    "notable": "Nikos Zachariadis and the KKE leadership in exile; the clashes of September 1955",
    "end": "Return to Greece in small numbers from 1956, generally after 1974 and especially after the 1982 decision of the Papandreou government; Slav Macedonian refugees mostly moved to Yugoslav Macedonia in the 1960s-1970s.",
    "today": "The Centre for Greek Culture in Uzbekistan (president Costas Politis since 2020) teaches Greek, music, dance and theatre in the restored building; the Greek Cultural Association of Tashkent ran 19 Greek classes with 571 pupils (Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs, archived page).",
    "lat": 41.2995,
    "lon": 69.2401,
    "sources": [
     "Neos Kosmos, The Greek miracle in Tashkent, 12 Jan 2026 (Costas Politis to AMNA): https://neoskosmos.com/en/2026/01/12/features/the-greek-miracle-in-tashkent-an-exhibition-on-the-resilience-of-hellenism-in-central-asia/",
     "Tsekou, EKT teaching text on the political refugees: https://repository-edulll.ekt.gr/edulll/retrieve/11269/3482_01_3.5.1.%20%CE%A4%CF%83%CE%AD%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%85.pdf",
     "en.wikipedia, Greeks in Uzbekistan: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Uzbekistan",
     "Lampropoulos 2014, Belonging to Greece and the Soviet Union: Greeks of Tashkent, 1949-1974 (MA thesis, York University)",
     "Eleni Nikolaidou, The great journey of the exodus from Greece of the political refugees of the civil war, Efimerida ton Syntakton, 8 Jan 2023: https://www.efsyn.gr/?p=1221096",
     "Efimerida ton Syntakton, review of Eleni Nikolaidou, 'Kali patrida, syntrofe!' (Society for Contemporary History): https://www.efsyn.gr/tehnes/ekdoseis-biblia/404823_oi-politikoi-prosfyges-kai-o-nikos-zahariadis-se-ena-biblio/"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Chirchik, refugee settlements",
    "country": "Uzbekistan",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "refugee quarters",
    "language": "Greek and Russian",
    "start": "1949-1951: two of the fourteen Greek settlements of the political refugees",
    "peak": "",
    "peak_year": null,
    "peak_basis": "",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "settlement school and club",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "As Tashkent: return to Greece after 1974 and 1982.",
    "today": "Not known.",
    "lat": 41.4689,
    "lon": 69.5822,
    "sources": [
     "Neos Kosmos, The Greek miracle in Tashkent, 12 Jan 2026 (Costas Politis to AMNA): https://neoskosmos.com/en/2026/01/12/features/the-greek-miracle-in-tashkent-an-exhibition-on-the-resilience-of-hellenism-in-central-asia/"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Uzbek SSR / Uzbekistan, all Greeks (republic total; point at Tashkent)",
    "country": "Uzbekistan",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Greek and Russian; Pontic Greek among the deportees",
    "start": "A few hundred before the war (832 in 1939); deportees from 1944; political refugees from 1949",
    "peak": "32,422 Greeks in the Uzbek SSR (census 1970)",
    "peak_year": 1970,
    "peak_basis": "census by nationality",
    "series": "1939: 832 [census by nationality; Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)]; 1953: 2472 [special settlers of Greek citizenship or origin (MVD count, 1 Jan 1953); Dundovich, Gori and Guercetti 2003, via en.wikipedia, Deportation of the Soviet Greeks: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Soviet_Greeks]; 1959: 20047 [census by nationality; Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)]; 1970: 32422 [census by nationality; Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)]; 1979: 14025 [census by nationality; Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)]; 1989: 10453 [census by nationality; Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)]",
    "institutions": "see Tashkent; Greek societies in Tashkent",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "The fall from 32,422 (1970) to 14,025 (1979) follows the return of the political refugees after 1974; the rest left mostly after 1991.",
    "today": "No census since 1989; about 9,000 is quoted without a clear source (en.wikipedia).",
    "lat": 41.2995,
    "lon": 69.2401,
    "sources": [
     "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)",
     "en.wikipedia, Greeks in Uzbekistan: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Uzbekistan"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "city": "Kokand (Ferghana valley), Pontic Greek deportees",
    "country": "Uzbekistan",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "deportee settlements",
    "language": "Pontic Greek and Russian",
    "start": "by 1948: Greek families in Kokand received exit permits to Greece in 1948 (Vergeti); the Tashkent exhibition dates the Pontic Greek deportees there to 1937-1949",
    "peak": "",
    "peak_year": null,
    "peak_basis": "",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "Unknown.",
    "today": "Unknown.",
    "lat": 40.5286,
    "lon": 70.9425,
    "sources": [
     "Neos Kosmos, The Greek miracle in Tashkent, 12 Jan 2026 (Costas Politis to AMNA): https://neoskosmos.com/en/2026/01/12/features/the-greek-miracle-in-tashkent-an-exhibition-on-the-resilience-of-hellenism-in-central-asia/",
     "Vergeti, Waves of immigration of Greeks from the former Soviet Union in the 20th century, Phasis 13-14 (2010-2011), pp. 436-441: https://phasis.tsu.ge/index.php/PJ/article/download/2040/2331/2813"
    ],
    "grade": "C"
   },
   {
    "city": "South Kazakhstan oblast (Chimkent, now Shymkent), deportee settlements",
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "deportee settlements",
    "language": "Pontic Greek, Russian and Turkish (Urum) among some groups",
    "start": "June-July 1949, deportees from the Black Sea coast and Transcaucasia (point: the oblast centre)",
    "peak": "24,882 deported Greeks in 5,512 families (7,510 men, 8,272 women, 9,100 children) settled in South Kazakhstan oblast in June 1949: Mirgalimsai mine 5,076, Ilyich district 6,550, Kirov district 4,714, Pakhtaaral 3,624, Kyzylkum 1,870, Arys 1,554, Keles 1,494 (MVD note of 17 June 1949, via Dzhukha 2008 and Shetkus and Pazilov)",
    "peak_year": 1949,
    "peak_basis": "deportation count (MVD)",
    "series": "1949: 24882 [deportation count (MVD note, 17 June 1949); Shetkus and Pazilov, Forced labor of deported peoples in the industry of Southern Kazakhstan (the example of Kentau city), Bulletin of KazNU, History series 88 (2018), pp. 103-110 (citing Bugay 1995, Dzhukha 2008 and the Kentau regional state archive): https://bulletin-history.kaznu.kz/index.php/1-history/ru/article/download/186/194/397]",
    "institutions": "collective farms and special-settlement commandant offices; later Greek societies in Shymkent",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "Special-settlement restrictions lifted by MVD order 0402 (25 September 1956), without the right to return; many moved to towns or back to the Caucasus; most emigrated to Greece after 1990: about 20,000 of the some 31,000 Greeks who left Kazakhstan in the early 1990s came from the south (Feodoridi, Filia).",
    "today": "Shymkent was one of the three founding communities of the Filia association in 1993 (Feodoridi).",
    "lat": 42.3417,
    "lon": 69.5901,
    "sources": [
     "Chilikova, Archive of the President of Kazakhstan: https://e-history.kz/storage/upload/library_en_files/iblock/10c/10c560916ec3cb52e415752f54a13b6c.pdf",
     "en.wikipedia, Deportation of the Soviet Greeks: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Soviet_Greeks",
     "Hionidou and Saunders 2010, Exiles and Pioneers, Europe-Asia Studies 62(9): 1479-1501",
     "Shetkus and Pazilov, Forced labor of deported peoples in the industry of Southern Kazakhstan (the example of Kentau city), Bulletin of KazNU, History series 88 (2018), pp. 103-110 (citing Bugay 1995, Dzhukha 2008 and the Kentau regional state archive): https://bulletin-history.kaznu.kz/index.php/1-history/ru/article/download/186/194/397",
     "The Astana Times, 2014, Greek Association President Calls Kazakhstan 'Unique Place' (Pavel Feodoridi, president of Filiya): https://astanatimes.com/2014/11/greek-association-president-calls-kazakhstan-unique-place-hospitality/"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Dzhambul oblast (now Zhambyl; centre Taraz), deportee settlements",
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "deportee settlements",
    "language": "Pontic Greek and Russian",
    "start": "June-July 1949 (point: the oblast centre)",
    "peak": "planned: 6,000 families (21,600 people) under MGB order 00525; the number actually settled was not found (South Kazakhstan got the larger share)",
    "peak_year": 1949,
    "peak_basis": "plan, not a count",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "As South Kazakhstan.",
    "today": "Taraz was one of the three founding communities of the Filia association in 1993 (Feodoridi).",
    "lat": 42.9,
    "lon": 71.3667,
    "sources": [
     "Chilikova, Archive of the President of Kazakhstan: https://e-history.kz/storage/upload/library_en_files/iblock/10c/10c560916ec3cb52e415752f54a13b6c.pdf",
     "deportation.org.ua, Deportation of Pontic Greeks in 1942, 1944 and 1949: Reasons, Number of Deportees, and Places of Exile (citing Keshanidi 2015, Bazhan 2004, Dzhukha 2008 and 2011): https://deportation.org.ua/deportation-of-pontic-greeks-in-1942-1944-and-1949/",
     "The Astana Times, 2014, Greek Association President Calls Kazakhstan 'Unique Place' (Pavel Feodoridi, president of Filiya): https://astanatimes.com/2014/11/greek-association-president-calls-kazakhstan-unique-place-hospitality/"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Kzyl-Orda oblast, deportee settlements",
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "deportee settlements",
    "language": "Pontic Greek and Russian",
    "start": "June-July 1949 (point: the oblast centre)",
    "peak": "",
    "peak_year": null,
    "peak_basis": "",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "As South Kazakhstan.",
    "today": "Unknown.",
    "lat": 44.8488,
    "lon": 65.4823,
    "sources": [
     "Chilikova, Archive of the President of Kazakhstan: https://e-history.kz/storage/upload/library_en_files/iblock/10c/10c560916ec3cb52e415752f54a13b6c.pdf"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Taldy-Kurgan oblast, deportee settlements",
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "deportee settlements",
    "language": "Pontic Greek and Russian",
    "start": "June-July 1949 (point: the oblast centre, Taldykorgan)",
    "peak": "",
    "peak_year": null,
    "peak_basis": "",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "As South Kazakhstan.",
    "today": "Unknown.",
    "lat": 45.0156,
    "lon": 78.3739,
    "sources": [
     "Chilikova, Archive of the President of Kazakhstan: https://e-history.kz/storage/upload/library_en_files/iblock/10c/10c560916ec3cb52e415752f54a13b6c.pdf"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Alma-Ata (Almaty), city and oblast",
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Russian, with Greek and Pontic Greek",
    "start": "1949: deportees in the oblast, among them the Greeks deported from the Odessa and Izmail regions (deportation.org.ua); later a city community",
    "peak": "",
    "peak_year": null,
    "peak_basis": "",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "the Filia federation of the Greek communities of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan; Greek classes with teachers paid by Greece",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "Most emigrated to Greece in the 1990s.",
    "today": "Seat of Filia (founded 1993 by the communities of Almaty, Shymkent and Taraz; 17 city communities in 2014, with 'on average about 10,000 Greeks still living here', president Pavel Feodoridi); Greek language and dance classes, teachers funded by Greece (Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs, page archived 2007).",
    "lat": 43.2389,
    "lon": 76.8897,
    "sources": [
     "en.wikipedia, Greeks in Kazakhstan: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Kazakhstan",
     "Chilikova, Archive of the President of Kazakhstan: https://e-history.kz/storage/upload/library_en_files/iblock/10c/10c560916ec3cb52e415752f54a13b6c.pdf"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Guryev (now Atyrau) oblast, deportees from the Crimea",
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "deportee settlements",
    "language": "Greek, Pontic Greek and Russian",
    "start": "July 1944: Crimean deportees arrive in Guryev oblast (report of M. K. Bogdanov)",
    "peak": "",
    "peak_year": null,
    "peak_basis": "",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "Released 1956.",
    "today": "Unknown.",
    "lat": 47.0945,
    "lon": 51.9238,
    "sources": [
     "deportation.org.ua, Deportation of Pontic Greeks in 1942, 1944 and 1949: Reasons, Number of Deportees, and Places of Exile (citing Keshanidi 2015, Bazhan 2004, Dzhukha 2008 and 2011): https://deportation.org.ua/deportation-of-pontic-greeks-in-1942-1944-and-1949/ (Bogdanov's report, Keshanidi 2015, p. 128)"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Kazakh SSR / Kazakhstan, all Greeks (republic total; point at Almaty)",
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "deportee settlements",
    "language": "Russian for most by 1989; Pontic Greek among the older deportees",
    "start": "157 Greeks in 1926 (census); 1937-1938 (families and Greek citizens); 1942; 1944; 1949-1950",
    "peak": "55,543 Greeks in the Kazakh SSR (census 1959)",
    "peak_year": 1959,
    "peak_basis": "census by nationality",
    "series": "1926: 157 [census by nationality; Shetkus and Pazilov, Forced labor of deported peoples in the industry of Southern Kazakhstan (the example of Kentau city), Bulletin of KazNU, History series 88 (2018), pp. 103-110 (citing Bugay 1995, Dzhukha 2008 and the Kentau regional state archive): https://bulletin-history.kaznu.kz/index.php/1-history/ru/article/download/186/194/397 (no source given there for the figure)]; 1939: 1374 [census by nationality; Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)]; 1949: 37108 [deportation count (Greeks received June-July 1949; MVD memorandum of 5 August 1949); Shetkus and Pazilov, Forced labor of deported peoples in the industry of Southern Kazakhstan (the example of Kentau city), Bulletin of KazNU, History series 88 (2018), pp. 103-110 (citing Bugay 1995, Dzhukha 2008 and the Kentau regional state archive): https://bulletin-history.kaznu.kz/index.php/1-history/ru/article/download/186/194/397]; 1953: 21057 [special settlers of Greek citizenship or origin (MVD count, 1 Jan 1953); Dundovich, Gori and Guercetti 2003, via en.wikipedia, Deportation of the Soviet Greeks: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportation_of_the_Soviet_Greeks]; 1959: 55543 [census by nationality; en.wikipedia, Greeks in Kazakhstan: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Kazakhstan (citing Demoscope)]; 1970: 39241 [census by nationality; Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)]; 1979: 49930 [census by nationality; Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)]; 1989: 46746 [census by nationality; Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)]; 1999: 12703 [census by nationality; en.wikipedia, Greeks in Kazakhstan: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Kazakhstan]; 2009: 8846 [census by nationality; en.wikipedia, Greeks in Kazakhstan: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Kazakhstan]",
    "institutions": "Filia federation; Greek societies in the oblast towns",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "Mass emigration to Greece in the 1990s: about a fifth of the Greeks from the former USSR counted in Greece in 2000 came from Kazakhstan.",
    "today": "8,846 at the 2009 census (about 9,000, 0.06%, in Smailova 2011); 11,890 at the 2021 census (Bureau of National Statistics, via en.wikipedia, Ethnic groups in Kazakhstan). Filia speaks of about 10,000 (Feodoridi 2014) and of 10,000-12,000 (Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs, archived 2007).",
    "lat": 43.2389,
    "lon": 76.8897,
    "sources": [
     "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)",
     "en.wikipedia, Greeks in Kazakhstan: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Kazakhstan",
     "Topalidis, Greeks from the former Soviet Union: https://mail.pontosworld.com/images/History/Topalidis/Greeks_from_the_former_Soviet_Union.pdf",
     "Shetkus and Pazilov, Forced labor of deported peoples in the industry of Southern Kazakhstan (the example of Kentau city), Bulletin of KazNU, History series 88 (2018), pp. 103-110 (citing Bugay 1995, Dzhukha 2008 and the Kentau regional state archive): https://bulletin-history.kaznu.kz/index.php/1-history/ru/article/download/186/194/397",
     "The Astana Times, 2014, Greek Association President Calls Kazakhstan 'Unique Place' (Pavel Feodoridi, president of Filiya): https://astanatimes.com/2014/11/greek-association-president-calls-kazakhstan-unique-place-hospitality/"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "city": "Kirghiz SSR / Kyrgyzstan, the Greeks (Frunze, now Bishkek)",
    "country": "Kyrgyzstan",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Russian, with Greek",
    "start": "origin not established: 108 Greeks in 1939, 1,702 in 1959, probably deportees and their families after the war (unchecked)",
    "peak": "2,007 Greeks in the Kirghiz SSR (census 1989)",
    "peak_year": 1989,
    "peak_basis": "census by nationality",
    "series": "1939: 108 [census by nationality; Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)]; 1959: 1702 [census by nationality; Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)]; 1970: 1899 [census by nationality; Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)]; 1979: 1930 [census by nationality; Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)]; 1989: 2007 [census by nationality; Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)]",
    "institutions": "part of the Filia federation (Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan)",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "Emigration to Greece and Russia after 1991.",
    "today": "Small; post-1991 census figures not found.",
    "lat": 42.8746,
    "lon": 74.5698,
    "sources": [
     "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)",
     "en.wikipedia, Greeks in Kazakhstan: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Kazakhstan"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "city": "Turkmen SSR / Turkmenistan, the Greeks (Ashkhabad)",
    "country": "Turkmenistan",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Russian (unchecked)",
    "start": "before 1959 (origin not established)",
    "peak": "457 Greeks in the Turkmen SSR (census 1959)",
    "peak_year": 1959,
    "peak_basis": "census by nationality",
    "series": "1959: 457 [census by nationality; Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)]; 1970: 453 [census by nationality; Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)]; 1979: 451 [census by nationality; Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)]; 1989: 445 [census by nationality; Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)]",
    "institutions": "none known",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "Unknown.",
    "today": "Unknown.",
    "lat": 37.9601,
    "lon": 58.3261,
    "sources": [
     "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "city": "Tajik SSR / Tajikistan, the Greeks (Stalinabad, now Dushanbe)",
    "country": "Tajikistan",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Russian (unchecked)",
    "start": "before 1959 (origin not established)",
    "peak": "590 Greeks in the Tajik SSR (census 1989)",
    "peak_year": 1989,
    "peak_basis": "census by nationality",
    "series": "1959: 444 [census by nationality; Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)]; 1970: 581 [census by nationality; Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)]; 1979: 566 [census by nationality; Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)]; 1989: 590 [census by nationality; Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)]",
    "institutions": "none known",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "Civil war of 1992-1997 and emigration (unchecked).",
    "today": "Unknown.",
    "lat": 38.5598,
    "lon": 68.787,
    "sources": [
     "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "city": "Kentau (Mirgalimsai), the Greek deportees' mining town",
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "deportee settlements",
    "language": "Pontic Greek, Russian, some Turkish (Urum) (unchecked); Russian the common language of the town",
    "start": "June 1949: deported Greeks assigned to the Mirgalimsai lead mine (MVD note of 17 June 1949); town from 1 August 1955",
    "peak": "8,249 Greeks, 20.5% of 39,997 (census 1959); 5,076 in June 1949 against about 20,400 inhabitants in 1950 (about a quarter); 'more than 15,000' deported Greeks reported in 1951 at the Achisai combine, unit unclear; Filia's president's 'seventy per cent' is not borne out by the counts",
    "peak_year": 1959,
    "peak_basis": "census by nationality",
    "series": "1949: 5076 [deportation count (MVD note, 17 June 1949); Shetkus and Pazilov, Forced labor of deported peoples in the industry of Southern Kazakhstan (the example of Kentau city), Bulletin of KazNU, History series 88 (2018), pp. 103-110 (citing Bugay 1995, Dzhukha 2008 and the Kentau regional state archive): https://bulletin-history.kaznu.kz/index.php/1-history/ru/article/download/186/194/397; Koigeldiev, deportation of Greeks to Kazakhstan: https://kaznpu.kz/docs/koigeldiyev/20.pdf]; 1950: 2236 [Greek special settlers at work in the mine and on the town's building (workers only); Shetkus and Pazilov, Forced labor of deported peoples in the industry of Southern Kazakhstan (the example of Kentau city), Bulletin of KazNU, History series 88 (2018), pp. 103-110 (citing Bugay 1995, Dzhukha 2008 and the Kentau regional state archive): https://bulletin-history.kaznu.kz/index.php/1-history/ru/article/download/186/194/397]; 1951: 15000 [report: 'more than 15,000' deported Greeks at the Achisai combine (Kentau and Achisai; unit unclear); Shetkus and Pazilov, Forced labor of deported peoples in the industry of Southern Kazakhstan (the example of Kentau city), Bulletin of KazNU, History series 88 (2018), pp. 103-110 (citing Bugay 1995, Dzhukha 2008 and the Kentau regional state archive): https://bulletin-history.kaznu.kz/index.php/1-history/ru/article/download/186/194/397 (Kentau regional state archive, F. 120, Op. 27)]; 1959: 8249 (20.5%) [census by nationality; KazNU Bulletin (history of Kentau): https://bulletin-history.kaznu.kz/index.php/1-history/article/download/244/248/499]; 1990: 512 [emigrants to Greece in January 1990 (not residents); KazNU Bulletin (history of Kentau): https://bulletin-history.kaznu.kz/index.php/1-history/article/download/244/248/499]",
    "institutions": "special-settlement commandant's office until 1956; the Mirgalimsai mine and the Achisai polymetallic combine; a Greek community society today",
    "notable": "counted in this set as an uncertain bilingual town of window B, 1949 to c. 1993",
    "end": "Restrictions lifted in 1956 and many Greeks moved away (20.5% in 1959); families began to leave for Greece in 1971 (Vergeti); 512 left in January 1990; the general exodus came in 1991-1993, after the crisis of the Achisai combine. No Greek figure for the town after 1959 is published.",
    "today": "A small Greek community society remains.",
    "lat": 43.516,
    "lon": 68.505,
    "sources": [
     "Shetkus and Pazilov, Forced labor of deported peoples in the industry of Southern Kazakhstan (the example of Kentau city), Bulletin of KazNU, History series 88 (2018), pp. 103-110 (citing Bugay 1995, Dzhukha 2008 and the Kentau regional state archive): https://bulletin-history.kaznu.kz/index.php/1-history/ru/article/download/186/194/397",
     "KazNU Bulletin (history of Kentau): https://bulletin-history.kaznu.kz/index.php/1-history/article/download/244/248/499",
     "Koigeldiev, deportation of Greeks to Kazakhstan: https://kaznpu.kz/docs/koigeldiyev/20.pdf",
     "Vergeti, Waves of immigration of Greeks from the former Soviet Union in the 20th century, Phasis 13-14 (2010-2011), pp. 436-441: https://phasis.tsu.ge/index.php/PJ/article/download/2040/2331/2813",
     "The Astana Times, 2014, Greek Association President Calls Kazakhstan 'Unique Place' (Pavel Feodoridi, president of Filiya): https://astanatimes.com/2014/11/greek-association-president-calls-kazakhstan-unique-place-hospitality/"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Pavlodar oblast, Greek deportees",
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "deportee settlements",
    "language": "Greek, Pontic Greek and Russian",
    "start": "1942 (deportation.org.ua) and 1944 (Feodoridi): point at the oblast centre",
    "peak": "",
    "peak_year": null,
    "peak_basis": "",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "",
    "notable": "Feodoridi names Pavlodar and Kzyl-Orda as the main destinations of 1944; the archival sources found name Guryev oblast for the Crimean Greeks. Not reconciled.",
    "end": "Released 1956; emigration to Greece in the 1990s.",
    "today": "Not known.",
    "lat": 52.2873,
    "lon": 76.9674,
    "sources": [
     "deportation.org.ua, Deportations of Pontian Greeks in 1942 and 1944: Examining the Causes, Scale, and Locations: https://deportation.org.ua/?p=1555",
     "The Astana Times, 2014, Greek Association President Calls Kazakhstan 'Unique Place' (Pavel Feodoridi, president of Filiya): https://astanatimes.com/2014/11/greek-association-president-calls-kazakhstan-unique-place-hospitality/"
    ],
    "grade": "C"
   },
   {
    "city": "Karaganda, Greek deportees",
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "deportee settlements",
    "language": "Greek, Pontic Greek and Russian",
    "start": "1942: Greeks removed from the Krasnodar region sent to Almaty, Karaganda, Pavlodar and the Krasnoyarsk Territory (deportation.org.ua)",
    "peak": "about 8,000 Greeks to all four destinations in 1942 (deportation.org.ua), against 1,402 from Krasnodar Krai in May 1942 (Bugay); not reconciled",
    "peak_year": 1942,
    "peak_basis": "estimate",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "Released 1956.",
    "today": "Not known.",
    "lat": 49.8047,
    "lon": 73.1094,
    "sources": [
     "deportation.org.ua, Deportations of Pontian Greeks in 1942 and 1944: Examining the Causes, Scale, and Locations: https://deportation.org.ua/?p=1555"
    ],
    "grade": "C"
   },
   {
    "city": "Sverdlovsk oblast (now Yekaterinburg), Crimean Greek special settlers",
    "country": "Russia",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "deportee settlements",
    "language": "Greek and Russian; some Crimean Greeks spoke Crimean Tatar (Urum) (unchecked)",
    "start": "1944: Crimean Greeks deported under decree 5984ss sent to special settlements in the oblast (point at the oblast centre)",
    "peak": "",
    "peak_year": null,
    "peak_basis": "",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "special-settlement commandant offices",
    "notable": "In Asia, east of the Ural watershed; the Molotov oblast and the Bashkir ASSR, which received deportees of the same transports, lie in Europe and are not counted here.",
    "end": "Released 1956; no later community recorded.",
    "today": "Not known.",
    "lat": 56.8389,
    "lon": 60.6057,
    "sources": [
     "deportation.org.ua, Deportation of Pontic Greeks in 1942, 1944 and 1949: Reasons, Number of Deportees, and Places of Exile (citing Keshanidi 2015, Bazhan 2004, Dzhukha 2008 and 2011): https://deportation.org.ua/deportation-of-pontic-greeks-in-1942-1944-and-1949/",
     "deportation.org.ua, Deportations of Pontian Greeks in 1942 and 1944: Examining the Causes, Scale, and Locations: https://deportation.org.ua/?p=1555"
    ],
    "grade": "C"
   },
   {
    "city": "Kemerovo oblast: Stalinsk (now Novokuznetsk), Crimean Greek special settlers",
    "country": "Russia",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "deportee settlements",
    "language": "Greek and Russian",
    "start": "September 1944: a convoy of Crimean Greek deportees reaches Stalinsk (recollection of Pavlo Angelidi)",
    "peak": "",
    "peak_year": null,
    "peak_basis": "",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "special-settlement commandant offices; tents, then barracks",
    "notable": "",
    "end": "Released 1956; no later community recorded.",
    "today": "Not known.",
    "lat": 53.7557,
    "lon": 87.1099,
    "sources": [
     "deportation.org.ua, Deportation of Pontic Greeks in 1942, 1944 and 1949: Reasons, Number of Deportees, and Places of Exile (citing Keshanidi 2015, Bazhan 2004, Dzhukha 2008 and 2011): https://deportation.org.ua/deportation-of-pontic-greeks-in-1942-1944-and-1949/",
     "deportation.org.ua, Deportations of Pontian Greeks in 1942 and 1944: Examining the Causes, Scale, and Locations: https://deportation.org.ua/?p=1555"
    ],
    "grade": "C"
   },
   {
    "city": "Krasnoyarsk Territory, Greek deportees of 1942",
    "country": "Russia",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "deportee settlements",
    "language": "Greek, Pontic Greek and Russian",
    "start": "1942: Greeks removed from the Krasnodar region (deportation.org.ua); point at Krasnoyarsk",
    "peak": "",
    "peak_year": null,
    "peak_basis": "",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "",
    "notable": "One secondary source; no figure.",
    "end": "Not known.",
    "today": "Not known.",
    "lat": 56.0153,
    "lon": 92.8932,
    "sources": [
     "deportation.org.ua, Deportation of Pontic Greeks in 1942, 1944 and 1949: Reasons, Number of Deportees, and Places of Exile (citing Keshanidi 2015, Bazhan 2004, Dzhukha 2008 and 2011): https://deportation.org.ua/deportation-of-pontic-greeks-in-1942-1944-and-1949/",
     "deportation.org.ua, Deportations of Pontian Greeks in 1942 and 1944: Examining the Causes, Scale, and Locations: https://deportation.org.ua/?p=1555"
    ],
    "grade": "C"
   },
   {
    "city": "Surgut, Nikos Zachariadis in exile",
    "country": "Russia",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "city community",
    "language": "Greek and Russian (one exile)",
    "start": "internal exile in the USSR after his removal (1956) and expulsion from the KKE (1957); he died at Surgut in 1973",
    "peak": "",
    "peak_year": null,
    "peak_basis": "",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "none",
    "notable": "Nikos Zachariadis (1903-1973), General Secretary of the KKE 1931-1956, leader of the refugees of Tashkent",
    "end": "A single exile, not a community; he died at Surgut in 1973.",
    "today": "Not known.",
    "lat": 61.254,
    "lon": 73.3962,
    "sources": [
     "en.wikipedia, Nikos Zachariadis: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikos_Zachariadis",
     "Marxists Internet Archive, Nikos Zachariadis, biography: https://www.marxists.org/archive/zachariadis/biography.htm"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Kolyma (camps of the Far North-East; point at Magadan), Greek prisoners of 1937-1938",
    "country": "Russia",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "deportee settlements",
    "language": "Greek and Russian",
    "start": "1938: Greeks sentenced in the NKVD Greek operation sent to the Kolyma camps, the largest group of Greek prisoners",
    "peak": "about 1,500 Greeks (CNN Greece, without a stated source); camp prisoners, not a settled community",
    "peak_year": 1938,
    "peak_basis": "estimate",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "Gulag camps",
    "notable": "Prisoners, not a community; shown because the searched area includes Asian Russia.",
    "end": "By the same account only half of the Greek prisoners came back from the camps; 600-800 of about 2,500 Greek prisoners died in 1938-1941.",
    "today": "None.",
    "lat": 59.5612,
    "lon": 150.8301,
    "sources": [
     "CNN Greece, On this day, 15 December: the persecution of the Greeks in the USSR (figures without a stated source): https://www.cnn.gr/focus/story/340348/san-simera-15-dekemvriou-oi-diokseis-ton-ellinon-stin-essd"
    ],
    "grade": "C"
   },
   {
    "city": "Norilsk, Greek prisoners of 1937-1938",
    "country": "Russia",
    "disputed": "",
    "kind": "deportee settlements",
    "language": "Greek and Russian",
    "start": "1938: Greeks sentenced in the NKVD Greek operation sent to the Norilsk camp",
    "peak": "about 100 Greeks (CNN Greece, without a stated source); camp prisoners",
    "peak_year": 1938,
    "peak_basis": "estimate",
    "series": "",
    "institutions": "Gulag camp (Norillag)",
    "notable": "Prisoners, not a community.",
    "end": "Not known.",
    "today": "None.",
    "lat": 69.3558,
    "lon": 88.1893,
    "sources": [
     "CNN Greece, On this day, 15 December: the persecution of the Greeks in the USSR (figures without a stated source): https://www.cnn.gr/focus/story/340348/san-simera-15-dekemvriou-oi-diokseis-ton-ellinon-stin-essd"
    ],
    "grade": "C"
   }
  ],
  "figures": [
   {
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "year": 1926,
    "figure": 157,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Shetkus and Pazilov, Forced labor of deported peoples in the industry of Southern Kazakhstan (the example of Kentau city), Bulletin of KazNU, History series 88 (2018), pp. 103-110 (citing Bugay 1995, Dzhukha 2008 and the Kentau regional state archive): https://bulletin-history.kaznu.kz/index.php/1-history/ru/article/download/186/194/397"
   },
   {
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "year": 1939,
    "figure": 1374,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "year": 1959,
    "figure": 55543,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "en.wikipedia, Greeks in Kazakhstan: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Kazakhstan (citing Demoscope)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "year": 1970,
    "figure": 39241,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "year": 1979,
    "figure": 49930,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "year": 1989,
    "figure": 46746,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "year": 1999,
    "figure": 12703,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "en.wikipedia, Greeks in Kazakhstan: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Kazakhstan"
   },
   {
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "year": 2009,
    "figure": 8846,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "en.wikipedia, Greeks in Kazakhstan: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Kazakhstan"
   },
   {
    "country": "Kazakhstan",
    "year": 2021,
    "figure": 11890,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Kazakhstan census 2021 (Bureau of National Statistics, via en.wikipedia)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Uzbekistan",
    "year": 1939,
    "figure": 832,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Uzbekistan",
    "year": 1959,
    "figure": 20047,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Uzbekistan",
    "year": 1970,
    "figure": 32422,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Uzbekistan",
    "year": 1979,
    "figure": 14025,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Uzbekistan",
    "year": 1989,
    "figure": 10453,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Kyrgyzstan",
    "year": 1939,
    "figure": 108,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Kyrgyzstan",
    "year": 1959,
    "figure": 1702,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Kyrgyzstan",
    "year": 1970,
    "figure": 1899,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Kyrgyzstan",
    "year": 1979,
    "figure": 1930,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Kyrgyzstan",
    "year": 1989,
    "figure": 2007,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Turkmenistan",
    "year": 1959,
    "figure": 457,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Turkmenistan",
    "year": 1970,
    "figure": 453,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Turkmenistan",
    "year": 1979,
    "figure": 451,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Turkmenistan",
    "year": 1989,
    "figure": 445,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Tajikistan",
    "year": 1959,
    "figure": 444,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Tajikistan",
    "year": 1970,
    "figure": 581,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Tajikistan",
    "year": 1979,
    "figure": 566,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Tajikistan",
    "year": 1989,
    "figure": 590,
    "basis": "census by nationality",
    "source": "Demoscope Weekly, All-Union census tables by republic (demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_NN.php)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Bangladesh",
    "year": 1785,
    "figure": 200,
    "basis": "estimate (Dhaka and Narayanganj, 1770-1800: 'probably about 200 or more')",
    "source": "Banglapedia, Greeks, The: https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Greeks,_The"
   }
  ],
  "events": {
   "yavanas_last": "The last Greek speakers of the ancient communities cannot be dated by one event. Greek ceased to be a language of rule when the Kushan king Kanishka, early in his reign (c. AD 127 on Falk's reckoning), replaced it with Bactrian: his Rabatak inscription says he issued an edict in Greek and then put it into Aryan, and Greek legends vanish from his coins. Bactrian went on being written in Greek letters into the 9th century, but that is Bactrian, not Greek speech. In western India men who called themselves Yavanas paid for parts of the cave monasteries of Karla, Junnar and Nashik in the 1st-2nd centuries AD; they wrote Prakrit and most bore Indian names. Greek-speaking traders of Roman Egypt sailed to Muziris (the Muziris papyrus, mid-2nd century). Kosmas of Alexandria, writing c. 550, described the Christians of Sri Lanka and western India: they belonged to the Church of the East and used Syriac. No resident Greek-speaking community is attested in the region after about the 3rd century (unchecked).",
   "bengal_merchants": "A new Greek presence began with merchants who came overland to Bengal from Adrianople and Philippopolis: Latin tablets in Calcutta record Greek deaths in 1713 and 1728. Hadji Alexios Argyree of Philippopolis, in Bengal from 1750, became the community's first recognised head; after a vow made in a storm in 1770 he left money for a church, and after his death in Dhaka (1777) the church of the Transfiguration was built on Amratolla Street, Calcutta, consecrated on 6 August 1781, with Warren Hastings heading the subscription. Its first priest was Parthenios of Corfu (Cotton, via Bose; Greek City Times names a Rev. Nikiforos); priests were also sent from St Catherine's on Mount Sinai. About 200 or more Greeks lived in Dhaka and Narayanganj in 1770-1800 (Banglapedia), trading in cloth, then salt and lime; Dhaka had a Greek church from 1812. From 1851 Ralli Brothers, the Chiot house of London, worked from Calcutta, from 1861 also from Bombay and from 1882 from Narayanganj, exporting jute and grain, and built the Greek memorial in Dhaka. After independence Ralli Brothers and most other Greek firms gradually ceased trading (Banglapedia).",
   "galanos": "Dimitrios Galanos (Athens 1760 - Benares, 3 May 1833) spent six years in Calcutta from 1786 teaching Greek to the children of the Greek community. In 1793 (1792 in Banglapedia) he moved to Benares, where he lived for forty years among Brahmin scholars; one of his teachers and friends was Munshi Sital Singh. He learned Sanskrit and translated Hindu sacred and moral texts into Greek, among them the Bhagavad Gita, and compiled a Sanskrit-English-Greek dictionary of more than 9,000 words. He died in Benares; his tombstone, with the Greek epitaph \"in memory of Dimitrios Galanos the Athenian\", stands in the Catholic cemetery of Varanasi (Banglapedia says the English cemetery). His translations were edited in Athens by Georgios K. Typaldos in the 1840s-1850s (unchecked: the dates). He was the first Greek Indologist; he founded no community, and none existed in Benares.",
   "greek_operation_1937": "On 11 December 1937 the People's Commissar of Internal Affairs, Nikolai Yezhov, signed NKVD directive 50215, ordering the arrest of Greeks suspected of espionage in every republic, territory and region; arrests began on 15 December 1937 and went on until November 1938. The victims were mostly men of the Greek villages of Ukraine, the Crimea, the Kuban and the Caucasus. Sentences were passed on lists, by a commission of Yezhov and the Prosecutor General Andrei Vyshinsky; most of those arrested were shot and the rest sent to camps (Altapress, 2018). The totals are not settled: Altapress gives about 22,000 Greek victims without a source; Ivan Dzhukha about 15,000 executed; Vlasis Agtzidis up to 50,000 deaths; Memorial counts 335,500 people repressed and 247,200 sentenced to death in all the national operations together. Memorial's statistics of the national operations count 12,867 sentenced on the Greek line, 10,545 of them shot (Krivenko and Prudovsky); 12,557 sentenced is also quoted. For Central Asia the operation was the first wave: the 1939 census finds 1,374 Greeks in the Kazakh SSR, 832 in the Uzbek SSR and 108 in the Kirghiz SSR.",
   "deportations_1944_1949": "Three removals brought most of Central Asia's Greeks. On 29 May 1942 Stalin ordered Greeks and others out of Krasnodar Krai: 1,402 Greeks were sent east (Bugay); another account names Kazakhstan and the Krasnoyarsk Territory. State Defence Committee decree 5984ss of 2 June 1944 deported the Crimean Greeks on 27-28 June (15,040 in the report to Stalin of 4 July) to the Sverdlovsk and Kemerovo oblasts, the Molotov oblast, the Bashkir ASSR and Guryev oblast in Kazakhstan. Council of Ministers decree 2214-856ss of 29 May 1949 removed Greek citizens, former Greek citizens, Turks and Dashnaks from the Black Sea coast and Transcaucasia: in June-July 1949, 26 trains brought 37,108 Greeks in 8,911 families to Kazakhstan (Kazakh MVD), 24,882 of them to South Kazakhstan oblast; the count of 1953 gives 37,352 Greeks among the 56,142 deportees of the decree (Pohl). On 1 January 1953 there were 21,057 Greek special settlers in Kazakhstan and 2,472 in Uzbekistan. A decree of 27 March 1956 lifted the special-settlement restrictions on the Greeks, Bulgarians and Armenians deported in 1944; MVD order 0402 of 25 September 1956 followed. Neither gave a right to return.",
   "tashkent_refugees": "After the defeat of the Democratic Army of Greece in August 1949, its fighters crossed into Albania. The wounded, the old and the children went to the people's democracies of Eastern Europe; the young fighters and officers went to the USSR. From October 1949 Soviet ships, among them the Sukona and the Vladivostok, carried them from Durres and Vlore through the Dardanelles to Poti; trains took them to Baku, a ship across the Caspian, and trains across the Karakum to Tashkent and Chirchik (Nikolaidou). About 12,000 arrived by the end of 1949 (Politis; 11,997 by the community's count), 11,980 in the USSR in 1950 by the party's count, a quarter of them Slav Macedonians. They lived first in barracks that had held Japanese prisoners of war, then, by Politis' count, in fourteen settlements, twelve in Tashkent and two in Chirchik, and worked in the city's factories. In September 1955 supporters and opponents of Nikos Zachariadis fought in the streets; Politis speaks of deaths and injuries. Return began in 1956, became general after 1974 and was opened to all Greeks by genus in 1982.",
   "emigration_after_1989": "Emigration to Greece began before the end of the USSR: a few families left in 1946-1948 (among them families of Kokand), about a hundred families from Central Asia in 1957, and from 1965 a steady stream: about 30,000 Pontic Greeks, mainly from Central Asia, settled in Greece in 1965-1988 (Kiahopoulos, via Vergeti). When Soviet exit controls ended, most of the rest left. Arrivals in Greece from the former USSR peaked in 1993: about 25,700 of those counted in 2000 had come that year (Vergeti, via Topalidis). The special census of the General Secretariat for Repatriated Greeks in 2000 counted about 155,000 people from the former USSR who had arrived since 1987 and stayed; about 21% came from Kazakhstan (Diamanti-Karanou 2003). Filia's president speaks of some 31,000 Greeks who left Kazakhstan in the early 1990s, about 20,000 of them from the south. In Kazakhstan the census fell from 46,746 Greeks (1989) to 12,703 (1999) and 8,846 (2009); in Kentau 512 people left for Greece in January 1990 alone.",
   "descent_legends": "Several peoples of the Hindu Kush are said to descend from Alexander's soldiers: above all the Kalash of the Chitral valleys, the Burusho of Hunza and the Nuristanis (the former Kafirs) of Afghanistan, with some Pashtun and Tajik clans. The story was spread by 19th-century British travellers and by Kipling's The Man Who Would Be King (1888) (unchecked), and is repeated by tourism, by Greek visitors and in Kalash tradition. Kalasha is an Indo-Aryan language, closest to its neighbour Khowar; Burushaski is a language isolate. Qamar and others (2002) estimated 20-40% Greek admixture in the Kalash from Y-chromosome markers, but Kivisild and others (2003) judged the method biased and the estimate unrealistic; Firasat and others (2007) found that the Kalash lack typical Greek lineages such as E-M35. Hellenthal and others (2014) dated an admixture from a western Eurasian source to 990-210 BC, but Ayub and others (2015) found no detectable gene flow from neighbouring or other living Eurasian populations and a divergence about 11,800 years ago. The legend is not supported.",
   "today": "No Greek-speaking community continuous with the ancient Yavanas exists anywhere in the region. In India the Greek church of the Transfiguration at Kalighat, Kolkata, reopened in 1991 at the Greek embassy's request, belongs to the Metropolis of Singapore and South Asia of the Ecumenical Patriarchate (created 9 January 2008; first metropolitan Konstantinos, 2011); its services are in Bengali for Indian Orthodox Christians, and the Greek cemetery at Phoolbagan survives. Dhaka keeps the Greek memorial on the university campus. In Pakistan the Metropolis has one priest, Father John Tanveer. In Central Asia the Filia federation unites the Greek communities of Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan (17 communities in Kazakhstan, Greek classes, teachers paid by Greece); Kazakhstan counted 8,846 Greeks in 2009. In Tashkent the Centre for Greek Culture in Uzbekistan, revived in 2020, teaches Greek and stages Aristophanes. The Russian Orthodox Church serves the Orthodox of Central Asia; there is no Greek see.",
   "kentau": "Kentau grew out of the Mirgalimsai lead mine in the Karatau hills, where German and Japanese prisoners of war had worked. On 17 June 1949 an MVD note assigned 5,076 deported Greeks, most from Abkhazia, Adjara and the Krasnodar coast, to the mine; in autumn 1950, 2,236 Greek special settlers worked in the mine and on the building of the town, and in 1951 more than 15,000 deported Greeks were reported at the Achisai combine, a figure whose unit (town or district) is unclear. The settlement had about 20,400 people in 1950, so the Greeks were about a quarter of it at first, perhaps more in 1951; Filia's president later said seventy per cent, which the counts do not bear out. Kentau became a town on 1 August 1955. The 1959 census counted 8,249 Greeks, 20.5% of 39,997. Families began leaving for Greece in 1971; 512 people left in January 1990 alone, and the general exodus came in 1991-1993. Soviet censuses count nationality, not language.",
   "asian_russia_mongolia": "Greeks reached Asian Russia as prisoners, deportees and exiles. Of the men sentenced in the NKVD Greek operation of 1937-1938 and not shot, about 1,500 went to the camps of Kolyma and about 100 to Norilsk (CNN Greece, without a source); only half came back. In 1942 Greeks removed from the Krasnodar region were sent to Kazakhstan and, by one account, to the Krasnoyarsk Territory. The Crimean Greeks deported in June 1944 went to special settlements in the Sverdlovsk and Kemerovo oblasts, besides the Molotov oblast and the Bashkir ASSR on the European side and Guryev oblast in Kazakhstan; one convoy reached Stalinsk (Novokuznetsk) in September 1944, where families lived in tents until barracks were built. In 1949 the Armenians of the same operation went to the Altai Territory and Tomsk oblast, the Greeks to Kazakhstan. Nikos Zachariadis died in exile at Surgut in 1973. No count of Greeks living in Siberia was found, and no Greek community is recorded in Mongolia."
  },
  "special": [
   {
    "title": "A Greek Brahmin in Benares",
    "text": "Dimitrios Galanos was born in Athens in 1760 and sailed to Calcutta in 1786 to teach the children of the Greek merchants. In 1793 he moved up the Ganges to Benares and never left. For forty years he studied Sanskrit with Brahmin teachers, among them his friend Munshi Sital Singh, translated Hindu texts into Greek, the Bhagavad Gita among them, and compiled a Sanskrit-English-Greek dictionary of more than 9,000 words. He died in Benares on 3 May 1833; his tombstone calls him simply Dimitrios Galanos the Athenian. He went east not to trade but to teach, and stayed to learn.",
    "sources": [
     "en.wikipedia, Dimitrios Galanos: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimitrios_Galanos",
     "Banglapedia, Greeks, The: https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Greeks,_The"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "title": "A vow in a storm: the Greek church of Calcutta",
    "text": "In 1770 Hadji Alexios Argyree, a Greek merchant from Philippopolis, was caught in a storm at sea and vowed to build a church if he survived. He died in Dhaka in 1777 before he could keep the vow, but his estate and the subscriptions of Greek and British merchants, headed by Warren Hastings with 2,000 rupees, paid for the church of the Transfiguration on Amratolla Street, consecrated on 6 August 1781, the feast of the Transfiguration. In 1924-1925 the community built a new church at Kalighat with Ralli money. Closed in 1972 and reopened in 1991, it still holds Sunday services, now in Bengali.",
    "sources": [
     "The Telegraph (Kolkata), All Greek to Calcutta: https://obeta.ttef.in/culture/heritage/all-greek-to-calcutta/cid/1683507",
     "Kinjal Bose, Greek Orthodox Church, Kolkata (2020, citing Cotton, Calcutta Old and New): https://kinjalbose.com/2020/12/29/greek-orthodox-church-kolkata/",
     "Greek City Times, Kolkata's Greek Orthodox Church: https://greekcitytimes.com/?p=227079",
     "Banglapedia, Greeks, The"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "title": "The Greek memorial in Dhaka",
    "text": "On the campus of the University of Dhaka, beside the Teacher-Student Centre that the Greek planner Constantinos Doxiadis designed in 1961, stands a small square building in classical style: the Greek memorial. Ralli Brothers, the great jute house, built it in the last quarter of the 19th century at Ramna to keep the gravestones of the Greeks who had traded in Dhaka. Ten stones survive, of merchants, some of their wives and one priest, who died between 1800 and 1860; most are inscribed in Greek. They are the last trace of a community of perhaps two hundred people that had its own church from 1812.",
    "sources": [
     "Banglapedia, Greeks, The: https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Greeks,_The",
     "en.wikipedia, Constantinos Apostolou Doxiadis: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinos_Apostolou_Doxiadis"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "title": "The Greek towns of Tashkent",
    "text": "In the last weeks of 1949 about 12,000 Greek partisans, men and women of the defeated Democratic Army, reached Tashkent after weeks at sea and on trains. They were housed in barracks left by Japanese prisoners of war. Within two years they had built fourteen settlements of two-storey houses, twelve in the city and two in Chirchik, each with a Greek and Russian school, a club, often a football team and a band. Farm boys from Macedonia and Roumeli became Soviet factory workers, technicians and scientists. Most went home after 1974 and 1982; their old club building was restored in 2020.",
    "sources": [
     "Neos Kosmos, The Greek miracle in Tashkent, 12 Jan 2026 (Costas Politis): https://neoskosmos.com/en/2026/01/12/features/the-greek-miracle-in-tashkent-an-exhibition-on-the-resilience-of-hellenism-in-central-asia/",
     "Tsekou, EKT teaching text"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "title": "The Nikolau family: from Odessa to the steppe",
    "text": "Petr Nikolau, a Greek citizen, farmed at the hamlet of Rapatyevo near Odessa until his land was taken for the collective farm. In December 1937 the NKVD arrested two men of the family, Pavel and Vladimir Nikolau, in Odessa as spies; soon after, at Christmas, it took Petr, his brother and his nephews. All the men were shot in 1938, and the family was not told. In 1949 the women were deported too: his widow Alexandra, aged 70, and her daughter Varvara, aged 50, were among the 37,108 Greeks sent that summer to southern Kazakhstan. The files were annotated for rehabilitation in 1989; no relative could then be found.",
    "sources": [
     "Chilikova, Deportation. Resistance for the Sake of Salvation (Archive of the President of Kazakhstan): https://e-history.kz/storage/upload/library_en_files/iblock/10c/10c560916ec3cb52e415752f54a13b6c.pdf"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "title": "Exiles and pioneers: South Kazakhstan, 1949",
    "text": "In June and July 1949 trains brought Greek families from Sukhumi, Batumi, Sochi and the Ukrainian coast to the cotton and grain districts of South Kazakhstan, Dzhambul, Kzyl-Orda, Taldy-Kurgan and Alma-Ata. As special settlers they had to report to a commandant and could not leave their district; at first there was too little food and medicine, and Kazakhstan's leaders asked Moscow for help that December. Yet the deportees Violetta Hionidou and David Saunders interviewed in Athens remembered not trauma but hard work and rising living standards. Released in 1956, most of their children left for Greece after 1991.",
    "sources": [
     "Hionidou and Saunders 2010, Europe-Asia Studies 62(9): 1479-1501",
     "Chilikova (Archive of the President of Kazakhstan)",
     "places of origin: Voutira 2011, via Topalidis"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "title": "Are the Kalash Alexander's children?",
    "text": "The Kalash of three valleys in Chitral (7,466 people gave Kalasha as their mother tongue in Pakistan's 2023 census) keep their own gods and festivals, and their tradition, repeated by many visitors, says they descend from Alexander's soldiers. The evidence says otherwise. Kalasha is an Indo-Aryan language, closest to its neighbour Khowar. An early Y-chromosome estimate of Greek admixture (2002) was rejected as an artefact of method; later studies found no typical Greek lineages, and a genome-wide study in 2015 found that the Kalash split from other South Asians about 11,800 years ago and show no Greek admixture.",
    "sources": [
     "Ayub et al. 2015, AJHG 96: 775-783: https://www.research.unipd.it/retrieve/fbc7ce21-aefc-41e9-a989-21d20dc56a96/PIIS0002929715001378.pdf",
     "en.wikipedia, Kalash people: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalash_people"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "title": "The edict in Greek, then in Aryan",
    "text": "In 1993 men digging a trench at Rabatak in northern Afghanistan found a stone with 23 lines in Bactrian, written in Greek letters; an aid worker photographed it and reported it. It is an edict of the Kushan king Kanishka, and as Nicholas Sims-Williams reads it, it says that he issued an edict in Greek and then put it into Aryan, that is Bactrian. Kanishka's first coins still carry Greek titles; soon after, they speak Bactrian. The stone marks the moment, around AD 127, when Greek ceased to be a language of rule in Bactria. The letters lived on for centuries; the language did not.",
    "sources": [
     "Sims-Williams and Cribb 1996, Silk Road Art and Archaeology 4: 75-142",
     "en.wikipedia, Rabatak inscription: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rabatak_inscription",
     "Falk 2001 (the era of AD 127)"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "title": "From Durres to Tashkent, 1949",
    "text": "In October 1949 the fighters of the defeated Democratic Army of Greece waited on the shore of Albania for Soviet ships. The freighter Vladivostok left Durres on 16 October with about a thousand of them in its holds; others sailed on the Sukona, a Liberty ship fitted with bunks. They passed the Dardanelles and the Sea of Marmara, landed at Poti in Georgia and went on by train to Baku, by ship across the Caspian and by train across the Karakum desert. The Vladivostok's group reached Tashkent on 4 November. By the end of the year about 12,000 Greeks lived in the city's barracks; the community counted 11,997.",
    "sources": [
     "Eleni Nikolaidou, The great journey of the exodus from Greece of the political refugees of the civil war, Efimerida ton Syntakton, 8 Jan 2023: https://www.efsyn.gr/?p=1221096",
     "Neos Kosmos, The Greek miracle in Tashkent, 12 Jan 2026 (Costas Politis to AMNA): https://neoskosmos.com/en/2026/01/12/features/the-greek-miracle-in-tashkent-an-exhibition-on-the-resilience-of-hellenism-in-central-asia/"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "title": "Kentau, a town built by deportees",
    "text": "In June 1949 the trains of the operation Volna unloaded Greeks from Abkhazia, Adjara and the Krasnodar coast at the Mirgalimsai lead mine in the Karatau hills: an MVD note of 17 June assigned 5,076 of them to the mine. They dug lead and built the town, and in 1955 the settlement became Kentau. The census of 1959 counted 8,249 Greeks, a fifth of the town. After 1956 many moved away; from 1971 families left for Greece, 512 people in January 1990 alone, and by the mid-1990s few remained. A Greek society still meets there. Whether Kentau was ever a Greek town, or a town where Greeks lived, is an open question.",
    "sources": [
     "Shetkus and Pazilov, Forced labor of deported peoples in the industry of Southern Kazakhstan (the example of Kentau city), Bulletin of KazNU, History series 88 (2018), pp. 103-110 (citing Bugay 1995, Dzhukha 2008 and the Kentau regional state archive): https://bulletin-history.kaznu.kz/index.php/1-history/ru/article/download/186/194/397",
     "KazNU Bulletin (history of Kentau): https://bulletin-history.kaznu.kz/index.php/1-history/article/download/244/248/499",
     "Vergeti, Waves of immigration of Greeks from the former Soviet Union in the 20th century, Phasis 13-14 (2010-2011), pp. 436-441: https://phasis.tsu.ge/index.php/PJ/article/download/2040/2331/2813"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   }
  ],
  "open_points": [
   "NKVD Greek operation: the 12,557 sentenced and 10,545 shot remain untraced (ru.wikipedia, Greek operation of the NKVD, blocked again; Memorial's tables not reached). Figures given only with attribution: about 22,000 victims (Altapress, unsourced), 15,000 executed (Dzhukha), up to 50,000 deaths (Agtzidis), and Memorial's 335,500 repressed and 247,200 sentenced to death in all the national operations.",
   "Kazakhstan 2021 census figure for Greeks: not found. The Bureau of National Statistics' summaries and the press list only the largest groups; the thematic volume on national composition (stat.gov.kz, 2023) could not be opened. 1999 (12,703) was not re-checked; 2009 agrees with Smailova's 'about 9,000, 0.06%'.",
   "Greek mother-tongue shares in the 1959-1989 censuses for the Central Asian republics: not found; the series stay by nationality.",
   "1949: no source found for Greek deportees of 1949 sent to Uzbekistan or Kyrgyzstan; the Volna Greeks went to Kazakhstan (the Armenians to the Altai Territory and Tomsk oblast). The 2,472 Greek special settlers in Uzbekistan in 1953 are of unknown origin (1942, 1944 or 1949).",
   "South Kazakhstan oblast's 24,882 is called 'about 62%' of the total by Shetkus and Pazilov, but it is 67% of 37,108; not reconciled.",
   "Decree 5984ss: the quotas by region (the Bashkir ASSR, the Molotov, Sverdlovsk, Kemerovo and other oblasts) were not read (ru.wikisource unreachable); no count of Greeks by destination found. Feodoridi's 60,000 Greeks deported in 1944, settled mainly in Pavlodar and Kzyl-Orda oblasts, conflicts with the archival sources (15,040 or 16,006 from the Crimea; Guryev oblast).",
   "1942: 'about 8,000 Greeks' to Almaty, Karaganda, Pavlodar and the Krasnoyarsk Territory (deportation.org.ua) against Bugay's 1,402 from Krasnodar Krai; perhaps the 8,300 of Krasnodar and Rostov that Bugay dates to 1944. Not settled.",
   "Kentau: the 1951 'more than 15,000' (town or district?) and Feodoridi's 'seventy per cent Greek' cannot be squared with 5,076 in June 1949, about 20,400 inhabitants in 1950 and 8,249 (20.5%) in 1959; no Greek figure for the town in 1970-1989 is published.",
   "Tashkent: thirteen Greek towns is not found in any source read; Politis gives fourteen (twelve in Tashkent, two in Chirchik). The days (9-10 September 1955) and casualties of the clashes, and the refugees' newspaper title (Neos Dromos), remain unchecked. The Caspian crossing's port in Turkmenistan is not named in the source (Krasnovodsk is likely (unchecked)).",
   "Calcutta: consecration 6 August 1781 (Cotton, via a blog; Greek City Times) against 1782 (Banglapedia) not settled; community size only as 'about 120 families' c. 1800 (Live History India) and 'about 200 or more' in Dhaka and Narayanganj 1770-1800 (Banglapedia).",
   "Ralli Brothers in Dhaka (apart from Narayanganj, 1882) and Chittagong: not confirmed. The year Rallis India passed to Tata (1960s) not checked.",
   "Asian Russia: no figure for Greeks in any Siberian or Far Eastern region was found for any year, and no modern census figure (2002, 2010, 2021) by region; Greek merchants in Vladivostok or Irkutsk before 1917 and Greek communities or churches in Siberia today were not found. The Gulag figures for Greek prisoners (Kolyma about 1,500, Norilsk about 100) come from a news feature without a stated source.",
   "Mongolia: no Greek community, church or figure found; not searched in depth.",
   "Blocked or unreachable this round: ru.wikipedia (Greek operation of the NKVD), ru.wikisource (decree 5984ss), stat.gov.kz thematic collection, kazpravda.kz, en.wikipedia Greece-Mongolia relations."
  ]
 }
}