{
 "title": "Greek cities in present-day Western Europe",
 "scope": "Greek cities in present-day Western Europe outside Italy: Spain (with the Balearics, the Canaries, Ceuta and Melilla), Portugal, Andorra, Gibraltar, France with Corsica, Monaco, Malta, and the United Kingdom, Ireland, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Austria. The Greek cities of Italy, Sicily and Sardinia are in the set Greek Cities in Present-Day Italy, https://iosiflazaridis.github.io/greek-cities-italy/.",
 "n": 23,
 "series": {
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 },
 "regional_estimates": [
  {
   "key": "massaliote_towns_after_49BC",
   "area": "Massalia's own small towns on the coasts of Provence, the Riviera and Languedoc after Caesar's capture of Massalia (49 BC)",
   "applies_to": [
    "e008 Rhodanousia",
    "e009 Antipolis",
    "e014 Athenopolis",
    "e015 Tauroeis"
   ],
   "also_consistent_with": [
    "e006 Agathe (own archaeology: deserted in the 1st c. AD, end c. 50)",
    "e013 Olbia (own evidence: Greek dedications to the early 1st c. AD, end c. 50)"
   ],
   "variant": "e012 Nikaia, which stayed a dependency of Massalia after 49 BC (Strabo 4.1.9): c. 150 (AD 1-300), between this estimate and Massalia's own end (c. 300).",
   "greek_until": 50,
   "until_range": [
    -30,
    200
   ],
   "text_for_readers": "Massalia's small towns lost their link to the mother city when Caesar took Massalia in 49 BC. None has Greek inscriptions of residents of the imperial period, and the region around them was settled with Roman and Latin colonies (Narbo, Arelate, Forum Iulii, Baeterrae, Nemausus). Their Greek is estimated to have died out about two generations later, c. AD 50 (range 30 BC to AD 200).",
   "evidence": [
    "Olbia, the best documented of the small towns: about 350 vase dedications to Aristaios in its territory, nearly all in Greek, run from the late 2nd c. BC to the beginning of the 1st c. AD, with Latin ones appearing among them; the imperial settlement is Latin (Bats 2010).",
    "Agathe: occupation declines from the mid-1st c. BC and the town is deserted during the 1st c. AD (Gomez and Ugolini 2020).",
    "Antipolis was taken from Massalia and made a Latin town (Strabo 4.1.9; Pliny 3.35); its inscriptions of the 1st-3rd c. AD are Latin, including those of people with Greek names (Antibes archaeological museum, 2023 catalogue).",
    "Strabo 4.1.12 (c. AD 18) says the Cavari of the lower Rhone were 'no longer barbarians, but for the most part changed to the Roman type in speech and way of life': Latin, not Greek, was what the region was learning.",
    "Gallo-Greek writing (Gaulish in Greek letters), the main sign of Massaliote literacy among the natives, gives way to Latin letters in the Augustan period (Lejeune, RIG I; Mullen 2013) (unchecked).",
    "Massalia itself kept Greek much longer (Strabo 4.1.5; Tacitus Agr. 4; Greek epitaphs of residents to the later 3rd c. AD, IGF 23), which sets the outer limit for towns that kept close ties with it."
   ],
   "scholarship": "Adams 2003 (Bilingualism and the Latin Language, on Gaul: Greek persists at Massalia under the empire, scarcely outside it) (unchecked); Mullen 2013 (Southern Gaul and the Mediterranean: 'a relatively poor penetration of Greek outside the colonies', p. 177); Decourt 2004 (IGF: almost no imperial Greek of residents outside Marseille; the imperial Greek texts of Nimes, Arles, Vienne and Lyon are largely of easterners); Bats on Olbia and the Massaliote network; Clavel-Leveque 1977 (Marseille grecque) (unchecked).",
   "why_this_width": "The lower end (30 BC) is the Augustan reorganization of Narbonensis (colonies, Latin rights, the end of Gallo-Greek writing); towns of a few hundred Greek speakers cut off from Massalia and surrounded by Latin colonies are unlikely to have kept Greek long after. The upper end (AD 200) allows for families tied to Massalia, which itself spoke Greek into the 3rd c. Nothing narrower is supportable, because no small town has Greek of its own after the turn of the era except Olbia's dedications."
  },
  {
   "key": "native_bilingual_towns_massaliote_sphere",
   "area": "Native (Salyan and Cavarian) towns of the lower Rhone with a Greek-speaking component under Massalia",
   "applies_to": [
    "e016 Glanum",
    "e018 Cabellio"
   ],
   "greek_until": 10,
   "until_range": [
    -40,
    100
   ],
   "text_for_readers": "In the native towns that had used Greek beside Gaulish under Massalia's influence, Greek gave way to Latin with the Augustan reorganization of the province: their coins changed to Latin legends (Cabellio, 44-42 BC), they became Latin towns (Pliny 3.36-37), and Strabo already describes the Cavari as Latin-speaking in his day. Greek there is estimated to have ended c. AD 10 (range 40 BC to AD 100).",
   "evidence": [
    "Cabellio: coins with KABE in Greek letters to the 40s BC, then CABE in Latin letters with LEPI (M. Aemilius Lepidus, governor 44-42 BC), then COL CABE (RPC I).",
    "Glanum: the Greek-style bouleuterion is replaced by a Roman forum and temples c. 30-20 BC; Latin inscriptions from then on (Roth Conges) (unchecked).",
    "Strabo 4.1.12 (c. AD 18): the Cavari, whose towns included Cabellio and Avenio, had changed to the Roman type 'in speech and way of life'.",
    "Pliny NH 3.36-37 (from an Augustan list): Cabellio and Glanum Livii are Latin towns (oppida Latina)."
   ],
   "scholarship": "Mullen 2013; Lejeune, RIG I (the end of Gallo-Greek); Roth Conges on Glanum (unchecked); Adams 2003 (unchecked).",
   "why_this_width": "The lower end is the switch of Cabellio's coinage to Latin (44-42 BC); the upper end allows a generation or two of Greek-speaking families after the Augustan Latin towns were set up. Greek here was never more than the language of part of the town, so it is unlikely to have outlasted the 1st c. AD."
  },
  {
   "key": "iberian_greek_towns",
   "area": "Greek and Massaliote towns of the Iberian coast other than Emporion (which has its own evidence) and those destroyed or abandoned earlier (Mainake, Alonis at La Picola, Rhode)",
   "applies_to": [
    "e007 Hemeroskopeion"
   ],
   "greek_until": -50,
   "until_range": [
    -150,
    50
   ],
   "text_for_readers": "Outside Emporion, no Greek town of Spain has Greek writing of its own under Rome. The small Massaliote towns of the east coast were absorbed into the Roman province of Hither Spain, fought over in the Sertorian war (80-72 BC) and reappear as Latin towns. Their Greek is estimated to have ended by c. 50 BC (range 150 BC to AD 50), a century earlier than at Emporion.",
   "evidence": [
    "Emporion, the largest Greek community of Iberia, sets the pattern and the outer limit: about 84 Greek inscriptions of the 6th-3rd c. BC, 22 of the 2nd-1st c. BC and only 2-3 of the 1st c. AD (IGEP, De Hoz 2014); the town merged with Iberians and Romans in one Latin municipium (Livy 34.9.3).",
    "Strabo 3.4.6 (from a source of c. 100 BC) still calls Hemeroskopeion one of three small Massaliote towns between the Sucro and Carthago Nova, and Sertorius' naval base; Pliny 3.20 lists only the tributary (later Latin) town of Dianium.",
    "The Roman towns of this coast (Dianium, Lucentum, Ilici, Allon) have Latin inscriptions only (unchecked)."
   ],
   "scholarship": "Dominguez 2004 (IACP, Iberia); De Hoz 2014 (IGEP); Rouillard 1991 (Les Grecs et la peninsule Iberique); Aquilue et al. on Emporion (unchecked).",
   "why_this_width": "The lower end (150 BC) follows the fall in Greek writing at Emporion itself in the 2nd c. BC and the Roman conquest of the coast; the upper end (AD 50) is the end of Greek at Emporion, which no smaller town should outlast. These towns are known from texts only, so the estimate is weak."
  },
  {
   "key": "maltese_islands",
   "area": "Melite and Gaulos (Malta and Gozo)",
   "applies_to": [
    "e017 Melite (own evidence to the 5th c.)",
    "e019 Gaulos (own evidence only to the late 1st c. BC)"
   ],
   "greek_until": 600,
   "until_range": [
    450,
    870
   ],
   "text_for_readers": "Greek of the islanders is attested to the 4th-5th c. AD, in the epitaphs of the Rabat catacombs, many of them Jewish. Under Constantinople (c. 535-870) Greek is attested only for officials (the seals of the archons) and for the church after the 8th c.; a Greek-speaking population of the islands in those centuries is a conjecture. Greek is estimated to have ended c. 600 (range 450 to 870); whatever was left ended with the Aghlabid conquest of 870.",
   "evidence": [
    "Rabat catacombs and other late antique sites: 18 Greek and 16 Latin inscriptions, mainly of the mid-4th to 5th c.; six of the Greek ones are Jewish (menorahs, a gerousiarch), and the author links Greek largely to an immigrant, perhaps Alexandrian, Jewish community (Lo Faro 2008-09).",
    "Gregory the Great's letters (590s) deal with a Latin church on Malta (the bishops Lucillus and Traianus).",
    "Greek seals of the archon and droungarios Niketas (8th c., found at Tunis) and of the archon Theophylaktos (8th-9th c.): officials only.",
    "Pottery at Tas-Silg of the 6th-9th c. and a basilica in use to the 8th-9th c. show the islands inhabited and tied to Sicily and southern Italy, without telling the language.",
    "Brincat (Before Maltese): Latin 'replaced Punic and Greek and remained Malta's acrolect for five centuries'; a shift to Greek under Constantinople 'can only be based on conjecture', though a few sound features of Maltese may point to a Greek substratum; 870 'certainly marks the end or drastic reduction' of a community 'which may have been Greek-speaking'.",
    "Al-Himyari: after the fall of Melite (29 August 870) the island was an uninhabited ruin until 1048-49; disputed by Fiorini and Zammit 2016 (Mdina pottery and pollen). No Greek-speaking community is attested after 870 in either reading."
   ],
   "scholarship": "Lo Faro 2008-09; Buhagiar 2007 (late Roman and early medieval catacombs of Malta) (unchecked); Brincat 1995 and 'Before Maltese'; Bonanno 2005; Fiorini and Zammit 2016; Metcalfe 2009.",
   "why_this_width": "The lower end (450) is the last Greek epitaphs of residents; the upper end (870) is the Aghlabid conquest, after which no Greek community is attested. The point (600) is placed after the end of catacomb epigraphy (whose silence is partly the end of the epigraphic habit) and at the time of Gregory's Latin church. The range should not run to 1048: any Christians who survived 870 are of unknown language. If the editor prefers to assume Greek continuity under the emperors in Constantinople, as for Sicily, the alternative is greek_until 870 with the same range."
  },
  {
   "key": "massalia_city",
   "area": "Massalia itself (own evidence; stated for reference)",
   "applies_to": [
    "e001 Massalia"
   ],
   "greek_until": 300,
   "until_range": [
    250,
    500
   ],
   "text_for_readers": "Greek epitaphs of Massaliote families run into the later 3rd c. AD; the Christian epitaphs of 5th-6th-c. Marseille are almost all Latin. Greek speech is estimated to have ended c. 300 (range 250 to 500).",
   "evidence": [
    "IGF 23 = IG XIV 2436: epitaph of Aurelius Diokleides, dated by the weekday ('the day of Aphrodite'), after 212 and probably later 3rd c. AD (SEG 54.979).",
    "SEG 52.998: Greek family epitaph of C. Oueirios Gratos and Paramone, 2nd c. AD.",
    "c. AD 400: Greek painted inscriptions on amphorae found at Marseille (SEG 37.824), imports, not residents.",
    "5th c.: Salvian, Cassian and Gennadius write Latin at Marseille; Gennadius translates Greek works, showing Greek as a learned language there (unchecked)."
   ],
   "scholarship": "Decourt 2004 (IGF); Hermary, Hesnard and Treziny 1999; Mullen 2013; Adams 2003 (unchecked).",
   "why_this_width": "The lower end is the last dated Greek epitaph of a resident; the upper end is the wholly Latin city of the 5th c. writers."
  }
 ],
 "cities": [
  {
   "no": 1,
   "list_group": "Andalusia and Valencia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 575 BC – c. 500 BC",
   "period": "1 The Phocaeans (c. 625-540 BC)",
   "id": "e003",
   "latin": "Mainake / Maenace",
   "greek": "Μαινάκη",
   "other_names": "Maenace or Menace (Avienus, Ora maritima 426-431, who equates it with Malaca)",
   "modern": "coast near Torre del Mar (Vélez-Málaga)?",
   "modern_native": "Vélez-Málaga (Torre del Mar)",
   "municipality": "Vélez-Málaga",
   "population": 86048,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Coast east of Málaga near Torre del Mar, Vélez-Málaga, Málaga (Barrington Atlas: Cerro del Peñón?); others place it at Málaga itself or at Cerro del Villar",
   "country": "Spain",
   "admin1": "Andalusia",
   "admin2": "Málaga",
   "ancient_region": "Baetica",
   "lat": 36.7419,
   "lon": -4.0943,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "265961",
   "iacp": "",
   "iacp_note": "",
   "greek_from": -575,
   "greek_until": -500,
   "phases": [
    [
     -575,
     -500
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "No ancient foundation date and no Greek remains. If Strabo's 'Phocaean city' is right, it belongs to the Phocaean voyages to Tartessos before the battle of Alalia (Hdt. 1.163, the Phocaeans and king Arganthonios), c. 600-540 BC; the year 575 is an estimate for that period, not a recorded date. The earliest text that calls it Greek is Ps.-Scymnus (c. 130-100 BC).",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Strabo 3.4.2 says it had been razed and only ruins were left; no source says when or by whom. Modern authors who accept Mainake link its end with Carthaginian control of the Strait after the battle of Alalia (c. 540 BC), but no ancient text says so.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -540,
    -200
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "None: no Greek inscription, coin or building is known from any candidate site.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: Strabo 3.4.2 reports only that the town had been razed; no source names who destroyed it or when.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Phocaeans (Strabo 3.4.2) or Massalia (Ps.-Scymnus 146-147)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Phocaea or Massalia?",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "name_note": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 3.4.2: some take Malaca for Mainake, 'the farthest west of the Phocaean cities', but Mainake lies farther from Calpe, is in ruins and 'keeps traces of a Greek city', while Malaca is nearer and Phoenician in plan. Ps.-Scymnus 146-147 (c. 130-100 BC): Mainake, a Greek city and colony of the Massaliotes, the last towards the west (unchecked: wording). Avienus, Ora maritima 426-431: Malaca was called Maenace in an earlier age. No coin, inscription or Greek building of the town is known.",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Avienus (Ora maritima 426-431) already equated it with Malaca, and Strabo had to argue against that. Every candidate site (Toscanos, Cerro del Peñón and Morro de Mezquitilla near Torre del Mar; Cerro del Villar and Malaka near Málaga) is Phoenician, and many scholars think Mainake was a Greek name for a Phoenician harbour where Greeks traded. It is kept as an uncertain town because two explicit texts call it Greek; the map point marks the region named in the Barrington Atlas, not a known site.",
   "visible": "Nothing Greek visible; the Phoenician sites of Cerro del Peñón and Toscanos near Torre del Mar; Greek pottery from the coast in the Museo de Málaga (unchecked)",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 3.4.2",
    "Ps.-Scymnus 146-147",
    "Avienus, Ora maritima 426-431",
    "Pleiades 265961"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 2,
   "list_group": "Andalusia and Valencia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 500 BC – c. 50 BC",
   "period": "2 Massalia and its towns (539-219 BC)",
   "id": "e007",
   "latin": "Hemeroskopeion / Dianium",
   "greek": "Ἡμεροσκοπεῖον",
   "other_names": "Dianion, 'that is, Artemision' (Strabo 3.4.6); Dianium (Latin); Hemeroscopium (Avienus, Ora maritima 476-478); Daniya (Arabic)",
   "modern": "Dénia",
   "modern_native": "Dénia",
   "municipality": "Dénia",
   "population": 47261,
   "pop_year": 2025,
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Dénia, Marina Alta, Alicante; the temple of Artemis stood on the headland (the castle hill or Cap de Sant Antoni); Xàbia is also proposed",
   "country": "Spain",
   "admin1": "Valencian Community",
   "admin2": "Alicante",
   "ancient_region": "Hispania Tarraconensis",
   "lat": 38.8428,
   "lon": 0.1075,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "265880",
   "iacp": "",
   "iacp_note": "",
   "greek_from": -500,
   "greek_until": -50,
   "phases": [
    [
     -500,
     -50
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "No foundation date and no Greek finds. Strabo 3.4.6 names it the best known of three 'small towns of the Massaliotes' between the Sucro (Júcar) and Carthago Nova, with a much-honoured temple of Artemis of Ephesus on the headland; Artemidorus (c. 100 BC, in Stephanus) calls it a polis of the Celtiberians and a colony of the Phocaeans (unchecked); Avienus, Ora maritima 476-478, drawing on an old periplus, says that 'here too the city of Hemeroscopium was once inhabited', the ground now empty and marshy. Those who accept it date it to the 6th-5th c. BC; the year is only an estimate for that period.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Strabo's source (c. 100 BC) still counted it as one of three small Massaliote towns on this coast. Q. Sertorius used it as his naval base in his war against the Roman government (c. 80-72 BC; Strabo 3.4.6). Afterwards it appears only as the Roman town of Dianium, first tributary and then a municipium with Latin inscriptions (Pliny NH 3.20). No Greek-speaking community is attested at any date. Its end is set to the estimate for the Greek towns of Spain outside Emporion: c. 50 BC (range 150 BC to AD 50), since even Emporion, the largest Greek community of Iberia, had little Greek writing left by the 1st c. BC and none after the 1st c. AD.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -150,
    50
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "No Greek inscriptions, coins or buildings are known; the latest Greek testimony is literary (Artemidorus and Strabo).",
   "ended_by": "No named act. The town came under Rome; Q. Sertorius held it as a naval base against the Roman government (c. 80-72 BC; Strabo 3.4.6), and after his war it appears only as the Latin town of Dianium.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Massalia (Strabo 3.4.6) or Phocaeans (Artemidorus in Steph. Byz.)",
   "founder_group": "Massalia",
   "metropolis": "Massalia",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Iberian settlements of the 7th-6th c. BC with Phoenician contact lie nearby (Alt de Benimaquia), but not on the presumed site.",
   "name_continues": "Latin name",
   "name_via": "Arabic",
   "name_note": "Latin name",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 3.4.6: between the Sucro and Carthago Nova, not far from the river, lie three small towns (polichnia) of the Massaliotes; the best known is Hemeroskopeion, with a much-honoured temple of Ephesian Artemis on its headland, a fortified place that Sertorius used as a naval base, now called Dianium. Artemidorus (c. 100 BC) in Stephanus s.v. Ἡμεροσκοπεῖον: a polis, colony of the Phocaeans (unchecked: wording). Avienus, Ora maritima 476-478: a city of Hemeroscopium was once inhabited here. No Greek coin, inscription or settlement has been found.",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "No Greek settlement, coin or inscription has been found at Dénia or Xàbia, and many scholars doubt that a Greek town existed: the name may belong to a lookout point or to a native harbour with a Greek-frequented sanctuary.",
   "visible": "Nothing Greek visible; Museu Arqueològic de Dénia in the castle (Iberian to modern)",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 3.4.6",
    "Steph. Byz. s.v. Hemeroskopeion",
    "Avienus, Ora maritima",
    "Pleiades 265880"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 3,
   "list_group": "Andalusia and Valencia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 430 BC – c. 330 BC",
   "period": "2 Massalia and its towns (539-219 BC)",
   "id": "e010",
   "latin": "Alonis / Alone",
   "greek": "Ἀλωνίς",
   "other_names": "Alone (Mela 2.93); Alonai (Ptolemy 2.6) (unchecked); possibly the Roman municipium of Allon at La Vila Joiosa",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "Santa Pola",
   "municipality": "Santa Pola",
   "population": 38556,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "La Picola, Santa Pola, Baix Vinalopó, Alicante (the Barrington Atlas location); La Vila Joiosa, Benidorm and Guardamar are also proposed",
   "country": "Spain",
   "admin1": "Valencian Community",
   "admin2": "Alicante",
   "ancient_region": "Hispania Tarraconensis",
   "lat": 38.1923,
   "lon": -0.5552,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "265796",
   "iacp": "",
   "iacp_note": "",
   "greek_from": -430,
   "greek_until": -330,
   "phases": [
    [
     -430,
     -330
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "No foundation date. Artemidorus (c. 100 BC, in Stephanus) calls Alonis 'an island and polis of Massalia'; Mela 2.93 lists Alone among the towns of the Contestani. If it lay at Santa Pola, the only Greek-built settlement there is La Picola, a small walled settlement with a Greek-style ditch and outer wall and a grid plan without precedent in Iberia, built in the last quarter of the 5th c. BC and abandoned c. 330 BC (Attic imports 430-330 BC; Moret and others), whose date is used here.",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "La Picola was abandoned around 330 BC; its successor at Santa Pola was the Roman harbour of Ilici (Portus Ilicitanus), a Latin site. Artemidorus' 'polis of Massalia' (c. 100 BC) may preserve an older status. If Alonis was at La Vila Joiosa instead, it was an Iberian town and then the Latin municipium of Allon, with no Greek community attested.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -330,
    -100
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "End of occupation at La Picola, c. 330 BC, dated by crushed Attic red-figure and black-glaze vases in the abandonment layer; no Greek inscription or coin of Alonis is known.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: La Picola was abandoned around 330 BC without a recorded cause.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Massalia (Artemidorus in Steph. Byz.)",
   "founder_group": "Massalia",
   "metropolis": "Massalia",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "name_note": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Artemidorus (c. 100 BC, Geographoumena book 1) in Stephanus s.v. Ἀλωνίς: an island and polis of Massalia (unchecked: wording); Mela 2.93: Alone among the towns of the Contestani (unchecked). If it lay at Santa Pola (Barrington Atlas), the walled settlement of La Picola (c. 430-330 BC), with a Greek-style ditch, outer wall and grid plan without precedent in Iberia, is the only Greek-built candidate; no Greek inscription or coin of the town is known.",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Both the place and the status are doubtful. La Picola's excavators (Badie, Moret, Rouillard and others) see a short-lived coastal trading post with a Greek-style defence and grid plan but native masonry, and leave open whether it was Greek; whether it was Alonis, and whether it had civic status, is unproven.",
   "visible": "La Picola, the 4th-c. BC walled Iberian settlement with Greek-style fortifications at Santa Pola (unchecked), and the Museo del Mar in the castle",
   "sources": [
    "Steph. Byz. s.v. Alonis",
    "Mela 2.93",
    "Moret et al. on La Picola (British Academy, Proc. 86)",
    "Pleiades 265796"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 4,
   "list_group": "Catalonia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 575 BC – c. AD 75",
   "period": "1 The Phocaeans (c. 625-540 BC)",
   "id": "e002",
   "latin": "Emporion / Emporiae",
   "greek": "Ἐμπόριον",
   "other_names": "Emporiae (Latin); Palaia polis, 'the old town' on the islet (Strabo 3.4.8); ΕΜΠΟΡΙΤΩΝ (coin legend, 'of the Emporitans'); Indike, the Iberian town beside it (Steph. Byz. (unchecked)), Iberian coin legend untikesken; Ampurias (Spanish); Empúries (Catalan)",
   "modern": "Empúries (L'Escala)",
   "modern_native": "Sant Martí d'Empúries; Empúries (L'Escala)",
   "municipality": "L'Escala",
   "population": 10429,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Empúries, L'Escala, Alt Empordà, Girona: the first town (Palaiapolis) under the village of Sant Martí d'Empúries, the Neapolis and the Roman town on the shore to the south",
   "country": "Spain",
   "admin1": "Catalonia",
   "admin2": "Girona",
   "ancient_region": "Hispania Tarraconensis",
   "lat": 42.134,
   "lon": 3.119,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "246382",
   "iacp": "2",
   "iacp_note": "IACP chapter 'Spain and France (including Corsica)' (A. J. Domínguez), entries numbered alphabetically: Alalie 1, Emporion 2, Massalia 3, Rhode 4. Numbers recalled, not seen in the book.",
   "greek_from": -575,
   "greek_until": 75,
   "phases": [
    [
     -575,
     75
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Founded by Phocaeans (Livy 34.9.1), or from Massalia (Strabo 3.4.8; Ps.-Scymnus 203-204 (unchecked)), on the islet at the mouth of the Fluvià, now the village of Sant Martí d'Empúries. The oldest Greek levels there date to the first half of the 6th c. BC (c. 600/580-575), above an indigenous Iron Age village; the Neapolis on the shore existed by c. 550 BC.",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Administration: an independent Greek polis allied to Rome until the 1st c. BC, with a Roman camp and garrison beside it from 195 BC. Caesar added Roman colonists after 45 BC, the Iberians and then the Greeks received Roman citizenship, and all were merged in the municipium of Emporiae (Livy 34.9.3, writing under Augustus). Speech: the Greek coinage ends with the silver drachms, the town's later bronzes carry Iberian and then Latin legends, and from Augustus on its inscriptions are almost all Latin; the last Greek ones (a bilingual epitaph, a verse epitaph) are of the 1st c. AD (IGEP 135, 136). The Neapolis was gradually abandoned from the later 1st c. AD (its harbour quarter was empty by the early 2nd c.), the town shrank until the late 3rd c., and in late antiquity a small Christian community with a basilica (late 4th or early 5th c.) and cemetery over the Greek town, the seat of the bishops of Emporiae in the 6th-7th c. (unchecked), was Latin-speaking. No Greek-speaking community is attested after the 1st c. AD; the date is an estimate.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    25,
    150
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek inscriptions of Emporion: about 84 of the 6th-3rd c. BC, 22 of the 2nd-1st c. BC and only 2-3 of the 1st c. AD, the last a bilingual Latin-Greek epitaph and a funerary epigram (IGEP 135, 136, 141); Greek names of the imperial period belong mostly to slaves and freedmen; Iberian disappears from writing under Augustus and Greek soon after; silver drachms with ΕΜΠΟΡΙΤΩΝ to about the early 2nd c. BC (unchecked); Iberian-legend bronzes (untikesken), 2nd-1st c. BC; Latin legends on the municipal bronzes from the later 1st c. BC (unchecked); Livy 34.9.3 (c. 25 BC-AD 10) calls the merger complete; Pliny NH 3.22 still calls the Emporitans offspring of the Phocaeans; abandonment of the Neapolis in the 1st c. AD (archaeology) (unchecked).",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech; the steps that made Emporion a Latin town were Roman. Cn. Cornelius Scipio landed there in 218 BC and M. Porcius Cato made it his base in 195 BC, setting up a camp beside the town (Livy 21.60; 34.9-16). Julius Caesar settled Roman colonists there after defeating Pompey's sons, 45 BC (Livy 34.9.3). The Greeks were then given Roman citizenship and merged with Iberians and Romans in one municipium (Livy 34.9.3); Greek faded by assimilation within about a century.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Phocaeans (Livy 34.9.1), perhaps by way of Massalia (Strabo 3.4.8; Ps.-Scymnus 203-204)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Phocaea or Massalia?",
   "refounded_by": "The Neapolis built on the shore by c. 550 BC (same community); a Roman town added on the hill behind in the early 1st c. BC; Caesar's colonists after 45 BC",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "An indigenous Iron Age village stood on the islet (c. 650-580 BC) before the Phocaeans; its name is not known. Indike (Iberian untikesken) is the name of the neighbouring Iberian town, not of the Greek site.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Latin",
   "name_note": "Greek name",
   "bilingual_period": "yes",
   "other_language": "Iberian: the Indiketan town beside the Neapolis, joined with the Greeks in one community by the 1st c. BC. Latin: a Roman garrison beside the town from 195 BC, Roman colonists from Caesar after 45 BC, then the Latin municipium of Emporiae.",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Livy 34.9.1-3: a double town, Greek and Iberian, divided by a wall; Roman colonists were added by Caesar and now all are merged 'in corpus unum'. Strabo 3.4.8: in time the two formed one constitution 'mixed of barbarian and Greek'. Pliny NH 3.22: 'Emporiae geminum hoc veteres incolarum et Graecorum'. Bronze coins with the Iberian legend untikesken (2nd-1st c. BC) and Iberian inscriptions in the town, including limestone plaques in Greek, Iberian and Latin of the 2nd-1st c. BC. Bilingual (Greek and Iberian) from about the 2nd c. BC, trilingual with Latin from 45 BC; Iberian disappears from writing under Augustus.",
   "status_evidence": "IACP no. 2, type A (Domínguez 2004) (unchecked: number and type not checked against the book); Strabo 3.4.8-9 (Massaliote foundation, two towns, one mixed constitution); Livy 34.9; Ps.-Scymnus 203-204; civic silver coinage with ΕΜΠΟΡΙΤΩΝ; Greek lead letters of residents (6th-5th c. BC)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The islet town (Palaiapolis) and the shore town (Neapolis) are one entry: the move took place within a generation and the islet stayed inhabited. The Latin municipium and the late Roman see of Emporiae continue the same community after it became Latin.",
   "visible": "Empúries site and museum (Museu d'Arqueologia de Catalunya-Empúries): the Neapolis with its walls, agora and Asklepieion; the Palaiapolis under the village of Sant Martí",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 3.4.8-9",
    "Livy 34.9",
    "IACP (Domínguez 2004)",
    "De Hoz, IGEP (2014)",
    "Pleiades 246382"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 5,
   "list_group": "Catalonia",
   "dates_shown": "c. 400 BC – c. 195 BC",
   "period": "2 Massalia and its towns (539-219 BC)",
   "id": "e011",
   "latin": "Rhode / Rhoda",
   "greek": "Ῥόδη",
   "other_names": "Rhodos (Strabo 3.4.8); Rhoda (Livy 34.8, Latin); ΡΟΔΗΤΩΝ (coin legend, 'of the Rhodetans'); Roses (Catalan); Rosas (Spanish)",
   "modern": "Roses",
   "modern_native": "Roses",
   "municipality": "Roses",
   "population": 20362,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "La Ciutadella, Roses, Alt Empordà, Girona",
   "country": "Spain",
   "admin1": "Catalonia",
   "admin2": "Girona",
   "ancient_region": "Hispania Tarraconensis",
   "lat": 42.2649,
   "lon": 3.1738,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "246588",
   "iacp": "4",
   "iacp_note": "IACP chapter 'Spain and France (including Corsica)' (A. J. Domínguez), entries numbered alphabetically: Alalie 1, Emporion 2, Massalia 3, Rhode 4. Numbers recalled, not seen in the book.",
   "greek_from": -400,
   "greek_until": -195,
   "phases": [
    [
     -400,
     -195
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "The Rhodian foundation (Ps.-Scymnus 204-206 (unchecked); Strabo 3.4.8 and 14.2.10, who puts it before the first Olympiad) is a legend. The earliest Greek levels at the Ciutadella date to the late 5th or early 4th c. BC; the town was probably founded from Emporion or Massalia, and Strabo 3.4.8 calls it 'a small town of the Emporitans'.",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Rhode prospered in the 4th and 3rd c. BC: a Hellenistic quarter grew towards the harbour, the town struck its own silver drachms and had a black-gloss pottery workshop whose wares went from Languedoc to Cartagena. It suffered in the Second Punic War. In 195 BC Cato's army stormed the fort at Rhoda and drove out the Iberian garrison holding it (Livy 34.8.5-7), and that year marks the end of the Greek town: its people seem to have taken refuge on the hill of Santa Maria, and the town area stayed empty until the mid-2nd c. AD (archaeology). The anchorage stayed in use as a minor harbour of Emporiae; the reoccupied town of the 2nd-7th c. AD was Latin-speaking.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    -200,
    -180
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Silver drachms with ΡΟΔΗΤΩΝ and a rose, first third of the 3rd c. BC (Museu Nacional d'Art de Catalunya), widely imitated in Gaul; the latest material outside the walls dates from the late 3rd to early 2nd c. BC; the town area was empty from 195 BC to the mid-2nd c. AD (archaeology); no Greek evidence afterwards.",
   "ended_by": "M. Porcius Cato, consul, 195 BC: his army took the fort (castellum) at Rhoda by force and expelled the Iberian garrison holding it (Livy 34.8.5-7). The Greek town did not recover (archaeology).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Emporion or Massalia (archaeology; Strabo 3.4.8 'a small town of the Emporitans'); Rhodians only by legend",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Emporion or Massalia?",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Latin",
   "name_note": "Greek name",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP no. 4 (Domínguez 2004); type not recalled, probably B or C, since no Classical text calls Rhode a polis (unchecked: number and type not checked against the book); Strabo 3.4.8 (polichnion of the Emporitans); Ps.-Scymnus 204-206 (a polis founded by Rhodians); civic silver coinage with ΡΟΔΗΤΩΝ",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The Rhodian foundation, sometimes dated to the 8th c. BC or earlier, has no archaeological support; the Greek town belongs to the late 5th-2nd c. BC. One recent synthesis dates it c. 375-195 BC.",
   "visible": "La Ciutadella de Roses: the Greek quarter (Hellenistic houses) inside the 16th-c. citadel, with a museum",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 3.4.8",
    "Livy 34.8",
    "IACP (Domínguez 2004)",
    "Enciclopèdia Catalana: Ciutat de Roses",
    "Pleiades 246588"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 6,
   "list_group": "Languedoc",
   "dates_shown": "c. 625 BC – c. 300 BC",
   "period": "1 The Phocaeans (c. 625-540 BC)",
   "id": "e022",
   "latin": "Béziers I (ancient name unknown)",
   "greek": "",
   "other_names": "The Greek name is unknown. Proposed: Rhode, the 'second Rhode' of Ps.-Scymnus 204-206 and Pliny's 'Rhoda of the Rhodians' (3.33), with Strabo's 'Rhoe' (4.1.5) read as Rhode (Ugolini 2022); Besara, the town that 'stood' in Avienus' Ora maritima 591, is often taken as Béziers (Pleiades 152514, unlocated) (unchecked). Later names of the town: Baiterra (Strabo 4.1.6) (unchecked); Colonia Iulia Baeterrae Septimanorum (Pliny 3.36).",
   "modern": "Béziers",
   "modern_native": "Béziers (Occitan Besièrs)",
   "municipality": "Béziers",
   "population": 81545,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "The old centre of Béziers, on the hill above the left bank of the Orb (the plateau of the Saint-Nazaire cathedral and the streets around the place de la Madeleine), Hérault",
   "country": "France",
   "admin1": "Occitanie",
   "admin2": "Hérault",
   "ancient_region": "Gallia Narbonensis",
   "lat": 43.341,
   "lon": 3.214,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "148056",
   "iacp": "",
   "iacp_note": "",
   "greek_from": -625,
   "greek_until": -300,
   "phases": [
    [
     -625,
     -300
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Founded in the last quarter of the 7th c. BC (c. 625-600), on the date of its earliest levels with Greek pottery and houses (Ugolini 2018, 2022); no ancient date or founder is known.",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "The large town of the 6th-4th c. BC under old Béziers shrank and was largely abandoned c. 300 BC (Ugolini), as were other sites of the region in the 3rd c. BC (unchecked). The town that revived in the 2nd-1st c. BC was native, and from c. 36 BC Béziers was the Latin veteran colony of Colonia Iulia Baeterrae Septimanorum. If Béziers I was Greek, its Greek community ended with its abandonment.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    -325,
    -275
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "c. 625-600 BC: earliest levels; 6th-4th c. BC: a large town with Greek pottery, Greek-style houses and Greek graffiti; c. 300 BC: largely abandoned; c. 36 BC: Roman veteran colony.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town was largely abandoned c. 300 BC for reasons no source records; the archaeology shows no conqueror.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "unknown East Greeks (Rhodians? Phocaeans?), on Ugolini's thesis",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "unknown (Rhodian? Phocaean?)",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "No earlier name is attested. The later name Baiterra / Baeterrae is native or Roman and is not known for the town of the 7th-4th c. BC.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "name_note": "native name",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Archaeology only: a large town of c. 625-300 BC under old Béziers, rich in Greek pottery, with Greek-style houses and Greek graffiti (unchecked: details of houses and graffiti), argued to be a Greek city by Ugolini (Journal of Greek Archaeology 3, 2018; Études héraultaises 59, 2022); no ancient text calls Béziers Greek or a polis.",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "A published scholarly thesis, not a consensus: D. Ugolini argues from excavation that Béziers I was an early Greek city, perhaps the Rhode of the texts and the mother town of Agde's first phase; E. Gailledrat, with D. Garcia and M. Audoly (2026), asks 'Was Béziers a Greek city?', finds that the evidence 'calls for a more nuanced response', and calls Béziers 'a singular emporion'. Counted, with doubt, because a published case argues from excavation that the town was Greek; if the thesis fails, Béziers I is a native town with Greek traders. The Pleiades id is that of the Roman colony on the same hill.",
   "visible": "Nothing visible; finds in the Musée du Biterrois (Caserne Saint-Jacques) (unchecked)",
   "sources": [
    "Ugolini 2018, 'The Greeks West of the Rhone (F): Genesis, Evolution and End of a Greek Area', Journal of Greek Archaeology 3: 203-244",
    "Ugolini 2022, 'Retour aux sources textuelles sur Agde grecque', Études héraultaises 59: 7-17",
    "Gailledrat, Garcia and Audoly 2026, 'Béziers, un emporion singulier', in Agde grecque: 81-85",
    "Pliny NH 3.33; Ps.-Scymnus 204-206",
    "Pleiades 148056"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 7,
   "list_group": "Languedoc",
   "dates_shown": "c. 500 BC – c. AD 50",
   "period": "2 Massalia and its towns (539-219 BC)",
   "id": "e006",
   "latin": "Agathe / Agatha",
   "greek": "Ἀγάθη",
   "other_names": "Agatha (Latin; Pliny NH 3.33 'Agatha quondam Massiliensium'); Ἀγαθὴ Τύχη (Timosthenes in Stephanus of Byzantium, probably a late confusion)",
   "modern": "Agde",
   "modern_native": "Agde (Occitan Agde)",
   "municipality": "Agde",
   "population": 29939,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "The old town of Agde on the basalt hill on the left bank of the Hérault, Hérault",
   "country": "France",
   "admin1": "Occitanie",
   "admin2": "Hérault",
   "ancient_region": "Gallia Narbonensis",
   "lat": 43.3108,
   "lon": 3.4758,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "147985",
   "iacp": "",
   "iacp_note": "",
   "greek_from": -500,
   "greek_until": 50,
   "phases": [
    [
     -500,
     50
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "No ancient date. Pseudo-Scymnus (c. 130-100 BC) names Agathe among the Greek towns of the Phocaeans; Strabo (4.1.5-6) says Massalia founded it on the Hérault as a stronghold against the barbarians of the Rhône. Archaeology: A. Nickels dated the Greek town to c. 400 BC; the newer excavations (Gomez and Ugolini 2020) date its rampart and first Greek phase to the late 6th c. BC (c. 525-500), and Pleiades gives c. 525. The year here is the later end of that range.",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: a Massaliote town; under Roman authority from the founding of the province (Narbo 118 BC); taken from Massalia with its other territories after Caesar's siege of 49 BC, and Pliny (NH 3.33) calls it 'formerly of the Massaliotes'. Its land went to the Roman veteran colony of Baeterrae (Béziers), founded c. 36 BC. Speech: the town declined from the mid-1st c. BC and was deserted during the 1st c. AD (Gomez and Ugolini 2020); the late antique town that became a bishop's see (Council of Agde, 506) was Latin-speaking. Greek therefore ended with the old town in the 1st c. AD at the latest.",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    -30,
    100
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "A Greek letter on lead found in the town (Dana 2017); a loom weight with the Gaulish woman's name Bitouna, 2nd-1st c. BC; Massaliote amphorae in the late fills; decline of occupation from the mid-1st c. BC; no occupation between the 1st c. AD and late antiquity in the excavated areas (Gomez and Ugolini 2020).",
   "ended_by": "Julius Caesar, who stripped Massalia of its territories after his legates C. Trebonius and D. Brutus took the city in 49 BC (Caesar BC 2.22; Strabo 4.1.5; Pliny 3.33: Agathe 'formerly of the Massaliotes'). The area later lay in the territory of the veteran colony of Baeterrae, founded under Octavian c. 36 BC (unchecked). No named act ended Greek speech: the town shrank and was abandoned in the 1st c. AD.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Massalia (Strabo 4.1.5); 'Phocaeans' (Pseudo-Scymnus); a port of Greek Béziers in its first phase, according to Ugolini",
   "founder_group": "Massalia",
   "metropolis": "Massalia",
   "refounded_by": "Re-occupied as a Massaliote town from the mid-2nd c. BC, according to Gomez and Ugolini (2020), after a gap in the 3rd c. BC.",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Native sites with Greek imports lay nearby (La Monédière at Bessan, Mont-Joui at Florensac), not on the hill itself as far as is known.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Latin",
   "name_note": "Greek name",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 4.1.5 (founded by Massalia); Pseudo-Scymnus 206-209 (Greek town of the Phocaeans) (unchecked); Stephanus s.v. Ἀγάθη (polis); Pliny NH 3.33; grid-planned walled town.",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The date is disputed: c. 400 BC (Nickels) or the late 6th c. BC (Ugolini, Gomez). Ugolini (2022) distinguishes Agathe I (c. 525/500 to 300/275 BC), which she sees as first a foundation of the Greek town under Béziers before it became Massaliote, and Agathe II (c. 150/140 BC to the 1st c. AD); the gap between them would split the Greek phase in two, but it is not shown here because it rests on small excavated areas. Agathe is not a numbered entry in the Inventory of poleis.",
   "visible": "Musée de l'Éphèbe (Cap d'Agde: the bronze Ephebe and finds from the Hérault river); Musée agathois Jules-Baudou in the old town (unchecked); Greek wall traces in the old town",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 4.1.5",
    "Pliny NH 3.33",
    "Gomez and Ugolini, Etudes Heraultaises 54 (2020)",
    "Etudes Heraultaises 59 (2022), the textual sources",
    "Pleiades 147985"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 8,
   "list_group": "Languedoc",
   "dates_shown": "c. 500 BC – c. AD 50",
   "period": "2 Massalia and its towns (539-219 BC)",
   "id": "e008",
   "latin": "Rhodanousia (Rhodanusia)",
   "greek": "Ῥοδανουσία",
   "other_names": "Rhodanousia (Ps.-Scymnus 208; Stephanus) (unchecked); Rhoda/Rhodanousia in Strabo 4.1.5 (text uncertain); 'Rhoda Rhodiorum' (Pliny NH 3.33), a town that 'once stood' near the Rhone and gave the river its name",
   "modern": "Espeyran (Saint-Gilles)?",
   "modern_native": "Espeyran (Saint-Gilles; Occitan Sant Geli)",
   "municipality": "Saint-Gilles",
   "population": 14734,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Espeyran (lieu-dit L'Argentière), about 4 km south of Saint-Gilles, Gard, near the right bank of the Petit-Rhône; the identification with Rhodanousia is probable, not certain",
   "country": "France",
   "admin1": "Occitanie",
   "admin2": "Gard",
   "ancient_region": "Gallia Narbonensis",
   "lat": 43.646,
   "lon": 4.388,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "148167",
   "iacp": "",
   "iacp_note": "",
   "greek_from": -500,
   "greek_until": 50,
   "phases": [
    [
     -500,
     50
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "A Massaliote foundation on the Rhône (Ps.-Scymnus 208, c. 130 BC, naming it with Agathe as Massalia's colonies; Stephanus 'polis in Massalia' (unchecked)); no foundation date. At Espeyran occupation begins in the second half of the 6th c. BC, and Massaliote amphorae make up about 70% of the amphorae in the earliest levels and 98% by the late 5th c. BC (Barruol & Py 1978); the date is an estimate.",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: Massaliote until 49 BC, then in the territory of the Volcae Arecomici and of Roman Nemausus. Speech: Espeyran shows Massaliote material through the 4th-1st c. BC, a Gaulish inscription in Greek letters on a Doric capital, and occupation into the 1st, perhaps the 2nd c. AD (Barruol and Py 1978); no Greek of residents is known from the imperial period. Its end is set to the estimate for Massalia's small towns after 49 BC: c. AD 50 (range 30 BC to AD 150, the upper end limited by the abandonment of the site).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -30,
    150
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "c. 130 BC: Ps.-Scymnus lists it as Massalia's; 49 BC: Massalia loses its western territory to Rome; Espeyran occupied into the 1st-2nd c. AD, then abandoned (Barruol & Py 1978).",
   "ended_by": "No named act: Massalia's possessions west of the Rhône were taken from it after Caesar's capture of the city in 49 BC (C. Trebonius and D. Brutus; Caesar BC 2.22; Dio 41.25) and came under Nemausus.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Massalia (Ps.-Scymnus 208)",
   "founder_group": "Massalia",
   "metropolis": "Massalia",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "Espeyran was a native settlement before and beside the Massaliote presence (unchecked); its native name is not known.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "name_note": "unrelated",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Ps.-Scymnus 208 (a Massaliote 'polis' with Agathe); Stephanus s.v. Ῥοδανουσία (unchecked); Strabo 4.1.5 (Ῥόην Ἀγάθην, often read as Rhodanousia and Agathe); Pliny NH 3.33 ('ubi Rhoda Rhodiorum fuit', in the past tense, beside 'Agatha quondam Massiliensium')",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "The town is well attested in texts but its site is not certain; Espeyran is the most widely accepted candidate, and Arles has also been suggested. Pliny's 'Rhoda of the Rhodians' near the Rhone is usually taken as the same town (the Rhodian origin is a legend drawn from the name), but D. Ugolini (2022) instead identifies Pliny's Rhoda, Ps.-Scymnus' Rhode and Strabo's 'Rhoe' with the early Greek town under Béziers. Pliny's 'Heraclea at the mouth of the Rhone' may be another name for Rhodanousia.",
   "visible": "Nothing visible to the public: the Espeyran site (Mas d'Espeyran) was excavated and backfilled (unchecked); finds in Nîmes museums (unchecked)",
   "sources": [
    "Ps.-Scymnus 206-209",
    "Strabo 4.1.5",
    "Pleiades 148167",
    "Barruol & Py, RAN 11 (1978) on Espeyran"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 9,
   "list_group": "Languedoc",
   "dates_shown": "c. 330 BC – c. 50 BC",
   "period": "2 Massalia and its towns (539-219 BC)",
   "id": "e023",
   "latin": "Heraclea (at the mouth of the Rhone)",
   "greek": "Ἡράκλεια",
   "other_names": "Heraclea oppidum in ostio Rhodani (Pliny NH 3.33, from unnamed 'authors')",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "municipality": "",
   "population": null,
   "pop_year": null,
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Unlocated, in the Rhone delta; Saint-Blaise (Saint-Mitre-les-Remparts, Bouches-du-Rhône; the Barrington Atlas, with a query), Saint-Gilles (Gard) and the Camargue have been proposed. The point is placed in the Camargue for display only.",
   "country": "France",
   "admin1": "Occitanie or Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur",
   "admin2": "Gard or Bouches-du-Rhône",
   "ancient_region": "Gallia Narbonensis",
   "lat": 43.6,
   "lon": 4.6,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "151774",
   "iacp": "",
   "iacp_note": "",
   "greek_from": -330,
   "greek_until": -50,
   "phases": [
    [
     -330,
     -50
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "No date is known. Pliny's sources say only that a town of this name 'had been' at the mouth of the Rhone. The date used here, c. 330 BC, follows the Barrington Atlas, which places the entry in the Hellenistic and Late Republican period (330-30 BC); it is a placeholder, not evidence.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Pliny (NH 3.33, c. AD 77) writes 'there are authors who say that there was also a town Heraclea at the mouth of the Rhone': the town had gone by the time of his sources, and he knew no trace of it. The end is estimated at c. 50 BC, about the time of Caesar's capture of Massalia (range 300 BC to AD 50, the latest date allowed by the past tense of Pliny's Augustan-era sources).",
   "until_basis": "destroyed/abandoned",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -300,
    50
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Pliny 3.33: 'sunt auctores et Heracleam oppidum in ostio Rhodani fuisse' (past tense); no later mention.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: unknown. Pliny's authors say only that the town had existed.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "unknown (Massaliotes?)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "unknown (Massalia?)",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "name_note": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Pliny NH 3.33 ('oppidum', from unnamed authors); Greek name. No inscription, coin or excavated site.",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Known from one sentence of Pliny, who reports it at second hand. It may be another name for Rhodanousia, which Pliny's sentence just before calls 'Rhoda of the Rhodians', or for the native site of Saint-Blaise; it should not be counted twice if it is the same place. Heraclea Caccabaria on the coast of the Var is a different place.",
   "visible": "Nothing",
   "sources": [
    "Pliny NH 3.33",
    "Barrington Atlas 15 (unlocated Heraclea)",
    "Barruol 1978 (RAN 11) (unchecked: content)",
    "Pleiades 151774"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 10,
   "list_group": "The lower Rhône",
   "dates_shown": "c. 540 BC – c. 375 BC",
   "period": "1 The Phocaeans (c. 625-540 BC)",
   "id": "e005",
   "latin": "Theline",
   "greek": "Θηλίνη",
   "other_names": "Theline (Avienus, Ora maritima 690); Arelate / Arelas (Celtic and Latin, later); Colonia Iulia Paterna Arelatensium Sextanorum; Constantina (4th c.)",
   "modern": "Arles",
   "modern_native": "Arles (Occitan Arle)",
   "municipality": "Arles",
   "population": 51811,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Arles, the rock of the Hauture (around the Roman theatre and the Jardin d'Hiver), Bouches-du-Rhône",
   "country": "France",
   "admin1": "Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur",
   "admin2": "Bouches-du-Rhône",
   "ancient_region": "Gallia Narbonensis",
   "lat": 43.6776,
   "lon": 4.6308,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "148217",
   "iacp": "",
   "iacp_note": "",
   "greek_from": -540,
   "greek_until": -375,
   "phases": [
    [
     -540,
     -375
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Avienus (Ora maritima 689-691, drawing on an old periplus) says Arles 'was called Theline in an earlier age, when the Greek lived there'. Archaeology: c. 540-530 BC a small native site grew quickly into a settlement of perhaps 30 ha, its pottery dominated by Massaliote and other Greek wares; it is usually read as a Massaliote settlement or emporion, under Massalia's control c. 530-375 BC (Arcelin) (unchecked: the figures).",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Administration: Massaliote control of the settlement is thought to end in the 4th c. BC, when Arles became the native (Salyan) oppidum Arelate; Caesar founded a Roman colony there in 46 BC for veterans of the Sixth Legion, on land taken from Massalia. Speech: the Greek character of the material fades in the first half of the 4th c. BC; the end of a Greek-speaking community is estimated c. 375 BC. Arles later had a Greek-speaking minority of easterners in the Roman and late antique city (Greek inscriptions IGF 55-63, mostly of the imperial period; Greek and Latin psalm-singing under bishop Caesarius, 502-542, Vita Caesarii 1.19), not counted here as a continuation, because it was a community of later newcomers in a Latin city.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -450,
    -300
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "c. 540-530 BC: rapid growth, Greek pottery dominant; c. 375 BC: end of the Massaliote-dominated phase in the archaeology (Arcelin) (unchecked); 4th-2nd c. BC: native oppidum Arelate; 46 BC: Caesar's colony; 6th c. AD: Greek-speaking minority in the congregation of Caesarius.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the archaeology shows the Greek-dominated settlement turning into a native (Salyan) oppidum in the 4th c. BC. The later Roman city was founded by Caesar (colony of the Sixth Legion, 46 BC) on territory taken from Massalia after the siege of 49 BC.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Massaliotes settling at a native site (archaeology; Avienus)",
   "founder_group": "Massalia",
   "metropolis": "Massalia",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "A small native settlement preceded the Greek-dominated town; its name is not known. Arelate, the later name, is Celtic ('before the marshes') and is first attested after the Greek phase.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "name_note": "unrelated",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Avienus, Ora maritima 689-691 ('Arelatus civitas ... Theline vocata sub priore saeculo Graio incolente'); a planned settlement of c. 30 ha with dominant Greek material, 6th-5th c. BC (Arcelin) (unchecked)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Doubtful: Avienus says Greeks inhabited it, and the 6th-5th c. BC settlement is large and Greek in its material, but no civic institution, coin or Greek inscription is known, and many call it a Massaliote emporion. Late antique Arles, a Latin city with a Greek-speaking minority, would be left out on its own.",
   "visible": "Musée départemental Arles antique (Greek pottery from the Jardin d'Hiver excavations) (unchecked); nothing Greek visible in town",
   "sources": [
    "Avienus, Ora maritima 689-691",
    "Arcelin, in Arles protohistorique (1995) (unchecked)",
    "Pleiades 148217",
    "Livius: Arelate"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 11,
   "list_group": "The lower Rhône",
   "dates_shown": "c. 150 BC – c. AD 10",
   "period": "3 Rome (218 BC - AD 476)",
   "id": "e016",
   "latin": "Glanum",
   "greek": "Γλανόν",
   "other_names": "Glanon (Ptolemy 2.10.8); Glanum Livii (Pliny 3.37); the Glanikoi (ΓΛΑΝΙΚΩΝ, coins)",
   "modern": "Glanum (Saint-Rémy-de-Provence)",
   "modern_native": "Glanum (Saint-Rémy-de-Provence; Occitan Sant Romieg de Provença)",
   "municipality": "Saint-Rémy-de-Provence",
   "population": 9599,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "Glanum, south of Saint-Rémy-de-Provence, at the foot of the Alpilles, Bouches-du-Rhône",
   "country": "France",
   "admin1": "Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur",
   "admin2": "Bouches-du-Rhône",
   "ancient_region": "Gallia Narbonensis",
   "lat": 43.7735,
   "lon": 4.8329,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "148093",
   "iacp": "",
   "iacp_note": "",
   "greek_from": -150,
   "greek_until": 10,
   "phases": [
    [
     -150,
     10
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "First positive evidence: the town's Greek-legend coins and the Hellenistic public centre with bouleuterion, 2nd c. BC (the coins are dated variously c. 150-50 BC (unchecked)). The native spring sanctuary and oppidum go back to the Iron Age.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: a Salyan town allied to Massalia, its centre wrecked when the Romans put down the Salyan revolt of 90 BC; Romanized after 49 BC and made a Latin town (oppidum Latinum, 'Glanum Livii', Pliny 3.37) under Augustus, when the bouleuterion was replaced by a Roman forum and temples (c. 30-20 BC). Speech: after the Augustan rebuilding the inscriptions are Latin, and Strabo (4.1.12) already describes the neighbouring Cavari as Latin in speech. Greek, never more than the language of a part of the town, is estimated to have ended c. AD 10 (range 40 BC to AD 100). The town was sacked c. 260-270 and abandoned.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "century",
   "until_range": [
    -40,
    100
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "2nd-1st c. BC: ΓΛΑΝΙΚΩΝ coins, bouleuterion, Gallo-Greek dedications; 90 BC: destruction after the Salyan revolt; c. 30-20 BC: Latin rights, Augustan forum and temples, Latin inscriptions; c. 260-270: sacked and abandoned.",
   "ended_by": "Public centre wrecked by the Roman suppression of the Salyan revolt of 90 BC (C. Caelius, Livy Per. 73); Latin rights given under Augustus (Pliny 3.37). No named act ended Greek speech: Latin replaced Greek and Gaulish in the Augustan town. The town was later sacked c. 260-270 (traditionally attributed to the Alamanni) and abandoned.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Gaulish town",
   "founder": "none (native Salyan town)",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Glanon/Glanum (Gaulish, from the god Glanis)",
   "pre_greek_note": "The name is that of the native town and its spring god Glanis (Gaulish dedications); it is not a Greek name.",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "name_note": "unrelated",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Gaulish (Celto-Ligurian Salyes); later Latin",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Silver coins struck by the town in the 2nd-1st c. BC with the legend ΓΛΑΝΙΚΩΝ ('of the Glanikoi'), a Greek genitive plural, that is Greek language and not only Greek letters; a public centre of the 2nd c. BC with a council house of Greek type (bouleuterion), Greek-style temples and peristyle houses. Beside them, dedications in Gaulish written in Greek letters, to the Matres Glanicae and other gods (RIG I), show that Gaulish was the everyday language.",
   "status_evidence": "Civic coins with Greek legend ΓΛΑΝΙΚΩΝ; bouleuterion; Ptolemy 2.10.8 (polis of the Salyes); Pliny 3.37 (oppidum Latinum)",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Some scholars see a Massaliote group living in the town; others see a Salyan town whose elite borrowed Greek architecture, coin legends and the Greek alphabet for Gaulish. Gaulish peoples of Languedoc also put Greek-language legends on their coins, so the coins prove Greek as a public language of the town rather than a Greek-speaking majority; kept as a bilingual city with low certainty.",
   "visible": "Site archéologique de Glanum (Centre des monuments nationaux): Hellenistic houses, bouleuterion, sanctuary; finds in the Hôtel de Sade at Saint-Rémy (unchecked)",
   "sources": [
    "Pliny NH 3.37",
    "Roth Congès on Glanum",
    "RIG I (Lejeune)",
    "Pleiades 148093",
    "Wikipedia: Glanum"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 12,
   "list_group": "The lower Rhône",
   "dates_shown": "c. 150 BC – c. AD 10",
   "period": "3 Rome (218 BC - AD 476)",
   "id": "e021",
   "latin": "Kainiketai (Caenicenses)",
   "greek": "Καινικῆται",
   "other_names": "ΚΑΙΝΙΚΗΤΩΝ ('of the Kainiketai', coins); Caenicenses (Pliny 3.36-37, a Latin town); Caenic[enses] (the Orange land survey); the town's own name is unknown (reconstructed as *Caenica or *Caenicum)",
   "modern": "",
   "modern_native": "",
   "municipality": "",
   "population": null,
   "pop_year": null,
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Unlocated, in western Provence, Bouches-du-Rhône; proposals: near the Étang de Berre and the mouth of the river Kainos at Martigues (Barruol 1969); the lower Durance near Glanum and Ernaginum (Salviat 1977); Saint-Pierre at Eyguières (Chouquer and Favory 1992). The point is placed between these for display only.",
   "country": "France",
   "admin1": "Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur",
   "admin2": "Bouches-du-Rhône",
   "ancient_region": "Gallia Narbonensis",
   "lat": 43.6,
   "lon": 5.02,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "151766",
   "iacp": "",
   "iacp_note": "",
   "greek_from": -150,
   "greek_until": 10,
   "phases": [
    [
     -150,
     10
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "First positive evidence: the town's Greek-legend silver coins, usually dated to the 2nd c. BC (the dating is broad; c. 150 BC is used here).",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: a native town in Massalia's economic sphere in the 2nd c. BC; under Rome a Latin town (Pliny 3.36-37, from an Augustan list), whose people held land in the territory of the colony of Orange (the Orange land survey, AD 77). Speech: nothing is known beyond the coins; in the native towns of the lower Rhone Greek is estimated to have given way to Latin by c. AD 10 (range 40 BC to AD 100).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -40,
    100
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "2nd c. BC: ΚΑΙΝΙΚΗΤΩΝ silver coins; Augustan period: the Caenicenses a Latin town (Pliny 3.36-37); AD 77: named in Latin in the Orange land survey beside the Ernaginenses.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town's Greek coinage stops and it reappears as a Latin town under Augustus (Pliny 3.36-37); nothing is recorded about the end of Greek there.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Gaulish town",
   "founder": "none (native town)",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The ethnic Kainiketai/Caenicenses is usually linked with the river Kainos that Ptolemy places between the Rhone mouths and Massalia, identified with the channel of Caronte at Martigues (Barruol 1969); the town's own name is not attested.",
   "name_continues": "",
   "name_via": "",
   "name_note": "",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Gaulish (Celto-Ligurian Salyes or Avatici); then Latin",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Silver coins of Massaliote type with the Greek legend ΚΑΙΝΙΚΗΤΩΝ, 'of the Kainiketai', a Greek ethnic in the genitive plural, the same civic formula as Massalia's ΜΑΣΣΑΛΙΗΤΩΝ and Glanum's ΓΛΑΝΙΚΩΝ; usually dated to the 2nd c. BC and found mostly around the Étang de Berre, they are read as the issue of a town, not of a tribe (Barruol 1969). No Greek inscription of the town is known.",
   "status_evidence": "Civic coins with the Greek ethnic ΚΑΙΝΙΚΗΤΩΝ; Pliny NH 3.36-37 (oppidum Latinum); the Orange land survey",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Counted, with doubt, on its coins alone, on the same grounds as Glanum: a Greek ethnic in the genitive is a civic formula, but native towns of Provence could borrow it from Massaliote coinage without speaking Greek, and the town itself has not been found, so the map point shows only the region.",
   "visible": "Only the silver coins ΚΑΙΝΙΚΗΤΩΝ (e.g. in the Musée d'Histoire de Marseille and the BnF Cabinet des médailles) (unchecked)",
   "sources": [
    "Pliny NH 3.36-37",
    "Barruol 1969 (Les peuples préromains du Sud-Est de la Gaule)",
    "Salviat 1977 (RAN 10)",
    "Wikipedia: Caenicenses",
    "Pleiades 151766"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 13,
   "list_group": "The lower Rhône",
   "dates_shown": "c. 120 BC – c. AD 10",
   "period": "3 Rome (218 BC - AD 476)",
   "id": "e018",
   "latin": "Cabellio",
   "greek": "Καβαλλίων",
   "other_names": "Kaballion (Stephanus, 'polis of Massalia', from Artemidorus); Kabellion (Strabo 4.1.11) (unchecked: spelling); KABE (its own coins); Cabellio (Pliny 3.36, a Latin town); Colonia Cabellio (coins COL CABE, under Octavian)",
   "modern": "Cavaillon",
   "modern_native": "Cavaillon (Occitan Cavalhon)",
   "municipality": "Cavaillon",
   "population": 25636,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Cavaillon, the colline Saint-Jacques (the Iron Age oppidum) and the Roman town at its foot, on the Durance, Vaucluse",
   "country": "France",
   "admin1": "Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur",
   "admin2": "Vaucluse",
   "ancient_region": "Gallia Narbonensis",
   "lat": 43.8375,
   "lon": 5.0381,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "148027",
   "iacp": "",
   "iacp_note": "",
   "greek_from": -120,
   "greek_until": 10,
   "phases": [
    [
     -120,
     10
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "First positive evidence: the town's bronze coins with the legend KABE in Greek letters, dated c. 120-72 BC, and Artemidorus' description of it as a town of Massalia (c. 100 BC). The oppidum on the colline Saint-Jacques is much older.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Administration: a Cavarian town under Massalia's control in the late 2nd and early 1st c. BC (probably granted to Massalia by Rome after the conquest of 125-121 BC); after Caesar took Massalia (49 BC) it passed to Rome, struck Latin coins in the name of M. Aemilius Lepidus (44-42 BC) and became a colony under Octavian; Pliny 3.36 lists it as a Latin town. Speech: the switch of the coin legend from Greek KABE to Latin CABE c. 44 BC is the last sign of Greek. In the native towns of the lower Rhone Greek is estimated to have given way to Latin by c. AD 10 (range 40 BC to AD 100); Strabo 4.1.12 already describes the Cavari as Roman 'in speech and way of life'.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -40,
    100
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "c. 120-72 BC: KABE bronzes in Greek letters; 44-42 BC: CABE / LE-PI obols in Latin (RPC I 528); under Octavian: COL CABE bronzes (RPC I 529); c. AD 18: Strabo 4.1.12 on the Latin-speaking Cavari; Pliny 3.36 (Augustan list): oppidum Latinum.",
   "ended_by": "Taken from Massalia's control after Caesar's legates captured Massalia (49 BC); its coinage was put in Latin under M. Aemilius Lepidus, governor of Narbonensis, 44-42 BC, and it was made a colony under Octavian (coins COL CABE). No act against Greek speech is recorded: Latin replaced Greek and Gaulish with the Roman town.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Gaulish town",
   "founder": "none (native Cavarian town)",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Colonia under Octavian (COL CABE); a Latin town in Pliny 3.36",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Cabellio (Gaulish)",
   "pre_greek_note": "The name is the native one, known in Greek and Latin forms; the oppidum on the colline Saint-Jacques is Iron Age.",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Occitan",
   "name_note": "Gaulish/Latin name",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Gaulish (the Cavares); then Latin",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Artemidorus (c. 100 BC, in Stephanus) calls it 'a polis of Massalia', the formula he also uses for Alonis and Avenio. The town struck its own small bronzes (laureate head of Apollo; lion walking, legend KABE; Py type CAV-131), dated c. 120-72 BC. The letters K-A-B-E are the same in the Greek and Latin alphabets; what marks the legend as Greek is the K, where the town's later Latin coins write C (CABE). Then came silver obols with CABE and LE-PI (M. Aemilius Lepidus, 44-42 BC; RPC I 528) and bronzes with COL CABE under Octavian (RPC I 529).",
   "status_evidence": "Stephanus s.v. Καβαλλίων ('polis of Massalia', from Artemidorus) (unchecked: wording); Strabo 4.1.11; the town's own coins KABE (Py CAV-131); Pliny 3.36",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Counted, with doubt, because an early text calls it a town of Massalia and it struck coins of its own with a Greek-letter legend, but the case is thin: 'polis of Massalia' shows political dependence, not Greek speech; the legend is a four-letter abbreviation without Greek grammar, of the kind native towns also used for Gaulish; and no Greek inscription, magistrate or settler of the town is known.",
   "visible": "The Roman arch (Place du Clos), the oppidum on the colline Saint-Jacques and the Musée archéologique de l'Hôtel-Dieu",
   "sources": [
    "Stephanus s.v. Kaballion (Artemidorus)",
    "Strabo 4.1.11-12",
    "Pliny NH 3.36",
    "RPC I 528-529; Py CAV-131 (wildwinds.com, Cabellio)",
    "Pleiades 148027"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 14,
   "list_group": "The lower Rhône",
   "dates_shown": "c. 100 BC – c. AD 10",
   "period": "3 Rome (218 BC - AD 476)",
   "id": "e020",
   "latin": "Avenio (Avennio)",
   "greek": "Αὐενιών",
   "other_names": "Aouenion (Stephanus, 'polis of Massalia on the Rhone', from Artemidorus); Avennio Cavarum (Pliny 3.36, a Latin town); Avennio (Mela 2.75) (unchecked); Colonia Iulia Hadriana Avenniensis (imperial inscriptions) (unchecked)",
   "modern": "Avignon",
   "modern_native": "Avignon (Occitan Avinhon)",
   "municipality": "Avignon",
   "population": 92188,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Avignon, the Rocher des Doms and the old town at its foot, on the left bank of the Rhone, Vaucluse",
   "country": "France",
   "admin1": "Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur",
   "admin2": "Vaucluse",
   "ancient_region": "Gallia Narbonensis",
   "lat": 43.9507,
   "lon": 4.8066,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "148004",
   "iacp": "",
   "iacp_note": "",
   "greek_from": -100,
   "greek_until": 10,
   "phases": [
    [
     -100,
     10
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "First positive evidence: Artemidorus' description of the town as a polis of Massalia (c. 100 BC), and the town's small bronze of the early 1st c. BC, if its legend is Greek. The story of a Phocaean trading post founded here c. 539 BC rests on no good evidence.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: a Cavarian town in Massalia's sphere c. 100 BC; after Caesar's capture of Massalia (49 BC) a Roman town, listed by Pliny 3.36 among the Latin towns (Avennio Cavarum), later a colony. Speech: no Greek of residents is known; in the native towns of the lower Rhone Greek is estimated to have given way to Latin by c. AD 10 (range 40 BC to AD 100), and Strabo 4.1.12 already describes the Cavari as Roman 'in speech and way of life'.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -40,
    100
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "c. 100 BC: Artemidorus, 'polis of Massalia'; early 1st c. BC: the town's small bronze (legend ΑΟΥΕ or AVE); 49 BC: Massalia taken by Caesar; c. AD 18: Strabo 4.1.12 on the Cavari; Pliny 3.36 (Augustan list): oppidum Latinum.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the town passed from Massalia's sphere to Rome after Caesar's capture of Massalia (49 BC) and became a Latin town under Augustus (Pliny 3.36); nothing is recorded about the end of Greek there.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Gaulish town",
   "founder": "none (native Cavarian town)",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Latin town (Pliny 3.36); later a colony (Colonia Iulia Hadriana Avenniensis) (unchecked)",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "Avennio (Gaulish)",
   "pre_greek_note": "The name is the native one, known in Greek (Aouenion) and Latin (Avennio) forms; the Rocher des Doms was settled from prehistory (unchecked).",
   "name_continues": "pre-Greek name",
   "name_via": "Occitan",
   "name_note": "Gaulish/Latin name",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Gaulish (the Cavares); then Latin",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Artemidorus (c. 100 BC, in Stephanus) calls Aouenion 'a polis of Massalia on the Rhone', and Stephanus gives its ethnic in a local form and a Greek form (unchecked: wording). A small bronze attributed to the town (laureate head; boar; Paris, BnF 2517, 2.01 g) is catalogued in the French national collection and was studied by E. Duprat ('Les monnaies d'Avennio', Revue numismatique 1910); it is dated to the early 1st c. BC by comparison with the boar coins of Nîmes (Chevillon 2021). Its legend is read in older works as ΑΟΥΕ (Greek letters, 'Aoue-') or AVE (Latin); the reading and the attribution could not be checked in a modern catalogue.",
   "status_evidence": "Stephanus s.v. Αὐενιών ('polis of Massalia on the Rhone', from Artemidorus) (unchecked: wording); Strabo 4.1.11 (a town of the Cavares) (unchecked); small bronze BnF 2517 (Duprat 1910); Pliny 3.36",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "The weakest of the Rhone towns: counted, with doubt, because Artemidorus calls it a town of Massalia in the same words as Cabellio, but no Greek inscription of a resident is known, and the one coin type of the town has a legend whose alphabet (ΑΟΥΕ or AVE) and attribution are not settled in modern catalogues.",
   "visible": "The Rocher des Doms (the original nucleus); finds in the Musée lapidaire of the Fondation Calvet (unchecked)",
   "sources": [
    "Stephanus s.v. Aouenion (Artemidorus)",
    "Pliny NH 3.36",
    "Duprat 1910 (Revue numismatique); BnF 2517",
    "Chevillon 2021 (OMNI 15)",
    "Pleiades 148004"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 15,
   "list_group": "Massalia and the coast of Provence",
   "dates_shown": "c. 600 BC – c. AD 300",
   "period": "1 The Phocaeans (c. 625-540 BC)",
   "id": "e001",
   "latin": "Massalia (Massilia)",
   "greek": "Μασσαλία",
   "other_names": "Massilia (Latin); Massalia Graecorum; Marsilia (medieval Latin)",
   "modern": "Marseille",
   "modern_native": "Marseille (Occitan Marselha)",
   "municipality": "Marseille",
   "population": 886040,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Marseille: the Panier hill and the north shore of the Vieux-Port (Jardin des Vestiges, Place Jules-Verne, Place Villeneuve-Bargemon), Bouches-du-Rhône",
   "country": "France",
   "admin1": "Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur",
   "admin2": "Bouches-du-Rhône",
   "ancient_region": "Gallia Narbonensis",
   "lat": 43.2985,
   "lon": 5.37,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "148127",
   "iacp": "3",
   "iacp_note": "IACP chapter 'Spain and France (including Corsica)' (A. J. Domínguez), entries numbered alphabetically: Alalie 1, Emporion 2, Massalia 3, Rhode 4. Numbers recalled, not seen in the book.",
   "greek_from": -600,
   "greek_until": 300,
   "phases": [
    [
     -600,
     300
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Founded by Phocaeans c. 600 BC (Timaeus in Ps.-Scymnus 211-214: 120 years before Salamis; Thuc. 1.13.6; Aristotle in Athenaeus 13.576a; Justin 43.3, the founders Protis and Simos and the Ligurian king Nannos); the earliest Greek levels on the Butte Saint-Laurent and Place Jules-Verne date c. 600 BC, matching the tradition. Isocrates (Archidamus 84) adds Phocaeans fleeing the Persians c. 545 BC (unchecked).",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Administration: an independent Greek republic, Rome's ally, until Caesar's siege of 49 BC; afterwards a free federate city that kept its Greek laws and magistrates but lost its fleet and most of its territory, inside the Roman province. Speech: Greek stayed the city's language well into the empire. Strabo 4.1.5 (c. AD 18) describes Massalia as a school for the Gauls and a place where noble Romans studied instead of going to Athens; Tacitus (Agricola 4) says it mixed 'Greek refinement and provincial thrift' when Agricola studied there (AD 50s); Varro calls its people trilingual, speaking Greek, Latin and Gaulish (in Isidore, Orig. 15.1.63). Greek epitaphs of Massaliote families continue through the 2nd c. AD (the family epitaph of C. Oueirios Gratos, SEG 52.998) and into the later 3rd c. (the epitaph of Aurelius Diokleides, dated by 'the day of Aphrodite', IGF 23 = IG XIV 2436, after 212). After that the city's inscriptions are Latin, the Christian epitaphs of the 5th-6th c. almost all Latin (e.g. the verse epitaph of Eugenia, CLE 1447), and late antique Marseille (Cassian, Salvian, Gennadius, Gregory of Tours) is a Latin-speaking city. Greek speech therefore faded between the 3rd and the 5th c.; the exact end is not attested. Eastern merchants at Marseille in the 6th c. were newcomers, not a continuation.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    250,
    500
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "49 BC: Caesar's siege, loss of fleet and territory (Caesar BC 2.22; Dio 41.25); 1st c. BC: Varro's 'trilingues' (Isidore Orig. 15.1.63); c. AD 18: Strabo 4.1.5 on Greek schooling at Massalia; AD 25: Tacitus Ann. 4.43-44, the exile Vulcacius Moschus made a citizen of Massilia, and L. Antonius sent there 'for the sake of study' (unchecked); mid-1st c. AD: the Massaliote doctors Crinas and Charmis at Rome (Pliny NH 29.9-10); c. AD 98: Tacitus Agr. 4; 2nd c. AD: Greek family epitaphs (SEG 52.998); after 212, probably later 3rd c.: epitaph of Aurelius Diokleides (IGF 23 = IG XIV 2436; SEG 54.979), the latest dated Greek inscription of a resident; two short Christian Greek texts, undated (IG XIV 2462, a prayer 'for himself and his whole household' with the chi-rho, its Marseille provenance uncertain; IG XIV 2463, the name Kastor): too slight to show a community of local families; c. AD 400: Greek painted labels on imported amphorae (SEG 37.824), not of residents; 5th c.: Cassian and Gennadius write Latin at Marseille and Gennadius translates Greek works, which shows Greek had become a learned language there.",
   "ended_by": "Independence ended by Caesar's legates C. Trebonius (by land) and D. Junius Brutus (by sea), who besieged and took the city in 49 BC; Caesar took its ships, arms and treasure and most of its territory (Caesar BC 2.1-22; Dio 41.25; Strabo 4.1.5). No named act ended Greek speech: the evidence shows a slow shift to Latin under the empire, after the loss of territory and with the Latin colonies around it (Arelate, Forum Iulii, Aquae Sextiae).",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Phocaeans led by Simos and Protis (Justin 43.3); in Aristotle's account (Athenaeus 13.576a) the Phocaean Euxenos married Petta, daughter of the native king Nannos",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Phocaea",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "no known",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The Greek name may be of native origin, but no pre-Greek name of the site is attested. The legend of Nannos king of the Segobriges gives the land, not a town on the site.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Latin",
   "name_note": "Greek name",
   "bilingual_period": "yes",
   "other_language": "Latin and Gaulish beside Greek in the Roman period",
   "bilingual_evidence": "Varro (in Isidore, Orig. 15.1.63) calls the Massaliotes 'trilingues', because they spoke Greek, Latin and Gaulish; from the 1st c. AD the city's inscriptions are mostly Latin.",
   "status_evidence": "Polis in every ancient source (Hdt. 5.9; Thuc. 1.13; Strabo 4.1.4-5 on its aristocratic constitution: 600 timouchoi, 15, 3); civic coins with the legend ΜΑΣΣΑ / ΜΑΣΣΑΛΙΗΤΩΝ from c. 500 BC; 45 Greek inscriptions in IGF (nos. 2-46); IACP no. 3, type A (Domínguez 2004) (unchecked: number and type not checked against the book)",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The point at which Greek stopped being spoken is not documented; the end date is the last dated Greek epitaph of a resident (later 3rd c. AD), and the range runs to the purely Latin city of the 5th c. Late antique Marseille traded with the East, but no resident Greek-speaking community is attested there.",
   "visible": "Jardin des Vestiges (Greek rampart, harbour) with the Musée d'Histoire de Marseille at the Centre Bourse; Greek houses and streets under Place Jules-Verne and the Panier",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 4.1.4-5",
    "Caesar BC 2.1-22",
    "Tacitus Agr. 4",
    "IGF 23 (Decourt 2004)",
    "Hermary, Hesnard & Tréziny, Marseille grecque (1999)",
    "Pleiades 148127"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 16,
   "list_group": "Massalia and the coast of Provence",
   "dates_shown": "c. 325 BC – c. AD 50",
   "period": "2 Massalia and its towns (539-219 BC)",
   "id": "e013",
   "latin": "Olbia",
   "greek": "Ὀλβία",
   "other_names": "Olbia (Strabo, Stephanus, Pliny 3.35 'Olbia'?) (unchecked); site of L'Almanarre",
   "modern": "L'Almanarre (Hyères)",
   "modern_native": "L'Almanarre (Hyères; Occitan Ieras)",
   "municipality": "Hyères",
   "population": 55858,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "modern_status": "ruins only",
   "site": "L'Almanarre, Hyères, Var",
   "country": "France",
   "admin1": "Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur",
   "admin2": "Var",
   "ancient_region": "Gallia Narbonensis",
   "lat": 43.0809,
   "lon": 6.1228,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "157896",
   "iacp": "",
   "iacp_note": "",
   "greek_from": -325,
   "greek_until": 50,
   "phases": [
    [
     -325,
     50
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Founded by Massalia as a walled settlement on a square grid of 40 blocks, c. 340-325 BC (excavations of J. Coupry and M. Bats); Strabo 4.1.5 and 4.1.9 list it among Massalia's foundations against the Ligurians.",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Administration: a Massaliote foundation until 49 BC, then under Rome (the area later attached to the Roman port of Pomponiana). Speech: Greek graffiti and Massaliote culture throughout the Hellenistic period; at the sanctuary of Aristaios in Olbia's territory about 350 inscribed vase dedications, nearly all in Greek (some by Gaulish dedicants, two in Latin), run from the late 2nd c. BC to the beginning of the 1st c. AD (Bats 2010). In the imperial period the site became a small Roman settlement with baths and Latin inscriptions, occupied into late antiquity. Greek speech is estimated to have ended c. AD 50 (range AD 10 to 150), soon after the last Greek dedications.",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    10,
    150
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "4th-1st c. BC: Greek graffiti on pottery, Massaliote coins and amphorae; late 2nd c. BC to early 1st c. AD: Greek vase dedications to Aristaios, with two in Latin among them (Bats 2010); 49 BC: Massalia loses its territory; imperial period: Roman baths and Latin-speaking settlement.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: Olbia passed under Rome after Caesar's capture of Massalia in 49 BC (C. Trebonius and D. Brutus; Caesar BC 2.22); its Greek speech then faded under Roman rule.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Massalia (Strabo 4.1.5)",
   "founder_group": "Massalia",
   "metropolis": "Massalia",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "no known",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "name_note": "unrelated",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 4.1.5, 4.1.9; Stephanus s.v. Ὀλβία (unchecked); planned walled town with grid, sanctuaries and its own territory (chora) with the sanctuary of Aristaios (excavations); Greek inscriptions IGF 64-72",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Strabo calls Massalia's eastern foundations bulwarks ('epiteichismata') against the Salyes and Ligurians; Olbia is the best excavated, a planned fortified town of perhaps a few hundred settlers.",
   "visible": "Site archéologique d'Olbia (Olbia de Provence) at L'Almanarre: the square walled town with towers and street grid, open to visitors in season",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 4.1.5, 4.1.9",
    "Bats 2010, on the Aristaios dedications",
    "Pleiades 157896",
    "Wikipedia: Olbia (Hyères)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 17,
   "list_group": "Massalia and the coast of Provence",
   "dates_shown": "c. 300 BC – c. AD 50",
   "period": "2 Massalia and its towns (539-219 BC)",
   "id": "e014",
   "latin": "Athenopolis",
   "greek": "Ἀθηνόπολις",
   "other_names": "Athenopolis Massiliensium (Pliny 3.35); Athenopolis (Mela 2.77) (unchecked)",
   "modern": "Saint-Tropez?",
   "modern_native": "Saint-Tropez (Occitan Sant Tropetz)",
   "municipality": "Saint-Tropez",
   "population": 3582,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "modern_status": "lost/unlocated",
   "site": "Unlocated on the coast between Toulon and Fréjus; Saint-Tropez (Barrington Atlas, Pleiades), Agay or the Gulf of Saint-Tropez have been proposed, Var",
   "country": "France",
   "admin1": "Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur",
   "admin2": "Var",
   "ancient_region": "Gallia Narbonensis",
   "lat": 43.2701,
   "lon": 6.6409,
   "loc_certainty": "region only",
   "pleiades": "157816",
   "iacp": "",
   "iacp_note": "",
   "greek_from": -300,
   "greek_until": 50,
   "phases": [
    [
     -300,
     50
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "No foundation date. Pliny 3.35 lists 'Athenopolis Massiliensium' (Athenopolis of the Massaliotes) on the coast before Forum Iulii, and Mela 2.77 names it among the coastal towns (unchecked). The date is a guess from the other eastern foundations of Massalia (4th-3rd c. BC).",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "period",
   "until_text": "Administration: a Massaliote town until Caesar's capture of Massalia in 49 BC, after which the Roman colony of Forum Iulii (Frejus) dominated this coast. Speech: nothing is known of the town's language; Pliny's Augustan source still calls it a town 'of the Massaliotes' (NH 3.35). Its end is set to the estimate for Massalia's small towns after 49 BC: c. AD 50 (range 30 BC to AD 200).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -30,
    200
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "1st c. BC (Pliny's source, probably Augustan): still 'of the Massaliotes'; no archaeology identified.",
   "ended_by": "No named act: the coast passed under Rome after Caesar's capture of Massalia (49 BC, C. Trebonius and D. Brutus) and was dominated by Caesar's and Octavian's colony of Forum Iulii.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Massalia (Pliny 3.35 'Massiliensium')",
   "founder_group": "Massalia",
   "metropolis": "Massalia",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "name_note": "unrelated",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Pliny NH 3.35: 'in ora autem Athenopolis Massiliensium, Forum Iuli Octavanorum colonia' (on the coast, Athenopolis of the Massaliotes, then the colony of Forum Iulii), in his list of the towns of Narbonensis; Mela 2.77 names Athenopolis among the coastal towns with Olbia, Taurois and Citharistes (unchecked). No site, coin or inscription is known.",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Known only from Pliny and Mela; the site has not been found, so the map point is a placeholder in the Gulf of Saint-Tropez.",
   "visible": "Nothing visible",
   "sources": [
    "Pliny NH 3.35",
    "Mela 2.77",
    "Pleiades 157816",
    "Barrington Atlas 16 C3"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 18,
   "list_group": "Massalia and the coast of Provence",
   "dates_shown": "c. 300 BC – c. AD 50",
   "period": "2 Massalia and its towns (539-219 BC)",
   "id": "e015",
   "latin": "Tauroeis (Tauroentum)",
   "greek": "Ταυρόεις (Ταυροέντιον)",
   "other_names": "Tauroention (Strabo); Tauroeis (Caesar BC 2.4, 'castellum Massiliensium'); Tauroentum (Pliny, Mela) (unchecked)",
   "modern": "Le Brusc (Six-Fours-les-Plages)",
   "modern_native": "Le Brusc (Six-Fours-les-Plages; Occitan Sièis Forns)",
   "municipality": "Six-Fours-les-Plages",
   "population": 37109,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Le Brusc, Six-Fours-les-Plages, Var (the older identification with Les Lecques, Saint-Cyr-sur-Mer, Var, where the Roman villa of the Baumelles is still called 'Tauroentum', is now generally abandoned)",
   "country": "France",
   "admin1": "Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur",
   "admin2": "Var",
   "ancient_region": "Gallia Narbonensis",
   "lat": 43.0744,
   "lon": 5.8033,
   "loc_certainty": "approximate",
   "pleiades": "157934",
   "iacp": "",
   "iacp_note": "",
   "greek_from": -300,
   "greek_until": 50,
   "phases": [
    [
     -300,
     50
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Foundation of Massalia (Strabo 4.1.5 and 4.1.9; Stephanus s.v. Tauroeis, from Apollodorus, with a legend of a ship carrying a bull); no ancient date. Usually placed in the 4th or early 3rd c. BC (unchecked).",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: a fort-town of Massalia ('castellum Massiliensium'); the sea battle of 49 BC between Brutus' fleet and the Massaliote fleet was fought off it (Caesar BC 2.4-7). Afterwards it fell under Rome with Massalia's territory. Speech: no Greek inscription of a resident of the imperial period is known; the coast became a Roman district of villas and harbours. Its end is set to the estimate for Massalia's small towns after 49 BC: c. AD 50 (range 30 BC to AD 200).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -30,
    200
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "49 BC: Caesar BC 2.4 calls it 'castellum Massiliensium'; 1st c. AD: Pliny 3.34 and Mela 2.77 still list it as a Massaliote coastal town (unchecked); Roman villa and Latin-speaking villas of the imperial period on the coast (the Baumelles villa at Saint-Cyr, built c. the turn of the era).",
   "ended_by": "No named act: Massalia's territory was taken by Caesar after the siege of 49 BC (C. Trebonius and D. Brutus; Caesar BC 2.22; Dio 41.25); the place then shifted to Latin under Roman rule.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Massalia (Strabo 4.1.5)",
   "founder_group": "Massalia",
   "metropolis": "Massalia",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "name_note": "unrelated",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 4.1.5 and 4.1.9 (among Massalia's 'ktismata', with Olbia, Antipolis and Nikaia); Stephanus s.v. Ταυρόεις calls it a polis, colony of the Massaliotes (unchecked)",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Location: Le Brusc (Six-Fours) in the Barrington Atlas, Pleiades and the Carte archéologique du Var (Brun 1999); the old identification with Les Lecques (Saint-Cyr-sur-Mer), 20 km west, rests on the Roman villa there. Caesar calls it only a 'castellum', so its city status rests on Strabo and Stephanus.",
   "visible": "Little visible: underwater and hill finds at Le Brusc; the 'Musée de Tauroentum' at Les Lecques (Saint-Cyr-sur-Mer) shows a Roman villa, not Tauroeis",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 4.1.5, 4.1.9",
    "Caesar BC 2.4",
    "Pleiades 157934",
    "Brun, Carte archéologique de la Gaule 83 (1999)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 19,
   "list_group": "The Riviera",
   "dates_shown": "c. 450 BC – c. AD 50",
   "period": "2 Massalia and its towns (539-219 BC)",
   "id": "e009",
   "latin": "Antipolis",
   "greek": "Ἀντίπολις",
   "other_names": "Antipolis (Latin); Antibol (Occitan)",
   "modern": "Antibes",
   "modern_native": "Antibes (Occitan Antíbol)",
   "municipality": "Antibes",
   "population": 77637,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Antibes old town (the rock of the cathedral and the château Grimaldi), Alpes-Maritimes",
   "country": "France",
   "admin1": "Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur",
   "admin2": "Alpes-Maritimes",
   "ancient_region": "Gallia Narbonensis",
   "lat": 43.581,
   "lon": 7.127,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "157812",
   "iacp": "",
   "iacp_note": "",
   "greek_from": -450,
   "greek_until": 50,
   "phases": [
    [
     -450,
     50
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Foundation of Massalia (Strabo 4.1.5, 4.1.9; Ps.-Scymnus 215-216 (unchecked)); no ancient date. The Greek verse dedication of Terpon to Aphrodite found at Antibes is dated 450-425 BC, and Greek inscribed sherds go back to the 6th-5th c. BC, so a Greek community was there by the mid-5th c. BC; some put the formal foundation in the 4th or mid-3rd c. BC.",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: Massaliote until a Roman decision after 49 BC freed it from Massalia's orders and counted it among the 'Italiote' cities (Strabo 4.1.9); a Latin town ('oppidum Latinum', Pliny 3.35) under Caesar or Augustus, later a municipium. Speech: Greek from the 5th c. BC (the Terpon stone, 450-425 BC) through the Hellenistic period (a curse tablet); the town's inscriptions of the imperial period (1st-3rd c.) are Latin, even where the people named have Greek names, as on the 3rd-c. stele of the boy dancer Septentrio. Its end is set to the estimate for Massalia's small towns after 49 BC: c. AD 50 (range 30 BC to AD 200).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -30,
    200
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "450-425 BC: the Terpon stone, Greek verse dedication to Aphrodite; Hellenistic: a Greek curse tablet; 154 BC: besieged by the Ligurian Deciates and Oxybii, relieved by the consul Q. Opimius (Polybius 33.8-10); after 49 BC: separated from Massalia (Strabo 4.1.9); Latin rights (Pliny 3.35); 1st-3rd c. AD: Latin inscriptions of the town, with Greek names mostly of slaves and freedmen, among them the 3rd-c. stele of the boy dancer Septentrio.",
   "ended_by": "Separated from Massalia by Roman decision after 49 BC and given Latin rights (Strabo 4.1.9; Pliny 3.35); the grant is usually credited to Caesar or Augustus (unchecked). No named act ended Greek speech: a gradual shift to Latin followed.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Massalia (Strabo 4.1.5)",
   "founder_group": "Massalia",
   "metropolis": "Massalia",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "A Ligurian settlement with Greek and Etruscan imports preceded the Massaliote town (unchecked); its name is not known.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Occitan",
   "name_note": "Greek name",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 4.1.5, 4.1.9; Polybius 33.8 (a polis besieged by the Ligurians); Stephanus s.v. Ἀντίπολις (unchecked); Pliny 3.35; Greek inscriptions IGF 80-86",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The Terpon stone ('I am Terpon, servant of the august goddess Aphrodite'), in Ionic Greek hexameters of 450-425 BC, is the earliest Greek text of the town and suggests a Greek community before the date often given for the foundation.",
   "visible": "Musée d'archéologie d'Antibes (Bastion Saint-André): Greek and Etruscan finds and the Greek inscription of Terpon (unchecked)",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 4.1.9",
    "Polybius 33.8-10",
    "Pliny 3.35",
    "Pleiades 157812",
    "Stone of Terpon (IGA 551; CEG 400)"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 20,
   "list_group": "The Riviera",
   "dates_shown": "c. 350 BC – c. AD 150",
   "period": "2 Massalia and its towns (539-219 BC)",
   "id": "e012",
   "latin": "Nikaia (Nicaea)",
   "greek": "Νίκαια",
   "other_names": "Nicaea (Latin); Nissa (Occitan, Niçard)",
   "modern": "Nice",
   "modern_native": "Nice (Niçard Nissa)",
   "municipality": "Nice",
   "population": 357737,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Nice: the Colline du Château and the old port area, Alpes-Maritimes",
   "country": "France",
   "admin1": "Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur",
   "admin2": "Alpes-Maritimes",
   "ancient_region": "Liguria",
   "lat": 43.6952,
   "lon": 7.2808,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "157894",
   "iacp": "",
   "iacp_note": "",
   "greek_from": -350,
   "greek_until": 150,
   "phases": [
    [
     -350,
     150
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Founded by Massalia (Strabo 4.1.5, 4.1.9; Pliny 3.47 'Nicaea a Massiliensibus conditum'; Ps.-Scymnus 216 (unchecked)); no ancient date. Placed in the 4th or mid-3rd c. BC; the Greek levels on the castle hill are scanty (unchecked).",
   "date_basis": "archaeology",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "Administration: Massaliote, and still subject to Massalia after 49 BC (Strabo 4.1.9: Nikaia remained under the Massaliotes and in the province of Narbonensis), while the Roman town of Cemenelum (Cimiez) nearby became the capital of the Alpes Maritimae. Speech: no Greek inscription of a resident of Nikaia of the imperial period is known; the only Greek text of that age from the area, a graffito on a samian cup of AD 60-160, is a single object and may come from the Roman town of Cemenelum (Cimiez) next door. Christian Nice (its clergy at the council of Arles, 314) is Latin. Because it kept its tie to Massalia, its Greek is estimated to have lasted longer than in the other small towns: c. AD 150 (range AD 1 to 300), between their end (c. 50) and Massalia's (c. 300).",
   "until_basis": "gradual language shift",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    1,
    300
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "154 BC: attacked by the Ligurians, relieved by Q. Opimius (Polybius 33.8-10); c. AD 18: still a dependency of Massalia (Strabo 4.1.9); AD 314: the clergy of the 'portus Nicaensis' at the council of Arles, Latin (unchecked).",
   "ended_by": "No named act: Nikaia stayed a Massaliote dependency after 49 BC (Strabo 4.1.9) and shifted to Latin under the shadow of the Roman town of Cemenelum.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Massalia (Strabo 4.1.9; Pliny 3.47)",
   "founder_group": "Massalia",
   "metropolis": "Massalia",
   "refounded_by": "",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Occitan",
   "name_note": "Greek name",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "Strabo 4.1.5, 4.1.9; Polybius 33.8; Stephanus s.v. Νίκαια (polis of the Massaliotes) (unchecked); Pliny 3.47",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "The Greek name ('Victory') is clear, but the Greek town is known more from texts than from archaeology. The Var was the border of Gaul and Italy: Strabo counts Nikaia in Narbonensis under Massalia, Pliny 3.47 lists it in Italy (Liguria).",
   "visible": "Little visible: the Colline du Château (later remains); finds in the Musée d'archéologie de Nice-Cimiez (unchecked)",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 4.1.9",
    "Pliny 3.47",
    "Polybius 33.8-10",
    "Pleiades 157894"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 21,
   "list_group": "Corsica",
   "dates_shown": "c. 565 BC – c. 540 BC",
   "period": "1 The Phocaeans (c. 625-540 BC)",
   "id": "e004",
   "latin": "Alalia",
   "greek": "Ἀλαλίη / Ἀλαλία",
   "other_names": "Aleria (Latin; Ἀλερία, a colony, in Ptolemy 3.2); Kalaris (Diodorus 5.13.4, probably a miscopying of Alalia)",
   "modern": "Aléria",
   "modern_native": "Aléria (Corsican Aleria)",
   "municipality": "Aléria",
   "population": 2267,
   "pop_year": 2023,
   "modern_status": "village on site",
   "site": "Plateau of Aléria above the Tavignano river, near the Fort de Matra, Haute-Corse",
   "country": "France",
   "admin1": "Corsica (Collectivité de Corse)",
   "admin2": "Haute-Corse",
   "ancient_region": "Corsica",
   "lat": 42.1025,
   "lon": 9.5105,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "472048",
   "iacp": "1",
   "iacp_note": "IACP chapter 'Spain and France (including Corsica)' (A. J. Domínguez), entries numbered alphabetically: Alalie 1, Emporion 2, Massalia 3, Rhode 4. Numbers recalled, not seen in the book.",
   "greek_from": -565,
   "greek_until": -540,
   "phases": [
    [
     -565,
     -540
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "Founded by Phocaeans about 565 BC: Herodotus (1.165) says the Phocaeans had founded Alalia in Kyrnos twenty years before they fled Phocaea from the Persian general Harpagus (c. 545). The Phocaean town itself is hardly known on the ground: Jehasse's 'archaic Greek habitat' rests on a few Attic black-figure sherds, and its exact place is still an open question.",
   "date_basis": "ancient foundation date",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Speech and rule ended together. After the refugees from Phocaea joined the colonists (c. 545), they raided their neighbours for five years; the Etruscans and Carthaginians then sailed against them with 60 ships each, and the Phocaeans won a 'Cadmean victory' off Alalia but lost 40 of their 60 ships. They took their wives, children and goods on board, left Kyrnos and sailed to Rhegion, and from there founded Hyele (Elea) in Italy (Hdt. 1.166-167). Diodorus (5.13.4) says the Phocaeans of 'Kalaris' were expelled from the island by the Tyrrhenians. From the early 5th c. BC the town was Etruscan: the Casabianda necropolis (early 5th to 2nd c. BC) is Etruscan, with Caeretan pottery and Etruscan names; no Greek community is attested after the battle (Alfonsi 2024). Rome took it in 259 BC and Sulla later settled a Roman colony there (Pliny NH 3.80).",
   "until_basis": "deportation/emigration",
   "until_precision": "decade",
   "until_range": [
    -541,
    -535
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Hdt. 1.166-167 (departure to Rhegion after the battle, c. 540 BC; dates between 541 and 535 are given in modern works); Diod. 5.13.4; Etruscan graffiti and names at Aleria from c. 475 BC onward; the elogium of L. Cornelius Scipio, consul 259 BC: 'hec cepit Corsica Aleriaque urbe' (CIL I2 9) (unchecked); Sulla's colony (Pliny NH 3.80).",
   "ended_by": "The Etruscans of Caere (Agylla) and the Carthaginians, whose fleet of 120 ships fought the 60 ships of the Phocaeans off Alalia about 540 BC; the Phocaeans won but lost two thirds of their ships, and the survivors left Alalia with their families for Rhegion; the Caeretans stoned their Phocaean prisoners to death (Hdt. 1.166-167). Diodorus 5.13.4: expelled by the Tyrrhenians.",
   "city_type": "Greek city",
   "origin": "colony",
   "bilingual_base": "",
   "founder": "Phocaeans (Hdt. 1.165)",
   "founder_group": "colonists",
   "metropolis": "Phocaea",
   "refounded_by": "Re-settled by Etruscans (Caere) in the early 5th c. BC; taken by Rome in 259 BC; Roman colony of Sulla (Pliny NH 3.80). None of these was Greek.",
   "pre_settlement": "unknown",
   "pre_evidence": "",
   "pre_greek_name": "",
   "pre_greek_note": "The name Alalia may be pre-Greek, but no pre-Greek source attests it.",
   "name_continues": "Greek name",
   "name_via": "Latin",
   "name_note": "Greek name",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "",
   "bilingual_evidence": "",
   "status_evidence": "IACP no. 1 (as Alalie), type A (Domínguez 2004) (unchecked: number and type not checked against the book); Hdt. 1.165-167 calls it a polis founded by the Phocaeans; Diod. 5.13.4 (one of the two notable poleis of Corsica).",
   "certainty": "secure",
   "note": "Some scholars (Jehasse) thought that Greeks lived on beside the Etruscans after the battle, on the evidence of Attic pottery in the tombs; recent work reads the necropolis as Etruscan and finds no Greek names, so no later Greek phase is given. IACP number from memory.",
   "visible": "Site archéologique de la ville antique d'Aléria and the Musée départemental d'archéologie Jérôme-Carcopino (Fort de Matra), with the Greek and Etruscan grave goods of the necropolis",
   "sources": [
    "Herodotus 1.165-167",
    "Diodorus 5.13.4",
    "IACP (Domínguez 2004)",
    "Alfonsi, REA 2024",
    "Pleiades 472048"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  },
  {
   "no": 22,
   "list_group": "Malta",
   "dates_shown": "c. 150 BC – c. AD 870",
   "period": "3 Rome (218 BC - AD 476)",
   "id": "e017",
   "latin": "Melite/Melita",
   "greek": "Μελίτη",
   "other_names": "ʾNN (Punic, legend of the town's earliest coins, usually read 'Ann' or 'Anan'; see note); Melita, municipium Melitensium (Latin); Μελιταῖοι, the citizens (Greek decree and coins); al-Madina, Medina (Arabic, after the resettlement of 1048-49). The island's name, Malta, continues Melite/Melita.",
   "modern": "Mdina and Rabat",
   "modern_native": "L-Imdina; Ir-Rabat",
   "municipality": "Mdina; Rabat (two local councils)",
   "population": 12594,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "Mdina and the northern part of Rabat, central-western Malta (the Roman town walls enclosed Mdina and part of Rabat; Domus Romana)",
   "country": "Malta",
   "admin1": "Western Region",
   "admin2": "Western District (statistical)",
   "ancient_region": "Melita/Gaulos",
   "lat": 35.8855,
   "lon": 14.4005,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "462310",
   "iacp": "",
   "iacp_note": "",
   "greek_from": -150,
   "greek_until": 870,
   "phases": [
    [
     -150,
     870
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "First Greek civic evidence: the town's bronze coins with the Greek legend ΜΕΛΙΤΑΙΩΝ ('of the Melitaioi'), struck after the Roman conquest of 218 BC and dated in the catalogues to the first half or middle of the 2nd c. BC (the earliest civic issues, c. 220-175 BC, have the Punic legend ʾNN). The Punic-Greek cippi of Melqart are also 2nd c. BC, but their dedicants call themselves Tyrians. The Greek decree of the Melitaioi (IG XIV 953) follows c. 100-50 BC. The town itself was Phoenician from c. 700 BC.",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "century",
   "until_text": "The last Greek written by residents is in the catacomb epitaphs of the 4th-5th c. (18 Greek to 16 Latin, six of the Greek Jewish). Under Constantinople (c. 535-870) the Greek attested is that of officials' seals and, after c. 750, of the church; Greek-speaking townspeople are plausible, as in Sicily, but not attested. The end is set at the Aghlabid conquest of 870, with a range back to c. 450 to show the doubt. Administration: Carthaginian until the Romans under Ti. Sempronius Longus took the island in 218 BC (Livy 21.51); a Latin municipium by the early 1st c. AD (CIL X 7495); under Constantinople from c. 535, later an outpost of the theme of Sicily; Aghlabid from 870. Speech: Greek stayed in use beside Punic and then Latin. L. Castricius Prudens, 'protos Melitaion', has a Greek dedication (IG XIV 601) beside a Latin one calling him 'municipi Melitensium primus omnium' (CIL X 7495), early 1st c. AD; a Greek funerary altar of the actor P. Aelius Hermolaos of Pergamon is of the 2nd c. AD. In the catacombs of Rabat and other late antique sites, 18 inscriptions are Greek and 16 Latin, mainly of the mid-4th to 5th c.; six of the Greek ones are Jewish, and Greek may have been above all the language of an immigrant Jewish community (Lo Faro 2008-09). These are the last Greek texts of residents. In the 590s Gregory the Great's letters show a Latin church on the island. Under Constantinople the island's governors wrote Greek (seals of Niketas, archon and droungarios, 8th c.; Theophylaktos, archon, 8th-9th c.), and from the 8th c. its see lay under Syracuse in the Greek church; but these are officials and clergy. A shift of the islanders to Greek in those centuries is possible (three and a half centuries of rule, close ties with Syracuse, a few sound features of Maltese shared with the Arabic of Sicily's Greeks), but 'can only be based on conjecture' (Brincat), who judges that Latin 'replaced Punic and Greek and remained Malta's acrolect for five centuries' and that the conquest of 870 'certainly marks the end or drastic reduction' of a community 'which may have been Greek-speaking'. Greek speech is therefore estimated to have ended c. 600 (range 450 to 870). Any Greek speakers still there in 870 were lost when the Aghlabids took Melite; no Greek-speaking community is attested afterwards, and Maltese descends from the Arabic of later settlers.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    450,
    870
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek civic coins to c. 36 BC (ΜΕΛΙΤΑΙΩΝ beside the Latin name of the propraetor C. Arruntanus Balbus, RPC I 672); IG XIV 601 and 602 (an archon), 1st c. AD; Hermolaos of Pergamon, 2nd c. AD; late antique epitaphs, mid-4th to 5th c.: 18 Greek (six of them Jewish) and 16 Latin, with a bilingual one at St Agatha's (Lo Faro 2008-09); the bishops Lucillus (592, deposed 598-99) and Traianus (599) in Gregory the Great's Latin letters; from the mid-8th c. the see under Syracuse in the notitiae of the church of Constantinople; Greek seals of archons, 8th-9th c. (officials); pottery at Tas-Silg, 6th-9th c., shows the island inhabited but not its language; the fall of Melite, 29 August 870, its bishop soon after found in chains at Palermo; Ibn Hawqal (10th c.) and al-Himyari: island deserted until 1048-49, against which Fiorini and Zammit (2016) cite Mdina pottery and pollen; a Greek poet of Roger II's court exiled to Gozo in the 1140s (an exile, not evidence of Greek among the islanders); a 'protopapas' of Melite in a late notitia, read by some as Greek-rite survival and by others as a newcomer after the Norman conquest (unchecked).",
   "ended_by": "No named act ended Greek speech: the last Greek of residents is of the 4th-5th c., and Greek seems to have faded under a Latin church before the eastern empire's officials and Greek bishops of the 8th-9th c. arrived. Whatever remained ended with the Aghlabid conquest: the forces of the emir Muhammad II (Abu'l-Gharaniq) attacked in 869 under Ahmad ibn Umar ibn Ubayd Allah ibn al-Aghlab al-Habashi, and on 29 August 870, per al-Himyari, the wali Sawada ibn Muhammad took the town, captured its governor (Amros, perhaps Ambrosios), razed the walls and carried off the marble of its church; the island was left an uninhabited ruin until Muslims resettled it in 1048-49 (al-Himyari, Kitab al-Rawd al-Mitar; Brincat 1995; Metcalfe 2009). The bishop of Malta was soon after found in chains at Palermo.",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Punic town",
   "founder": "Phoenicians (Diodorus 5.12.2: a colony of the Phoenicians)",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Roman municipium Melitensium (by the early 1st c. AD)",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "ʾNN (Punic)?",
   "pre_greek_note": "The Punic legend ʾNN on the earliest civic coins (c. 220-175 BC) is usually taken as the Punic name of Malta or of its town; the reading and what it names are debated. The hilltop was a Bronze Age settlement and a Phoenician town from c. 700 BC (rock-cut tombs around Rabat).",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "name_note": "unrelated",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Punic (Phoenician); Latin from the Roman municipium (by the early 1st c. AD)",
   "bilingual_evidence": "The town's coins carry the Punic legend ʾNN (c. 220-175 BC), then the Greek ΜΕΛΙΤΑΙΩΝ (2nd-1st c. BC, the last c. 36 BC beside a Latin name); a Greek decree of the council and people of the Melitaioi, dated by a hierothytes (Hiketas) and two archons (Hereas and Kotes) (IG XIV 953, c. 100-50 BC); the Greek title 'protos Melitaion' (IG XIV 601); Neo-Punic epitaphs into the 1st c. AD; Acts 28:2-4 calls the islanders 'barbaroi'. The Punic-Greek cippi of Melqart (CIS I 122 = IG XIV 600, 2nd c. BC) were set up by two brothers who call themselves Tyrians, so they show Greek beside Punic among Phoenicians on the island, not necessarily among the townsmen.",
   "status_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 111 (Melite polis and harbour); Diodorus 5.12.2-3 (Phoenician colony, rich weavers); civic coins ʾNN then ΜΕΛΙΤΑΙΩΝ; Greek decree of the council (synkletos) and people (damos), dated by a hierothytes and two archons (IG XIV 953, a bronze tablet found in Rome); 'protos Melitaion' (IG XIV 601) and 'municipi Melitensium primus omnium' (CIL X 7495); Acts 28:7 (Publius, 'protos of the island'); Cicero, Verr. 2.4.103-104 (the Melitenses and the shrine of Juno).",
   "certainty": "probable",
   "note": "Greek was the language of the town's decrees and coins, but whether ordinary townspeople spoke it or only a Hellenized Punic elite is open: Acts 28:2-4 calls the islanders 'barbaroi', which most read as Punic speech. Al-Himyari's report that the island lay empty from 870 to 1048-49 is taken by Wettinger as a near-total break; Brincat allows a few survivors who mixed with the conquerors' garrison over 150 years; others doubt it.",
   "visible": "Domus Romana (Rabat), Mdina's walls, St Paul's and St Agatha's catacombs (with Greek epitaphs)",
   "sources": [
    "IG XIV 600, 601, 953; CIL X 7495",
    "Bonanno 2005 (Malta: Phoenician, Punic and Roman)",
    "Perassi 2016; Vella 1995",
    "Lo Faro 2008-09 (after Buhagiar 2007)",
    "Brincat 1995 and Before Maltese (n.d.)",
    "Brown 1975; Metcalfe 2009; Fiorini and Zammit 2016",
    "Pleiades 462310"
   ],
   "refoundations": "Resettled by Muslims in 1048-49 as Medina (al-Himyari): a new, Arabic-speaking town on the site, after the Greek period."
  },
  {
   "no": 23,
   "list_group": "Malta",
   "dates_shown": "c. 40 BC – c. AD 870",
   "period": "3 Rome (218 BC - AD 476)",
   "id": "e019",
   "latin": "Gaulos/Gaulus",
   "greek": "Γαῦλος",
   "other_names": "GWL (Punic, CIS I 132: 'the people of GWL'); Gaulus, municipium Gaulitanorum (Latin); Γαυλῖται, the citizens (coins); Rabat (Arabic 'suburb'); Victoria (since 1887). The island's names, Gozo and Maltese Għawdex, go back to Gaudos/Gaulos.",
   "modern": "Victoria (Ir-Rabat), Gozo",
   "modern_native": "Il-Belt Victoria (Ir-Rabat), Għawdex",
   "municipality": "Victoria",
   "population": 7524,
   "pop_year": 2024,
   "modern_status": "city/town on site",
   "site": "the Citadel (Ċittadella) and the old town of Victoria (Rabat), central Gozo",
   "country": "Malta",
   "admin1": "Gozo Region",
   "admin2": "Gozo and Comino District (statistical)",
   "ancient_region": "Melita/Gaulos",
   "lat": 36.0466,
   "lon": 14.2393,
   "loc_certainty": "secure",
   "pleiades": "462212",
   "iacp": "",
   "iacp_note": "",
   "greek_from": -40,
   "greek_until": 870,
   "phases": [
    [
     -40,
     870
    ]
   ],
   "greek_from_text": "The only positive Greek evidence specific to the town: its bronze coinage with the Greek legend ΓΑΥΛΙΤΩΝ, a single issue struck late in the Republican period (Perassi 2016; Vella 1995 dates it c. 40 BC). The town was Phoenician long before (Diodorus 5.12.4).",
   "date_basis": "first attestation as Greek city",
   "date_precision": "decade",
   "until_text": "Gozo has no Greek of its own after its one coin issue (late 1st c. BC); its end follows Melite's, set at the conquest of 870 with a range back to the coins. Administration: Roman from 218 BC; a Latin municipium (a dedication to Julia Augusta, Livia, as Ceres by the priestess Lutatia, CIL X 7501, first half of the 1st c. AD; an honour for Varenianus Lutatius Natalis Aemilianus, patron of the municipium, CIL X 7506, later 2nd c. AD); under Constantinople c. 535-870; Aghlabid from 870. Speech: after the coins no Greek text from Gozo is cited in the studies of its inscriptions (Vella 1995; Azzopardi 2002-03); the late antique Greek epitaphs of the archipelago are from Malta. Gozo's end is set to the estimate for the Maltese islands, c. 600, with a wider range (30 BC to AD 870): Greek may have faded soon after the coins, or lasted as long as anywhere on the islands, and nothing on Gozo itself was left after the Aghlabid conquest of 870.",
   "until_basis": "conquest and resettlement",
   "until_precision": "approximate (several centuries)",
   "until_range": [
    -30,
    870
   ],
   "fade_evidence": "Greek coin legend ΓΑΥΛΙΤΩΝ, late 1st c. BC (the only Greek civic text); Latin municipal inscriptions, 1st-2nd c. AD (CIL X 7501, 7506, 7511), and no Greek inscription from Gozo cited in the studies; Gozo shared Malta's history under Constantinople and fell with it in 870; al-Himyari's account of the 870 depopulation concerns 'Malta' and is taken to include Gozo. A Greek poet of Roger II's court wrote verse in exile on Gozo in the 1140s: an exile, not a community.",
   "ended_by": "No act specific to Gozo is recorded. The archipelago fell to the Aghlabid forces of the emir Muhammad II in 870 (fleet of Ahmad ibn Umar al-Habashi; the wali Sawada ibn Muhammad took Melite on 29 August 870) and, per al-Himyari, was left deserted until Muslims resettled it in 1048-49 (Brincat 1995).",
   "city_type": "bilingual city",
   "origin": "bilingual city",
   "bilingual_base": "Punic town",
   "founder": "Phoenicians (Diodorus 5.12.4: a colony of the Phoenicians)",
   "founder_group": "none (native town)",
   "metropolis": "",
   "refounded_by": "Roman municipium Gaulitanorum (by the 1st-2nd c. AD)",
   "pre_settlement": "yes",
   "pre_evidence": "text+archaeology",
   "pre_greek_name": "GWL (Punic)",
   "pre_greek_note": "CIS I 132, a Punic inscription naming 'the people of GWL' with its magistrates, gives the Punic name; its date is disputed (before 218 BC or 2nd c. BC).",
   "name_continues": "unrelated",
   "name_via": "",
   "name_note": "unrelated",
   "bilingual_period": "",
   "other_language": "Punic; Latin from the Roman municipium",
   "bilingual_evidence": "The town's only coin issue (late 1st c. BC) has the Greek legend ΓΑΥΛΙΤΩΝ ('of the Gaulitans'); its earlier civic decree is Punic (CIS I 132: two rabs, a priest and 'the people of GWL'); its later public inscriptions are Latin (municipium Gaulitanorum).",
   "status_evidence": "Ps.-Scylax 111 (Gaulos polis); Diodorus 5.12.4 (Phoenician colony with good harbours); Punic civic decree CIS I 132; civic coins ΓΑΥΛΙΤΩΝ; municipium Gaulitanorum (Latin inscriptions).",
   "certainty": "uncertain",
   "note": "Admission rests on one Greek coin issue; Gozo's civic texts are otherwise Punic, then Latin. Kept because Greek civic coinage is positive evidence under the set's rules, as for the Punic towns of western Sicily, but it is a close call.",
   "visible": "The Ċittadella (Citadel) and the Gozo Museum of Archaeology inside it (unchecked)",
   "sources": [
    "Vella 1995 (The Island of Gozo in Classical Texts)",
    "Perassi 2016 (Melita e Gaulos)",
    "CIS I 132",
    "Azzopardi 2023 (Roman Municipia of Malta and Gozo)",
    "Pleiades 462212"
   ],
   "refoundations": ""
  }
 ],
 "stories": [
  {
   "city": "Massalia",
   "title": "Petta and the bowl of wine",
   "text": "Aristotle, in his lost Constitution of the Massaliotes, told how the city began. Euxenos of Phocaea arrived on the day king Nanos was marrying off his daughter. The custom was that after the feast the girl brought a bowl of mixed wine to the suitor she chose. Petta gave it to the Greek guest; her father took this as the will of a god, and Euxenos married her and renamed her Aristoxene. From their son Protis came the Protiadai, still a family at Massalia. In Justin's version Protis is himself the groom, the king is Nannus of the Segobrigii, and the bride, Gyptis, hands him water. Both are legends.",
   "sources": [
    "Aristotle, Constitution of the Massaliotes, quoted in Athenaeus 13.576a-b (fr. 549 Rose (unchecked: fragment number))",
    "Justin, Epitome of Trogus 43.3.4-13"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Massalia",
   "title": "Pytheas and the shortest nights",
   "text": "Around 320 BC Pytheas of Massalia sailed out past the Pillars of Heracles, up the Atlantic coast and around Britain, and wrote a book, On the Ocean, now lost. He reported an island, Thule, six days' sail north of Britain, near the frozen sea. 'The barbarians showed us where the sun goes to sleep,' he wrote, 'for in these places the night was very short, in some two hours, in others three.' At home he measured the noon shadow of a gnomon to fix the latitude of Massalia, a figure Hipparchus still used. Polybius called him a liar; most modern scholars think he made the voyage.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 1.4.2-4 (Thule; Polybius' doubts); 2.4.1-2; 2.5.8 (Hipparchus on Pytheas' gnomon at Massalia)",
    "Geminus, Introduction to the Phenomena 6.9 (the quotation) (unchecked: wording checked only from memory)",
    "Pliny, Natural History 4.104 (Thule)",
    "date c. 330-320 BC is the usual modern estimate (unchecked)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Massalia",
   "title": "Euthymenes and a Nile in the Atlantic",
   "text": "Another Massaliote, Euthymenes, sailed south along the African coast at a date we do not know; he is often placed in the 6th century BC. His report survives only in quotation. 'I have sailed the Atlantic sea,' Seneca has him say. 'From there flows the Nile, larger while the Etesian winds blow, for then the sea is driven in by the winds.' The sea there, he added, tasted sweet, and its beasts were like those of the Nile. Ancient writers used him to explain the Nile's summer flood; modern readers have wondered whether he had seen the Senegal, with its crocodiles and hippopotamuses.",
   "sources": [
    "Seneca, Natural Questions 4a.2.22",
    "Pseudo-Plutarch, Placita philosophorum 4.1 (= Aetius 4.1.2) (unchecked: section)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euthymenes (date and sources)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Massalia",
   "title": "The Six Hundred",
   "text": "Strabo describes Massalia's government as an aristocracy run by a council of 600 men, who held the honour for life and were called timouchoi. Fifteen of them presided over the council, and three of the fifteen held the most power. No one could become a timouchos unless he had children and his family had been citizens for three generations. The laws were Ionic and were set out in public. Valerius Maximus adds the city's stern customs: no mimes on the stage, an old rusty sword for executions, and a poison of hemlock kept by the state and given to anyone who could show the Six Hundred good reason to die.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 4.1.5",
    "Valerius Maximus 2.6.7 (paragraph number (unchecked); content checked in the Shackleton Bailey translation via https://ethicsofsuicide.lib.utah.edu/?p=2427)",
    "Aristotle, Politics 5.1305b4-10 (the Massaliote oligarchy) (unchecked)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Massalia",
   "title": "Rome's golden bowl in the Massaliote treasury",
   "text": "At Delphi the Massaliotes had their own treasury, a small building of Parian marble with Aeolic capitals, built around 510 BC in the sanctuary of Athena Pronaia. When the Romans took Veii (396 BC), they made a golden bowl from a tenth of the spoils and sent it to Apollo. Pirates of Lipara seized the envoys, but the Liparaean leader Timasitheos set them free, and the bowl was dedicated in the treasury of the Massaliotes, Rome's old friends. Justin adds that when the Gauls took Rome a few years later, Massalia held public mourning and collected gold and silver for the ransom.",
   "sources": [
    "Diodorus 14.93.3-5 (the bowl, Timasitheos, 'dedicated it in the treasury of the Massaliotes')",
    "Livy 5.28.1-5 (Timasitheus)",
    "Justin 43.5.8-10 (mourning and gold for Rome) (unchecked)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury_of_the_Massaliots_(Delphi) (date c. 510 BC, Parian marble, Aeolic capitals; the identification of the building as the Massaliote treasury is the usual one)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Massalia",
   "title": "The hole in the hull",
   "text": "A speech in the works of Demosthenes, Against Zenothemis (4th century BC), tells of two Massaliotes, the shipowner Hegestratos and his partner Zenothemis. At Syracuse each vouched to lenders for the other's cargo of grain; they borrowed on it, sent the money home to Massalia and planned to sink the ship. Two or three days' sail from land, Hegestratos went down into the hold at night and began cutting a hole in the bottom. Caught in the act, he fled, leapt into the sea for the ship's boat, missed it in the dark and drowned. The ship was saved, and at Athens Zenothemis claimed its grain as his own.",
   "sources": [
    "[Demosthenes] 32 (Against Zenothemis) 4-9; translation at https://cts.perseids.org/read/greekLit/tlg0014/tlg032/perseus-eng2/1-8 and /9-16"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Massalia",
   "title": "Caesar at the gates",
   "text": "In 49 BC Massalia told Caesar that it could not judge between him and Pompey, since both were its patrons, and then let in Pompey's man Domitius. Caesar left Trebonius to besiege it by land and Decimus Brutus by sea; the poet Lucan has Caesar himself take the first axe to a sacred grove near the walls to build the siege works. After two sea battles, siege towers and months of blockade, the city surrendered. Caesar spared it, he wrote, 'more for its name and antiquity than for what it deserved of me', but took away its arms, ships and public treasure.",
   "sources": [
    "Caesar, Civil War 1.34-36, 1.56-58, 2.1-16, 2.22 (unchecked: wording of the quotation)",
    "Lucan, Pharsalia 3.399-452 (the grove)",
    "Strabo 4.1.5 (Massalia lost much for siding with Pompey)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Massalia",
   "title": "A Roman schoolboy at Massilia",
   "text": "Strabo says that Massalia had become a school for the Gauls, who wrote even their contracts in Greek, and that the most distinguished Romans went there to study instead of Athens. One was Agricola, born at nearby Forum Iulii (Fréjus) in AD 40. Tacitus, his son-in-law, says he had Massilia as the seat and teacher of his studies, 'a place where Greek refinement and provincial thrift were mixed and well blended'. Agricola used to say that in his youth he drank in philosophy more eagerly than was proper for a Roman and a senator, until his mother's good sense held him back.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 4.1.5",
    "Tacitus, Agricola 4.2-3"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Emporion",
   "title": "A merchant's letter on lead",
   "text": "A thin sheet of lead found at Emporion carries one of the oldest Greek private letters of the West, written around 500 BC (it is dated between the late 6th and the 5th century). A trader gives orders to his agent: he is to be at Saiganthe, probably the Iberian town later called Saguntum, far down the coast; there is business about a boat bought there and a man whose name begins Basped-; if two boats can be had, he should send both; and he must write back, as soon as possible, how much he is willing to do. The text is broken, but the coastal trade is plain.",
   "sources": [
    "SEG 37.838; first edition E. Sanmartí and R. A. Santiago, ZPE 68 (1987) (unchecked: edition)",
    "https://www.livius.org/pictures/spain/ampurias/greek-commercial-letter/ (date range, contents; the reading is uncertain in many places)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Emporion",
   "title": "Two towns and a wall",
   "text": "When Cato landed at Emporiae in 195 BC, the place was two towns divided by a wall. One was Greek, of settlers from Phocaea like the Massaliotes, open to the sea, with a wall less than 400 paces round; the other was Spanish, with a wall of 3,000 paces. Livy describes the Greeks' caution: a single gate toward the Spaniards, always watched by one of the magistrates; a third of the citizens on the walls every night; and no going out except in large groups. Yet they traded every day with the Spaniards, who were no seamen and gladly bought what came by sea. Strabo calls Emporion a 'double city'.",
   "sources": [
    "Livy 34.8.4-7 (Cato's landing), 34.9.1-10 (the two towns)",
    "Strabo 3.4.8 (dipolis)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Alalia",
   "title": "The Cadmean victory",
   "text": "Herodotus says the Phocaeans had founded Alalia on Corsica, at the bidding of an oracle, twenty years before the Persians took Phocaea. When the city fell, many Phocaeans sailed to join them, built shrines and for five years plundered all their neighbours. The Etruscans and the Carthaginians sent sixty ships each; the Phocaeans manned sixty and met them in the 'Sardinian sea', around 540 BC. Herodotus calls the outcome a 'Cadmean victory': forty Phocaean ships were destroyed and the other twenty had their rams twisted. The survivors took their wives, children and what goods they could carry, left Corsica and sailed to Rhegion.",
   "sources": [
    "Herodotus 1.165-166",
    "date c. 540-535 BC is the usual modern estimate (unchecked)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Alalia",
   "title": "The stoned prisoners and the hero Kyrnos",
   "text": "The Carthaginians and Etruscans shared the crews of the wrecked Phocaean ships by lot, and the Etruscans of Agylla (Caere) got by far the most. They led them out and stoned them to death. Afterwards everything that passed the spot, sheep, draught animals and people, became twisted and crippled. The Agyllaeans asked Delphi, and the Pythia told them to make great offerings to the dead and hold athletic and horse contests, which they still did in Herodotus' day. The exiles from Alalia, meanwhile, learned that the oracle which sent them to 'Kyrnos' had meant the hero Kyrnos, not the island, and founded Hyele (Elea) in Italy.",
   "sources": [
    "Herodotus 1.167"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Rhode",
   "title": "The rose of Rhode",
   "text": "Strabo calls Rhode a small town of the Emporitans and repeats a story that Rhodians founded it before the first Olympiad. No Greek town has been found there before the late 5th or 4th century BC, so the Rhodian founders are best taken as a legend drawn from the name. The town made its name into its badge: around 300 BC its silver drachms showed a woman's head and, on the back, a rose (rhodon) seen from below, with the legend ΡΟΔΗΤΩΝ, 'of the Rhodetans'. Iberians and Gauls copied the type widely. In 195 BC Cato began his Spanish war by taking the fort of Rhoda.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 3.4.8; 14.2.10 (the Rhodian story)",
    "British Museum 1848,0819.6 (a drachm of the Rhode type, c. 300 BC, female head and four-petalled rose seen from below, there catalogued as an imitation): https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/C_1848-0819-6",
    "Livy 34.8.7 (Cato and the fort of Rhoda)",
    "archaeological date from cities_v2.json (e011)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Agathe",
   "title": "The youth from the river",
   "text": "On 13 September 1964 divers of Agde's underwater archaeology group found a bronze statue in the bed of the Hérault river, probably from an ancient wreck. The 'Ephebe of Agde' is a Hellenistic bronze of a young man, 1.33 m high, usually dated to the 2nd century BC; he may be a ruler, and some call him a young Alexander. After years at the Louvre he came home, and he is now the pride of the Musée de l'Éphèbe at Cap d'Agde. The town on the river was Agathe, 'the Good', founded by Massalia; one ancient writer called it Agathe Tyche, 'Good Fortune'.",
   "sources": [
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Youth_of_Agde (find date, height, date, Louvre)",
    "https://capdagde.com/experiences/the-youth-or-the-alexander-of-agde (the 'Alexander' name)",
    "Strabo 4.1.5-6 (founded by Massalia); Timosthenes in Stephanus of Byzantium s.v. Agathe (Agathe Tyche) (unchecked)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Antipolis",
   "title": "Terpon, servant of Aphrodite",
   "text": "In 1866 a heavy stone in the shape of a phallus, about 60 cm long, was found by the sea wall of Antibes. Two hexameters in Ionic Greek run around it: 'I am Terpon, servant of the august goddess Aphrodite; may Kypris give her favour in return to those who set me up.' The letters date it to about 450-425 BC, so it is the oldest text of Antipolis and shows that Greeks lived there before the Massaliote foundation the ancient writers describe. What Terpon was is still argued; one guess makes the stone the sign of a house of Aphrodite's trade. It stands in the town's archaeological museum.",
   "sources": [
    "IGF 82 (Terpon) (unchecked: number)",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stone_of_Terpon (find, size, text, date 450-425 BC, Musée d'Histoire et d'Archéologie d'Antibes)",
    "Strabo 4.1.5, 4.1.9 (Massaliote foundation)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Nikaia",
   "title": "Victory under siege",
   "text": "Nikaia means 'Victory', but no ancient writer says which victory the Massaliotes had in mind when they founded it. Its first appearance in history is a crisis. In 154 BC Massaliote envoys told the Roman senate that the Ligurians were besieging Antipolis and Nikaia. Rome sent envoys, who were attacked by the Oxybii when they landed at Aegitna; the consul Quintus Opimius then marched in, defeated the Oxybii and the Deciates, and gave part of their land to Massalia. Under Rome, Nikaia stayed a Massaliote town by the harbour, while the Roman city of Cemenelum (Cimiez) grew on the hill above.",
   "sources": [
    "Polybius 33.8-10 (8.2 Antipolis and Nikaia besieged; 9.2 Aegitna; 10.12 land given to Massalia): https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Polybius/33*.html",
    "Pliny, Natural History 3.47 ('Nicaea a Massiliensibus conditum')",
    "Strabo 4.1.9 (Nikaia under Massalia)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Olbia",
   "title": "Thanks to Aristaios",
   "text": "Olbia, 'the Prosperous', was a square walled town laid out by Massalia c. 340-325 BC on the shore at Hyères. In its territory, at L'Acapte, excavations in 1973-82 uncovered a rock sanctuary of Aristaios, the hero-god of beekeeping and the olive, with about 350 dedications scratched on pottery from the late 2nd century BC to the early 1st century AD. Almost all are in Greek and say 'So-and-so, son of So-and-so, to Aristaios, in thanks'. Fewer than twenty were made by men with Gaulish names, such as Adretillos, who may have had a scribe at the entrance write for them.",
   "sources": [
    "M. Bats, on the Aristaios sanctuary of L'Acapte (2010): https://www.ancientportsantiques.com/wp-content/uploads/Documents/PLACES/France/OlbiaArist%c3%a9e-Bats2010.pdf (dates, numbers, formula, Adretillos, scribes)",
    "Strabo 4.1.5, 4.1.9 (Massaliote foundation); foundation date from cities_v2.json (e013)",
    "Diodorus 4.81.2 (Aristaios taught beekeeping and olive growing) (unchecked)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Glanum",
   "title": "Gaulish in Greek letters",
   "text": "Glanum grew around a sacred spring at the foot of the Alpilles, a town of the Salyes. In the 2nd century BC it built a Greek-style public centre with a council house, a bouleuterion, and struck coins with the Greek legend ΓΛΑΝΙΚΩΝ, 'of the Glanikoi'. Its people also wrote their own Gaulish in the Greek alphabet. A dedication of the 1st century BC reads ΜΑΤΡΕΒΟ ΓΛΑΝΕΙΚΑΒΟ ΒΡΑΤΟΥ ΔΕΚΑΝΤΕΝ, 'to the Mothers of Glanum, in gratitude, a tithe'. Later, by the spring, a Latin altar was set up to Glanis and the Glanicae, the god of the spring and his goddesses.",
   "sources": [
    "RIG G-64: https://lib2.english.cam.ac.uk/spokenword/g_saintremy.php (text, translation, date)",
    "Ptolemy 2.10.8; Pliny, Natural History 3.37",
    "coins and bouleuterion from cities_v2.json (e016)",
    "altar to Glanis and the Glanicae at the spring: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glanis (CIL number not checked)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Theline",
   "title": "The Greek name under Arles",
   "text": "Avienus, a Latin poet of the 4th century AD who put an old Greek sailing guide into verse, wrote of Arles: 'There rises the city of Arelatus, called Theline in an earlier age, when the Greek lived there.' Excavations on the rock of the Hauture, around the Roman theatre, show a native village that grew quickly in the later 6th century BC into a large settlement whose pottery was mostly Greek and Massaliote. Whether it was a Greek town or a trading post under Massalia's control is still argued. By 49 BC, when Caesar had warships built there for the siege of Massalia, the town bore its Celtic name, Arelate.",
   "sources": [
    "Avienus, Ora maritima 689-691",
    "Caesar, Civil War 1.36 (ships built at Arelate)",
    "archaeology of the Hauture (Arcelin) as summarised in cities_v2.json (e005) (unchecked: figures)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Hemeroskopeion",
   "title": "Artemis on the headland",
   "text": "Strabo names Hemeroskopeion, 'the day-watch', as the best known of three small towns of the Massaliotes on the coast between the Júcar and Cartagena. On its headland stood a much-honoured temple of Artemis of Ephesus. A natural stronghold seen far out at sea, it served Sertorius as a naval base in his war against Rome (80-72 BC); by Strabo's day it was Dianium, after Diana, today Dénia. The Massaliotes took this goddess wherever they settled: Strabo tells that she appeared in a dream to Aristarche of Ephesus and told her to sail with the Phocaeans, bringing a copy of her image. No Greek remains have been found at Dénia.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 3.4.6 (Hemeroskopeion, Artemis, Sertorius, Dianium)",
    "Strabo 4.1.4-5 (Aristarche; the cult in Massalia's colonies)",
    "absence of Greek finds: cities_v2.json (e007)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Mainake",
   "title": "Strabo looks at the ruins",
   "text": "Some writers took Malaca (Málaga) for Mainake, 'the farthest west of the Phocaean cities'. Strabo disagreed, and argued from what could still be seen: Mainake lay farther from Calpe (Gibraltar), was in ruins and kept the traces of a Greek city, while Malaca was nearer and Phoenician in plan. Avienus, following an older source, simply says that Malaca was once called Maenace. No Greek town has been found on this coast; every candidate site near Málaga is Phoenician, and many scholars now think Mainake was the Greek name for a Phoenician harbour where Greeks came to trade.",
   "sources": [
    "Strabo 3.4.2",
    "Avienus, Ora maritima 426-431",
    "Pseudo-Scymnus 146-147 (unchecked: wording)",
    "modern view: cities_v2.json (e003)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Melite",
   "title": "The viper by the fire",
   "text": "About AD 60 an Alexandrian ship carrying wheat, and Paul as a prisoner bound for Rome, ran aground on Melite after two weeks in a storm. All 276 people on board reached land. The islanders, whom Luke calls 'barbaroi', probably because they spoke Punic, lit a fire against the rain and cold. A viper, driven out by the heat, fastened on Paul's hand. 'This man must be a murderer,' they said; 'he escaped the sea, but Justice has not let him live.' When he shook it off into the fire and neither swelled up nor fell dead, they changed their minds and said he was a god.",
   "sources": [
    "Acts 27:6, 27:27, 27:37-44; 28:1-6",
    "the reading of 'barbaroi' as Punic speakers: cities_v2.json (e017)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Melite",
   "title": "Publius, first of the island",
   "text": "Near the wreck lay the estate of 'the first man of the island', named Publius, who received Paul and his companions and entertained them for three days. Paul healed his father of fever and dysentery, and then the island's other sick came to him. Luke's title, protos, matches the island's own usage. A Greek inscription on a sarcophagus lid found near Mdina, of the early 1st century AD and now lost, names Lucius Castricius Prudens, a Roman knight, as 'protos of the Melitaioi', patron, former archon and priest of the deified Augustus. A Latin text of the 2nd century calls another man 'first of all' in the municipium.",
   "sources": [
    "Acts 28:7-10",
    "IG XIV 601 (Castricius Prudens) and CIL X 7495, as given in the article on Melita's institutions in Gerión (revistas.ucm.es, article 96079): https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/GERI/article/view/96079"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Melite",
   "title": "Two bronze tablets for a Syracusan friend",
   "text": "In the 1st century BC the council and people of the Melitaioi voted, in Greek, to make Demetrios son of Diodotos, of Syracuse, and his descendants proxenoi and benefactors of the city, for his constant goodwill toward its affairs and his many services to its citizens. The decree is dated by the town's priest, Hiketas son of Hiketas, and its two archons, Hereas and Kotes, and was to be engraved on two bronze tablets, one to be given to Demetrios. His copy turned up in the centre of Rome beside a similar decree of Akragas in Sicily: he was a useful friend for small cities to have in the capital.",
   "sources": [
    "IG XIV 953 (= IGUR I 2-3, with the Akragas decree IG XIV 952) (unchecked: which number is which): translation at https://www.attalus.org/docs/other/inscr_193.html (date c. 100-50 BC)",
    "J. Prag and others, 'A friend in high places: Demetrios son of Diodotos the Syracusan' (2017): https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/handle/123456789/45912 [title only seen]"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Melite",
   "title": "Juno's ivory",
   "text": "Not far from the town of Melita, on a headland, stood an ancient temple of Juno, probably the sanctuary of the Phoenician goddess excavated at Tas-Silġ. Cicero says neither the Punic wars nor pirates had touched it. Once an officer of king Masinissa had taken from it some ivory tusks of incredible size; when the king learned where they came from, he sent them back in a quinquereme, with a Punic inscription saying he had accepted them unknowingly. Verres, governor of Sicily in 73-71 BC, had all the ivory and the old ivory Victories carried off, and for three years used the island as a workshop weaving women's clothes.",
   "sources": [
    "Cicero, Against Verres 2.4.103-104 (Yonge translation, Perseus)",
    "identification with Tas-Silġ: standard in the excavation reports of the Italian mission (unchecked)"
   ]
  },
  {
   "city": "Gaulos",
   "title": "A single coin in Greek",
   "text": "Gaulos, the town of Gozo, was a Phoenician foundation, and its public texts are in Punic and later in Latin; a Punic inscription names 'the people of Gaulos' as builders of sanctuaries. Greek appears only once, on a small bronze coin of the 1st century BC with the legend ΓΑΥΛΙΤΩΝ, 'of the Gaulitai'. It shows a helmeted goddess above a crescent, usually called Astarte, and on the back a warrior with shield and spear beside a star. The Gozo Museum holds one. The island's name is the same as gaulos, Herodotus' word for a round Phoenician merchant ship; whether the two are linked is unknown.",
   "sources": [
    "Diodorus 5.12.4 (Phoenician colony)",
    "CIS I 132 (Punic, 'the people of Gaulos') (unchecked: content)",
    "https://www.guidememalta.com/en/gozo-museum-acquires-historic-gayliton-coin-that-dates-back-to-the-1st-century-bc (types, date, Gozo Museum)",
    "https://coinsofmalta.com/romancoins.htm (types; dated 40 BC)",
    "Herodotus 3.136, 8.97 (gaulos, merchant ship) (unchecked: passages)"
   ]
  }
 ],
 "left_out": [
  {
   "name": "Arelate (Roman and late antique Arles)",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "The Roman colony (46 BC) and late antique imperial residence was a Latin city. Greek speakers lived there as a minority of eastern traders and clergy: nine Greek inscriptions (IGF 55-63), mostly of the imperial period, and bishop Caesarius (502-542) had the laity sing psalms 'some in Greek, some in Latin' (Vita Caesarii 1.19). A minority-only city, left out; its 6th-5th c. BC Greek phase is entered as Theline.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Monoikos (Portus Herculis Monoeci)",
   "country": "Monaco",
   "reason": "Hecataeus (c. 500 BC, in Stephanus s.v. Μόνοικος) calls Monoikos 'a Ligurian polis': an early and explicit text, but it makes the town Ligurian, not Greek. Strabo (4.6.3) knows only a harbour for small and middling ships with a temple of Heracles Monoikos, and infers from the Greek name that the Massaliotes' coasting voyages reached this far (unchecked: the wording). The name and the cult show Massaliote sailors; no Greek settlement, Greek inscription or civic community is attested, and Heracles' foundation of the place is a legend. A Ligurian town and harbour, left out (Pleiades 157868).",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Kitharista (Citharista)",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "A Greek name, but only a harbour ('Citharista portus', Pliny 3.35; the Maritime Itinerary) and a cape (Ptolemy (unchecked)); no ancient author calls it a polis and no Greek town has been found at La Ciotat or Ceyreste. Probably a Massaliote harbour or anchorage, not a city (Pleiades 148048).",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Heraclea Caccabaria",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "A harbour station of the Maritime Itinerary with a Greek name (Pleiades 157867); no evidence of a city or a Greek community.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Saint-Blaise (Mastramele?)",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "A native oppidum above the Etang de Lavalduc with heavy Greek and Etruscan imports from the 7th-6th c. BC and a Greek-style ashlar rampart of the 2nd c. BC (phase dated c. 200-120 BC) built by Greek engineers, perhaps from Sicily; Greek and Etruscan graffiti on pottery but no Greek inscriptions of a community; destroyed after a siege c. 120 BC, in the time of the Roman campaigns against the Salyes. If it is Artemidorus' Mastramele ('polis and lake of Keltike', in Stephanus), it was a Celtic town. No Greek civic community is attested: a Hellenized native oppidum and trading place, left out (Pleiades 148178).",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Tauroentum at Les Lecques",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "The Roman seaside villa of the Baumelles (built c. the turn of the era) carries the name 'Tauroentum', but Greek Tauroeis is now placed at Le Brusc (Six-Fours); listed under Tauroeis.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Stoechades (Iles d'Hyeres)",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Islands held by Massalia with small garrisons (Strabo 4.1.10); outposts and anchorages, no city (Pleiades 157929).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Pergantion",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Called a Ligurian polis by Artemidorus in Stephanus (unchecked); a native place, no Greek community attested (Pleiades 157904).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Alconis",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "A harbour station of the Maritime Itinerary (Pleiades 157804); no evidence of a city.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Aigitna",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Town of the Ligurian Oxybii, taken by the consul Q. Opimius in 154 BC when he came to help Antipolis and Nikaia (Polybius 33.8-10); a Ligurian town, unlocated (near Cannes?).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Entremont",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "The chief oppidum of the Salyes, with Greek imports and Greek-influenced sculpture; destroyed by C. Sextius Calvinus in 123-122 BC. A Gaulish (Celto-Ligurian) town, not Greek (Pleiades 148073).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Roquepertuse",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "A Celto-Ligurian sanctuary and small oppidum, famous for its portico of skulls and Greek-influenced sculpture; not a city and not Greek (Pleiades 148174).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Aquae Sextiae",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Roman fort founded by C. Sextius Calvinus in 122 BC after the destruction of Entremont, later a Latin colony; a Latin town.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Baou de Saint-Marcel",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Native oppidum just east of Massalia, with very high shares of Greek pottery from the 6th c. BC; a native village in Massalia's orbit, not a Greek city (Pleiades 148009).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "L'Ile de Martigues",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "A native village of the 5th-2nd c. BC with regular planning and Greek imports; native, not Greek.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Maritima Avaticorum",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Town of the Avatici (Pliny 3.34; Mela); native, then Roman; no Greek community attested (Pleiades 148125).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Fossae Marianae",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "The canal dug by Marius in 104-102 BC and given to Massalia (Strabo 4.1.8), with a harbour; a port and canal toll, not a Greek city.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Ernaginum",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Native oppidum and later Roman road station; Ptolemy lists it among the towns of the Salyes; Greek imports and Gallo-Greek inscriptions only (Pleiades 148074).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Ugernum",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Native oppidum and Roman road station on the right bank of the Rhone; no Greek community attested (Pleiades 148223).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Telo Martius",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Roman harbour with an imperial dye works; no Greek town is known at Toulon (Pleiades 157936).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Forum Iulii",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Roman foundation of Caesar (forum) and Octavian (colony of veterans of the Eighth Legion); a Latin city (Pleiades 157836).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Cemenelum",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Ligurian oppidum of the Vediantii, then the Roman capital of the Alpes Maritimae; a Latin town beside Greek Nikaia (Pleiades 157834).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Pomponiana",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Roman harbour of the Itineraries near Olbia; Roman, not Greek (Pleiades 157907).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Lerina (Iles de Lerins)",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Island monastery founded by Honoratus c. 410; a monastery, not a city, and its monks wrote and spoke Latin.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Arausio",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Roman colony of veterans of the Second Legion, 35 BC; a Latin city, no Greek community attested beyond individuals (Pleiades 148054).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Le Pegue",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "A native hill town north of Orange with Greek imports and local Greek-style painted pottery (6th-5th c. BC); native, and north of this area (Pleiades 167641).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Carsici portus",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "A harbour of the Maritime Itinerary east of Massalia (Mela 2.77 (unchecked)); no evidence of a Greek town.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Temple of Ephesian Artemis at the Rhone mouth",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Strabo 4.1.8 says the Massaliotes built a temple of Ephesian Artemis on land at the mouths of the Rhone; a sanctuary, unlocated, not a city.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Le Castellan (Istres) and the Etang de Berre oppida",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Native settlements with 6th-5th c. BC Greek graffiti and imports (IGF supplement nos. 88-89); native places, not Greek cities.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Lattara",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "A walled port town founded c. 500 BC, perhaps by Etruscans, whose traders' quarter burned c. 475 BC; Massaliote traders then dominated its trade. Greek letters on lead, Greek graffiti on pottery and Greek alphabet primers point to Greeks living in the town, and Pleiades calls it a town 'inhabited by Gauls, Etruscans, and Massalian Greeks'. But it was a Gaulish town whose people also wrote Gaulish in Greek letters, no source calls it Greek or gives it Greek civic status, and the Greeks were traders among Gauls: a native port, not a Greek city.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Pech Maho",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "A native (Elisycian, Iberian-speaking) oppidum of c. 560-200 BC, destroyed c. 200 BC. It yielded a lead tablet with an Etruscan text and, on the other side, a Greek commercial text of c. 475-450 BC recording that a man bought a boat from the people of Emporion, before witnesses, several of them with Iberian names (Lejeune, Pouilloux and Solier 1988) (unchecked); Iberian lead texts were also found. This shows Greek merchants and contracts, not a Greek city: a native trading place.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Ensérune",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "A native oppidum between Béziers and Narbonne, 6th c. BC to 1st c. AD, with much Greek and Etruscan pottery and some Greek graffiti, but most of its inscriptions are in the Iberian script and language. A native town under Greek influence.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Naro (Montlaurès)",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "The native oppidum of Montlaurès, 4 km north of Narbonne, c. 550 BC to the mid-1st c. BC, probably the Naro of the Elisyces; Greek imports and Iberian inscriptions. A native town, not Greek.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Narbo Martius",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "A Latin-speaking Roman colony (118 BC; re-founded by Caesar with veterans of the Tenth Legion, 45 BC) and capital of Gallia Narbonensis, with one of the largest Latin inscription corpora in Gaul. A Greek-speaking minority is attested: Greek inscriptions of easterners in Roman times (unchecked), and the Council of Narbonne of 589 (canon 4) (unchecked) still lists 'Goths, Romans, Syrians, Greeks or Jews' among the townspeople, so Greek speakers lived there to the late 6th c. But Greek was never one of the two main languages (Latin, then Latin and Gothic): left out under the minority rule.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Ruscino",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "A native oppidum (Iberian graffiti; the Gauls gathered there against Hannibal in 218 BC, Livy 21.24) and later a small Roman town with a forum and Latin inscriptions. A Greek letter on lead, probably of the 4th c. BC, was found there (Rébé, de Hoz and de Hoz, Emerita 85, 2017): it shows Greek traders writing to or from the town, not a Greek community.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Illiberis / Helena",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "A native town (Livy 21.24); Mela (2.84) and Pliny (3.32) call it a mere village, the faint trace of a once great city. Renamed Helena after Constantine's mother; a Latin bishop's see from the 6th c. No Greek-speaking community is attested.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "La Monédière and Mont-Joui",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Native settlements on the lower Hérault near Agde, 6th-5th c. BC, with abundant Greek pottery and Greek-style building at La Monédière; they controlled the river trade before Agathe and were abandoned c. 475 (Mont-Joui) and c. 400 BC (La Monédière). Native villages, not cities.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Portus Veneris (Aphrodision Pyrenaion)",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "The harbour of the sanctuary of Pyrenean Aphrodite near Cape Béar (Strabo 4.1.3, 4.1.6): a sanctuary and anchorage, not a city.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Syracusan harbour",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Diodorus (5.13.3) praises an excellent Corsican harbour 'called Syracusan' and Ptolemy (3.2.5) has a Syracusan harbour on the east coast, usually placed at the gulf of Porto-Vecchio; the name probably recalls Syracusan naval raids on Corsica in the 5th-4th c. BC (Diod. 11.88.4-5). A harbour name, with no town attested.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Nikaia of Corsica",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Diodorus (5.13.4) names Nikaia as the second notable town of Corsica and says the Tyrrhenians (Etruscans) founded it when they ruled the sea; the Greek name is how a Greek source rendered it. An Etruscan foundation, not a Greek city. Pleiades lists the name under Mariana.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Mariana",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "A Roman colony founded by C. Marius (c. 100-93 BC; Pliny NH 3.80) and later a Latin bishop's see; no Greek-speaking community is attested. Corsica was held by the emperors in Constantinople from 534, but its known church and administration (the letters of Gregory the Great) are Latin.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Polygium and Naustalo",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Two places on the coast west of the Rhône named by Avienus (Ora maritima) among the towns and villages between the Pyrenees and the Rhône; both are unlocated (Pleiades 152524, 152521). The names have been read as Greek, but nothing shows that they were Greek towns or cities.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Lugdunum",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Evidence for Greek speakers: the Christian community of the 2nd c. was largely Greek-speaking and from Asia Minor (the bishop Pothinus; Attalus of Pergamum; Alexander, a Phrygian physician 'who had lived many years in Gaul'), and its letter on the martyrs of 177 was written in Greek to the churches of Asia and Phrygia (Eusebius HE 5.1-4); its bishop Irenaeus, from Smyrna, wrote in Greek and said he lived 'among the Celts' and spoke mostly 'a barbarous dialect' (Adv. haer. 1, preface 3); the Greek verse epitaph of Ioulianos Euteknios of Laodicea, a seafaring trader or rhetor, of the late 2nd or early 3rd c. (Pouilloux). Evidence for the majority: a Roman colony of 43 BC and the capital of the Three Gauls, with the largest Latin inscription corpus in Gaul; at the trial of 177 the deacon Sanctus answered 'in the Latin language' (Eus. HE 5.1.20); Irenaeus' 'barbarous dialect' is Gaulish or Latin. Greek was the language of an eastern minority and of the early church, never one of the two main languages of the city.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Vienna",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "The churches 'of Vienne and Lyon' sent the Greek letter on the martyrs of 177 (Eus. HE 5.1), and the deacon Sanctus came from Vienne; a few Greek epitaphs of easterners survive, e.g. that of Eutychia, freedwoman of Krates of Tralles (IG XIV 2489 = IGF 93, 2nd c. AD?). But Vienne was a Latin Roman colony (Colonia Iulia Augusta Florentia Vienna) of the Allobroges, with a large Latin epigraphy, and Sanctus himself answered his judges in Latin. Greek speakers were a small eastern minority.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Nemausus",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Nîmes was the chief town of the Volcae Arecomici; its people wrote Gaulish in Greek letters before Rome, e.g. the dedication to the 'Mothers of Nîmes' (ΜΑΤΡΕΒΟ ΝΑΜΑΥΣΙΚΑΒΟ ΒΡΑΤΟΥΔΕ, RIG I G-203), and its early coins read ΝΑΜΑΣΑΤ: this is Gaulish in the Greek alphabet, not Greek speech. The Augustan colony struck coins with the Egyptian crocodile (COL NEM), often taken to mark veterans from Egypt, but there is no proof that they were Greek-speakers. Its huge Latin epigraphy shows a Latin-speaking colony with Latin rights; Greek was at most the language of a minority of easterners.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Augustodunum",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "The Greek Christian acrostic epitaph of Pectorius (ΙΧΘΥΣ), found in 1839 at the cemetery of Saint-Pierre-l'Estrier, shows a Greek-writing Christian family (often dated to the 3rd c.; later dates have also been proposed); the orator Eumenius says his grandfather came from Athens to teach rhetoric at Autun (Panegyrici Latini 9(4).17) (unchecked). Autun was a Latin city of the Aedui with Latin schools (the Maenian schools); Greek speakers were individuals, not a main language.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Burdigala",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "Left out. Ausonius' poems on the professors of Bordeaux (4th c.) name several teachers of Greek grammar (Corinthius, Spercheus, Menestheus, Citarius) (unchecked); Paulinus of Pella (Eucharisticon) learned Greek from the household slaves before Latin (unchecked); Gregory of Tours mentions a Syrian merchant there (Histories 7.31). These are teachers, slaves and merchants in a Latin-speaking city: no Greek-speaking civic community.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Tolosa",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "A Gaulish town of the Volcae Tectosages, then a Roman colony with Latin rights and the Visigothic capital (418-507). No Greek-speaking community is attested.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Augustonemetum",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "The city of the Arverni; Greek was read by the educated (Sidonius Apollinaris) but no Greek-speaking community is attested.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Lutetia",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "A Latin-speaking city. Gregory of Tours (Histories 10.26) says that in 591 the Syrian merchant Eusebius bought the see of Paris and filled the bishop's household with Syrians; their language (Syriac or Greek) is not stated. No Greek-speaking community is attested.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Cenabum / Aurelianum",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "When King Guntram entered Orléans in 585 the crowds praised him 'in the language of the Syrians, of the Latins and of the Jews' (Gregory of Tours, Histories 8.1): Greek is not named. No Greek-speaking community is attested.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Indike (the Iberian town at Emporion)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "The town of the Iberian Indiketes beside Emporion's Greek town, divided from it by a wall (Livy 34.9; Strabo 3.4.8), striking bronzes with the Iberian legend untikesken. It was an Iberian-speaking town; its union with the Greeks is counted in Emporion's entry, which has a bilingual period. Its remains have not been located with certainty.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Akra Leuke / Lucentum",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "Diodorus (25.10.3) says Hamilcar Barca founded a very large city called Akra Leuke ('White Cape') c. 230 BC: a Carthaginian foundation, whose site at Alicante (the Tossal de Manises or the Benacantil hill) is disputed; the Greek name is simply the form Greek writers used. Strabo (3.4.6) says there were three small Massaliote towns between the Júcar and Cartagena but names only Hemeroskopeion; the old idea that Akra Leuke was one of the other two, a Massaliote colony older than Hamilcar's city, rests on the Greek name alone, and no Greek settlement or Greek-speaking community has been found there. The town later became Lucentum, a town of Latin right (Pliny NH 3.20; Mela 2.93). Left out.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Saguntum (Zakantha; Iberian Arse)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "The story that Zakynthians founded Saguntum (with Rutulians from Ardea: Livy 21.7.2; Strabo 3.4.6; Pliny NH 16.216) is a legend built on the likeness of the names. The town was the Iberian Arse, with Iberian coin legends, Rome's ally besieged by Hannibal in 219 BC and later a Latin municipium. Greek traders came (the Greek lead letter of the later 6th c. BC from Emporion, published by Sanmartí and Santiago, is read as naming trade at 'Saiganthe' (unchecked)), but no Greek civic community is attested.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Huelva (Onoba)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "The harbour town of Tartessos where thousands of Greek sherds of c. 630-540 BC and some Greek graffiti have been found, from the trade of Samians and Phocaeans with Tartessos (Hdt. 1.163; 4.152). It was a Tartessian town with Phoenician traders and a busy port; no Greek civic community, institutions or settlement is attested. A trading place, not a Greek city.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Tartessos",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "The native kingdom of the lower Guadalquivir whose king Arganthonios welcomed the Phocaeans (Hdt. 1.163) and where Kolaios of Samos traded (Hdt. 4.152). It was not a Greek city and its town has never been located.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "La Picola (Santa Pola)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "Not a separate entry: this short-lived walled trading post (c. 430-330 BC), with a Greek-style ditch, outer wall and grid plan but native masonry, is treated under Alonis, with which the Barrington Atlas identifies Santa Pola. On its own it would be rejected as a trading post without attested civic status.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Ullastret (Puig de Sant Andreu)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "The chief town of the Iberian Indiketes, 6th to early 2nd c. BC, 15 km from Emporion, with heavy Greek imports, Greek-influenced walls and some Greek graffiti, but Iberian inscriptions. An Iberian town under Greek influence, not a Greek-speaking city.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Kypsela",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "Known only from Avienus (Ora maritima, c. 527), who says that it was 'now only hearsay' that the city of Cypsela had stood on the coast south of Emporion. The name looks Greek, but no site, coins or Greek community are known.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Kallipolis",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "Known only from Avienus (Ora maritima, c. 514-519), an 'ancient Callipolis' with high walls, already gone, on the coast near Tarraco or Barcino. The name looks Greek, but it is unlocated and nothing shows a Greek city.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Lebedontia",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "Known only from Avienus (Ora maritima, c. 509) as a city that once stood near a mountain on the Catalan coast. Unlocated; no sign that it was Greek.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Pyrene",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "Herodotus (2.33) names 'the city of Pyrene' in the land of the Celts, near the source of the Danube; Avienus (Ora maritima 559-565) places a rich city of Pyrene on the coast near the Pyrenees. It is unlocated (the Pyrenean coast near Port-Vendres or Roses; Pleiades links Herodotus' Pyrene to the Heuneburg hillfort in Germany), and no source calls it Greek.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "La Serreta (Alcoy)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "An Iberian oppidum of Contestania with lead tablets written in the Greco-Iberian script, that is, Iberian written in Greek letters (5th-4th c. BC). Evidence of Greek-taught literacy, not of Greek speech.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "El Cigarralejo (Mula)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "An Iberian town and sanctuary of the Murcia region with Greco-Iberian (Iberian in Greek letters) inscriptions and Greek imports. Iberian-speaking.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Coimbra del Barranco Ancho (Jumilla)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "An Iberian oppidum with Greco-Iberian inscriptions (Iberian in Greek letters). Iberian-speaking; not a Greek city.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Gades (Gadir)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "A Phoenician (Tyrian) city, Punic and then a Latin municipium from 49 BC. Greek scholars visited it (Pytheas, Polybius, Artemidorus, Posidonius), but no Greek-speaking community is attested.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Balearic Islands (Gymnesiai)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "The Greek name Gymnesiai belongs to the geographers. The towns were Talaiotic, Punic (Mago, Iamo on Menorca) and, after Q. Caecilius Metellus' conquest in 123 BC, Roman (Palma and Pollentia, settled with Romans from Spain: Strabo 3.5.1). No Greek city before 476; the islands' period under Constantinople (from 534) is treated separately.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Abdera (Adra)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "A Phoenician foundation (Strabo 3.4.3) with a Greek-looking name and later Latin coinage; no Greek community.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Odysseia",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "A 'city Odysseia' with a temple of Athena in the mountains above Abdera, reported by Asclepiades of Myrlea (in Strabo 3.4.3; also 3.2.13). A legend of Odysseus' wanderings; unlocated, no evidence of a Greek town.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Olisipo (Lisbon)",
   "country": "Portugal",
   "reason": "The tale that Ulysses founded Lisbon (Solinus 23.6; later Ulyssipo) is a legend on the likeness of the names. The town was native, with Phoenician contact, and later the Latin municipium Felicitas Iulia Olisipo. No Greek community.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Hellenes and Amphilochoi (Gallaecia)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "Strabo 3.4.3 reports that companions of Teucer and Amphilochus settled among the Callaici, and names places called Hellenes and Amphilochoi (also Justin 44.3; Silius 3.368). A legend; no Greek town is known in Galicia.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Salacia (Alcácer do Sal)",
   "country": "Portugal",
   "reason": "A native Iron Age town with Greek (Attic) pottery of the 5th-4th c. BC in its graves, later the Latin municipium Salacia Imperatoria. Trade goods only.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Baesuris (Castro Marim)",
   "country": "Portugal",
   "reason": "A native Iron Age town at the mouth of the Guadiana with Greek imports among Phoenician-influenced material. Trade goods only.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Calpe / Gorham's Cave (Gibraltar)",
   "country": "Gibraltar",
   "reason": "Gorham's Cave was a Phoenician and Punic sea-shrine where offerings, including some Greek pottery, were left by sailors. Not a city; no Greek community.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Italica (Santiponce)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "Settled by P. Scipio with his wounded soldiers in 206 BC (Appian, Iberica 38); a Latin town, later a colony under Hadrian. Greek appears only in a few inscriptions of individuals; no Greek community.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Carteia (San Roque)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "A Phoenician and Punic town on the Bay of Gibraltar and in 171 BC the first Latin colony outside Italy (Livy 43.3). Timosthenes (in Strabo 3.1.7) says it was once called Heracleia, and some identified it with Tartessos: learned legends, not a Greek town.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Emerita Augusta (Mérida)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "Mérida, the Visigothic metropolis of Lusitania, had the best-attested Greek-speaking community of 6th-century Spain, but it was a minority in a Latin-speaking city. Evidence: the Lives of the Fathers of Mérida (Vitas Sanctorum Patrum Emeretensium 4, written 633-660) tell of Paul, a Greek physician from the East who became bishop of Mérida (fl. 540s-550s), and of his nephew Fidel, who came to the city as a boy with Greek merchants arriving by ship from the East ('negotiatores Graecos ... de Orientibus' (unchecked: the wording)) and succeeded him as bishop (c. 550s/560-571) (unchecked: the dates); 19 Greek inscriptions, mostly 6th-century epitaphs (Ramírez Sádaba and Mateos Cruz, Catálogo de las inscripciones cristianas de Mérida, 2000, nos. 178-196), among them Saturna (dated 539) and the deacon Sambatius 'Libisindeus', probably from Asia Minor (Fernandes and Valério, Pyrenae 44.2, 2013). Against this stand the other 183 inscriptions of the same catalogue of 202 Christian inscriptions (4th-8th centuries), which are Latin (review in Fortunatae), as well as Latin councils and Latin hagiography; the Greek formulas themselves are calques of Latin ones, and after Fidel the see passed to the Goth Masona (from 571). Greek was the language of an immigrant eastern group of clergy and traders, not one of the city's two main languages. The Greek community is last attested in the 6th century; the Arabs under Musa ibn Nusayr took the city in 713.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Myrtilis (Mértola)",
   "country": "Portugal",
   "reason": "Mértola, a river port on the Guadiana, has an unusually large group of Greek Christian epitaphs for so small a town: at least a dozen pieces (numbered up to M 13 by Fernandes and Valério 2013), mostly 6th century. They include the reader (anagnostes) Eutyches son of Zosimos, 'Libisindeus', probably from Asia Minor, died 544, and on the same stone the presbyter Patricius son of Gerasimos, called 'Myrtilensis'; a second Eutyches, a maker of stamineae (linen garments); and Zosimos son of Polynikos. So a resident, rooted community of eastern Greek speakers, partly clergy, lived here; several people buried in the Rossio do Carmo basilica came from the Near East, and the mosaics of the baptismal complex (first half of the 6th century) may be the work of eastern craftsmen (V. Lopes, Revista de História da Arte 6, 2008). But the town's Christian epitaphs run in Latin from 470 to 706 (Faustianus 470, Andreas 'princeps cantorum' 525, Silbanus 662), the Greek formulas are calques of Latin ones and borrow Latin words, and nothing shows Greek as one of the town's two main languages. The Greek group is attested only in the 6th century (unchecked: exact end unknown); the Arab conquest of the area came c. 712-715 (unchecked). Sources: Fernandes and Valério, 'Comunidades helenógrafas en la Lusitania visigoda (s. vi)', Pyrenae 44.2 (2013) 69-108; de Santiago Fernández, Documenta & Instrumenta 3 (2005); Pleiades 256234.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Plasenzuela (Cáceres)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "Rural site, not a city. It has one Greek Christian epitaph, of Maximiana, dated 575 (ICERV 419), evidence of an eastern family in the Lusitanian countryside near Mérida, not of a Greek-speaking town (Fernandes and Valério, Pyrenae 44.2, 2013).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Carthago Spartaria (Carthago Nova, Cartagena)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "Cartagena was the chief city of the eastern empire's province of Spania from the 550s to the 620s, but the evidence shows a Latin-speaking city with a small group of Greek speakers. The city's showpiece inscription of imperial rule is in Latin: the gate inscription of the patrician Comenciolus, 'magister militum Spaniae', sent by the emperor Maurice 'against the barbarian enemies', dated 589/590 (CIL II 3420). M. Vallejo Girvés (Veleia 29, 2012) stresses that the official inscription is the only one of imperial rule in the peninsula, that it was written in Latin because that was the language of the population ('the western Mediterranean populations controlled from Constantinople were Latin'), and that Greek speakers came to the West in numbers only after the Arab conquests of the East. Its bishop Licinianus (c. 580s-600) wrote in Latin (letters to Gregory the Great and to Vincent of Ibiza) and died at Constantinople (unchecked). Only two Greek funerary inscriptions survive, plus one lost text (Thomas son of Stephanos); they are short, poorly cut and full of Latin habits (for instance 'meta eirenes' rendering 'cum pace'), and A. Lillo (Antigüedad y Cristianismo 2, 1985) concludes that Greek speakers were certainly present but had little weight and that Greek never approached the status of Latin. Leander and Isidore of Seville were born to a family of the province of Carthaginensis that left before or during the imperial occupation; they were Latin speakers and are no evidence of Greek at Cartagena. The city was taken and destroyed by the Visigoths (Sisebut or Suinthila, c. 615-625): Isidore, Etymologies 15.1.67 says it was 'overthrown by the Goths and reduced to desolation' (unchecked). Pleiades 265849.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Malaca (Málaga)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "Málaga was held by the eastern empire from the 550s to c. 615. No Greek-speaking community of that time is attested. Its bishops wrote and were judged in Latin: Severus of Málaga wrote against Vincent of Zaragoza (Isidore, De viris illustribus) (unchecked), and Bishop Ianuarius, deposed by Comenciolus, appealed to Rome, where Gregory the Great sent the defensor John to judge the case in 603 (Gregory, Registrum 13.47-50) (unchecked). The one Greek inscription of Málaga, the dedication of a college of Syrian merchants (IG XIV 2540), belongs to the late Republic or early Empire, centuries earlier. King Sisebut recovered the area c. 615, and Bishop Theodulf of Málaga sat at the Second Council of Seville in 619 (unchecked).",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Baria (Villaricos)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "Possibly within the imperial province of Spania in the later 6th century, but no Greek inscription, Greek clergy or Greek-speaking residents are attested; the evidence is limited to imported eastern and African goods. Not a Greek or bilingual city. Pleiades 265820.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Basti (Baza)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "On the border of the imperial province: Leovigild ravaged 'Bastetania' and the territory of Málaga in 570 and defeated the imperial soldiers there (John of Biclar, Chronicle) (unchecked). Basti was a Visigothic see. No Greek-speaking community is attested. Pleiades 265823.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Asido (Medina-Sidonia)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "An imperial stronghold until 571, when Leovigild took 'the very strong city of Asidona' by night through the treachery of one Framidaneus and killed the soldiers (John of Biclar, Chronicle) (unchecked). The Greek speakers there were the imperial garrison; no resident Greek-speaking community is attested, and the town's later inscriptions (the basilica dedications of Bishop Pimenius, 630s) are Latin (unchecked). Pleiades 255994.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Sagontia (Gigonza?)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "A town of the imperial frontier in Baetica where King Witteric's army fought the imperial soldiers (Isidore, History of the Goths 58) (unchecked); usually placed at Gigonza near Paterna de Rivera (Cádiz), but the location is uncertain. Known only as a military objective; no Greek-speaking residents are attested.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Mentesa Bastia (La Guardia de Jaén)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "Sometimes counted among the towns of the imperial province, on weak grounds; it was a Visigothic see. No Greek-speaking community is attested. Pleiades 265970.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Corduba (Córdoba)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "Córdoba rebelled against King Agila in 550 and held out against the Goths until Leovigild took it by night in 572 (John of Biclar) (unchecked); whether it was ever under imperial control is disputed. No Greek-speaking community of the 6th-7th centuries is attested; the city's church and inscriptions are Latin. Pleiades 256128.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Ilici (Elche)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "Probably inside the imperial province in the later 6th century and a Visigothic see in the 7th; it was one of the seven towns of Theodemir's treaty with the Arabs (713). Greek mosaic inscriptions of a building usually taken as a synagogue, dated between the 3rd and 5th centuries, show a Greek-using Jewish congregation of the late Roman period (Jewish Virtual Library: Elche), but no Greek-speaking civic community is attested after 476, and the Jews were a minority in a Latin town. Pleiades 265922.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Hispalis (Seville)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "No resident Greek-speaking community is attested. The Second Council of Seville (619), under Isidore, dealt with a Syrian bishop of the 'Acephali' (anti-Chalcedonians) named Gregory, whom it brought to the Catholic faith; L. MacCoull (GRBS 39, 1998) suggests he may have served Syriac-speaking traders, which is conjecture, and Syriac is not Greek. Leander and Isidore were Latin writers. Earlier, a citizen of Tarsus, Aurelius Heliodorus, had lived in Hispalis before dying at Tarragona (RIT 958, late 4th century or later). A Latin city with eastern residents and visitors, but no attested Greek-speaking community. The Arabs took it in 712 (unchecked). Pleiades 256210.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Tarraco (Tarragona)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "Left out as a minority-only city. The Christian necropolis of Tarragona has more than a hundred late antique epitaphs, almost all Latin. Greek appears only in a handful: two Latin epitaphs opening with the Greek greeting 'chaire' (RIT 952, 959); the epitaph of Aurelius Heliodorus, a citizen of Tarsus who had lived in Hispalis (RIT 958, late 4th century or later); and a Jewish epitaph with six Latin and eleven Greek lines naming a 'Rab Latues, archisynagogos' from Cyzicus (RIT 1075; SEG 53.1154), dated from the 3rd to the 5th-6th century by different scholars. These show eastern immigrants and a Jewish congregation, not Greek as a main language of the city (Enciclopèdia Catalana, 'Epigrafia funerària de l'antiguitat tardana'; Fernandes and Valério 2013). The Arabs took the city c. 714-717 (unchecked). Pleiades 246349.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Dertosa (Tortosa)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "A Latin-speaking town with a Jewish community. Its trilingual Jewish epitaph of the girl Meliosa, daughter of Judas and Maria, in Hebrew, Latin and Greek (eight Greek lines), is dated by most scholars to the 6th century (proposals range from the 3rd-4th to the 10th). It shows a Greek-using Jewish family, not a Greek-speaking town (Enciclopèdia Catalana, 'Epigrafia funerària de l'antiguitat tardana'). Pleiades 246369.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Bracara Augusta (Braga)",
   "country": "Portugal",
   "reason": "Capital of the Suevic kingdom. Its archbishop Martin of Braga (c. 550-579), a Pannonian who had lived in the East, knew Greek, and his disciple Paschasius of Dumio translated sayings of the Egyptian desert fathers from Greek into Latin (unchecked). This is learned Greek of a few churchmen, not a Greek-speaking community; the church and kingdom used Latin. Pleiades 236377.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Toletum (Toledo)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "The Visigothic royal capital. No Greek-speaking community is attested: the councils, laws and writers of Toledo used Latin. John of Biclar, who studied for years in Constantinople, was a Goth from Scallabis who wrote in Latin (unchecked). Pleiades 266066.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Septem (Ceuta)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "An imperial fort and naval base from 534 to the end of the 7th century: Justinian ordered the dux of Mauretania to keep a tribune, soldiers and fast ships (dromones) at Septem (Codex Justinianus 1.27.2) and fortified it, with a church of the Mother of God (Procopius, Buildings 6.7.14-16) (unchecked). Excavations at the Baluarte de la Bandera found a follis of Phocas (602-610) with African and eastern pottery in a deposit dated to the late 7th century (Moreno Pulido et al., Hécate 8, 2021). This is evidence of a garrison, officials and trade, not of a resident Greek-speaking community; no Greek inscription of residents is known. Its last Christian lord, Count Julian (Yulyan in the Arabic sources), who helped the Arab crossing of 711, is described as a vassal of the Visigothic king Roderic; whether he was an imperial or a Visigothic officer is disputed (Gozalbes Busto). Pleiades 275703.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Mesopotamenoi (Algeciras?)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "A city 'on the side of Spain' listed with Septon (Ceuta) in the Greek lists of the empire's western provinces (George of Cyprus, c. 600-630; the western Notitiae episcopatuum, c. 660). J. Soto Chica and A. M. Berenjeno (2015) identify it, as a hypothesis, with Algeciras (Iulia Traducta), the empire's last foothold on the Spanish side of the Strait. Even if the identification holds, it is known only as an imperial possession and bishop's see in Greek administrative lists; no Greek-speaking residents are attested. Coordinates are those of Iulia Traducta (Pleiades 256235).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Rusaddir (Melilla)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "A Punic and Roman town (oppidum in Pliny, NH 5.18) (unchecked); its late antique history is almost unknown, and no imperial garrison, Greek inscription or Greek-speaking residents are attested between 476 and the Arab conquest. Pleiades 285512.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Palma (Majorca)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "For the Balearics as a whole. Belisarius sent Apollinarius to take the Balearics from the Vandals in 534 (Procopius, Vandal War 2.5.8) (unchecked), and the islands stayed under Constantinople, with growing autonomy, until the conquest by 'Isam al-Khawlani in 902/903. The evidence is of imperial administration, garrisons and trade: lead seals with Greek legends of imperial officials, reportedly including archontes of Majorca (8th-9th centuries) (unchecked), eastern coins and pottery (Zavagno, Al-Masaq 31, 2019); rural churches such as Son Peretó, whose mosaics follow eastern models. In 798/799 the islanders turned to Charlemagne for help against raiders (Royal Frankish Annals) (unchecked), and in 897 a papal bull put the islands under the see of Girona. No Greek inscription of residents, Greek clergy or Greek-speaking population is attested; the island church was Latin (its bishops attended Latin councils and corresponded with Rome and with Latin bishops). The Christians who resisted 'Isam al-Khawlani's conquest of 902/903 are called Rum in the Arabic sources, which may mean the empire's subjects or simply Christians. Pleiades 265998.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Pollentia (Alcúdia, Majorca)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "The Roman town shrank in late antiquity, and the imperial army turned its old Capitolium on the highest point into a fort (Current World Archaeology, 'Mallorca on the edge of empire'). A garrison is not a Greek-speaking community, and no Greek-speaking residents are attested under Constantinople (534 to 902/903); see Palma for the Balearics as a whole. Pleiades 266004.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Mago (Mahón, Minorca)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "Under Constantinople from 534 to 902/903. The island's late antique Christian evidence (the letter of Bishop Severus of Minorca on the Jews of Mago, 418; the basilicas of Illa del Rei and Es Fornàs de Torelló) is Latin or earlier than 476 (unchecked). No Greek-speaking residents are attested. Pleiades 265960.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Iamo (Ciutadella, Minorca)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "The see of Severus of Minorca (418) (unchecked); under Constantinople from 534 to 902/903. No Greek-speaking residents are attested. Pleiades 265916.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Ebusus (Ibiza)",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "Under Constantinople from 534 to 902/903. Its bishop Vincent received a Latin letter from Licinianus of Cartagena (c. 590s) (unchecked). No Greek-speaking residents are attested in this period. Pleiades 265883.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Chersonesos (Malta)",
   "country": "Malta",
   "reason": "Ptolemy (4.3.13) names a second town on Melite, Chersonesos, beside two temples; its place is unknown (the peninsulas of the Grand Harbour and Delimara have been suggested) and nothing else is known of it: no civic institutions, coins or inscriptions, and no evidence of Greek speakers. Lost and unattested beyond the name.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Tas-Silġ (temple of Hera/Juno-Astarte)",
   "country": "Malta",
   "reason": "A sanctuary, not a town: the temple of Astarte, the Hera of Ptolemy (4.3.13) and the Juno whose treasures Verres plundered (Cicero, Verr. 2.4.103-104), with Punic and Latin dedications; later a church with a baptistery used into the 8th-9th c. Its worshippers were the people of Melite.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Temple of Herakles-Melqart (Malta)",
   "country": "Malta",
   "reason": "A sanctuary named by Ptolemy (4.3.13), perhaps at Ras ir-Raħeb (uncertain). The two Punic-Greek cippi of Melqart (CIS I 122 = IG XIV 600, 2nd c. BC), dedicated by the brothers Abdosir and Osirshamar, in Greek Dionysios and Sarapion, sons of Sarapion, 'Tyrians', are of unknown findspot. A sanctuary, not a town; the cippi are counted as evidence for Melite.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Marsa and the Grand Harbour",
   "country": "Malta",
   "reason": "The harbour of Melite, with Roman warehouses (the Kordin/Marsa stores held some 260 late Roman amphorae), abandoned in the late 8th or early 9th c. A port district in Melite's territory, not a separate city.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "San Pawl Milqi",
   "country": "Malta",
   "reason": "A Roman villa and olive-oil estate, traditionally the house of Publius, 'protos of the island' (Acts 28:7). A villa, not a town.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Ras il-Wardija (Gozo)",
   "country": "Malta",
   "reason": "A Punic-Roman rock-cut sanctuary on Gozo's west coast. A sanctuary, not a town; Gaulos is the only town of the island.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Trier (Augusta Treverorum)",
   "country": "Germany",
   "reason": "Left out as a Latin city with a Greek-speaking minority. Greek speakers are real: Trier was an imperial residence (293-395) whose court used Greek at times (Athanasius was exiled here in 335-337), and Syrians and other easterners left Greek epitaphs in the Christian cemeteries, among them that of Azizos (Siede and Schwinden, Inscriptiones Graecae Treverenses, 2012: ten early Christian Greek inscriptions, whole or fragmentary; the editors note that only Lyon has a comparable group in the region). But more than 1,300 Christian epitaphs of the 4th to early 8th c. are known from Trier, nearly all Latin (University of Trier; Gauthier, RICG I, 1975), and the town spoke Latin, with Treveran Gaulish earlier and Frankish later.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Cologne (Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium)",
   "country": "Germany",
   "reason": "Left out as a Latin colonia (AD 50) with at most a small Greek-speaking element: a few Greek texts of easterners (doctors, soldiers, traders) among thousands of Latin inscriptions (unchecked); Greek drinking mottoes on the town's glass (e.g. ΠΙΕ ΖΗΣΑΙΣ ΚΑΛΩΣ ΑΕΙ, 'drink, may you live well always', on the 4th-c. cage cup from Köln-Braunsfeld) are formulae, not speech; the Jewish community attested by Constantine's law of 321 (Cod. Theod. 16.8.3) is of unknown language. Latin, then Frankish speech; Latin bishops.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Mainz (Mogontiacum)",
   "country": "Germany",
   "reason": "Left out: a legionary base and capital of Germania Superior, Latin-speaking. Easterners who served here wrote Latin, e.g. the Latin tombstone of the Sidonian archer Tiberius Iulius Abdes Pantera (CIL XIII 7514, from nearby Bingerbrück, 1st c. AD); Greek texts are isolated (unchecked). No Greek-speaking civic community.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Bonn (Bonna)",
   "country": "Germany",
   "reason": "A legionary fortress with its canabae and vicus, not a self-governing city; its inscriptions are Latin, and no Greek-speaking community is attested beyond individual soldiers (unchecked).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Augsburg (Augusta Vindelicum)",
   "country": "Germany",
   "reason": "Capital of Raetia and a municipium under Hadrian; its inscriptions are Latin, and Greek-named slaves, freedmen and traders do not make a Greek-speaking community (unchecked). The cult of the martyr Afra is Latin. Left out.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Regensburg (Castra Regina)",
   "country": "Germany",
   "reason": "A legionary fortress (179) with a civil settlement, not a self-governing city; its texts are Latin, including the early Christian epitaph of Sarmannina (unchecked). No Greek community.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Carnuntum",
   "country": "Austria",
   "reason": "Left out as a Latin city. Capital of Pannonia Superior, legionary base, municipium under Hadrian and colonia under Septimius Severus. Its best-known Greek is imperial: a heading in Marcus Aurelius' Greek Meditations, between books 2 and 3, reads 'at Carnuntum' (written c. 171-173), a court on campaign, not a town community; eastern soldiers and cults (Jupiter Dolichenus, Mithras) brought easterners, but the town's thousands of inscriptions are Latin, and only a handful are Greek (unchecked).",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Vienna (Vindobona)",
   "country": "Austria",
   "reason": "A legionary fortress with a civil town (municipium in the 3rd c. (unchecked)); Marcus Aurelius died here or at Sirmium in 180 (Aurelius Victor, Caes. 16.14), a court, not a community. Latin inscriptions; no Greek-speaking community.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Virunum",
   "country": "Austria",
   "reason": "Capital of Noricum and a Claudian municipium; Latin epigraphy over a Norican Celtic base; no Greek-speaking community attested beyond individuals (unchecked).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Salzburg (Iuvavum)",
   "country": "Austria",
   "reason": "A Claudian municipium of Noricum; Latin, over a Celtic base. Eugippius' Life of Severinus (511) shows the Latin-speaking towns of the Danube in the 5th c. No Greek community.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Enns (Lauriacum)",
   "country": "Austria",
   "reason": "A legionary fortress and civil town on the Danube; Latin, as in Eugippius' Life of Severinus; no Greek-speaking community.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Aguntum",
   "country": "Austria",
   "reason": "A Claudian municipium in East Tyrol; Latin inscriptions over a Celtic base; no Greek-speaking community.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Augst (Augusta Raurica)",
   "country": "Switzerland",
   "reason": "Left out: a Latin colonia (founded by L. Munatius Plancus c. 44 BC, refounded under Augustus) over the Celtic Rauraci; the Greek form of its name is Ptolemy's. Its inscriptions are Latin, and isolated Greek graffiti or amulets (unchecked) do not show a Greek-speaking community.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Avenches (Aventicum)",
   "country": "Switzerland",
   "reason": "Capital of the Helvetii and a Latin colonia under Vespasian. A Latin dedication honours the town's doctors and teachers ('medicis et professoribus', CIL XIII 5079 (unchecked)), some of whom were probably Greek, but the community spoke Latin and Gaulish. No Greek-speaking community.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Windisch (Vindonissa)",
   "country": "Switzerland",
   "reason": "A legionary fortress with its vicus, not a city; Latin.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Geneva (Genava)",
   "country": "Switzerland",
   "reason": "A vicus of the Allobroges in the territory of Vienne, later a bishop's see (5th c.) and a Burgundian royal seat; Latin, then Burgundian; no Greek-speaking community attested.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Tongeren (Atuatuca Tungrorum)",
   "country": "Belgium",
   "reason": "A civitas capital with Latin epigraphy. Its 4th-c. bishop Servatius (Aravatius, at the councils of Serdica 343 and Rimini 359) is called an Armenian only in later legend. No Greek-speaking community.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Nijmegen (Ulpia Noviomagus)",
   "country": "Netherlands",
   "reason": "A municipium under Trajan beside a legionary fortress; Latin and Batavian (Germanic) speech; no Greek-speaking community.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "London (Londinium)",
   "country": "United Kingdom",
   "reason": "Left out as a Latin city. The capital of Britannia drew easterners, but they wrote Latin: the epitaph of Aulus Alfidius Olussa, 'natus Athenis', is in Latin (RIB 9). Greek appears only on scattered amulets and graffiti (unchecked). Latin and British Celtic speech; no Greek-speaking community.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "York (Eboracum)",
   "country": "United Kingdom",
   "reason": "Left out as a Latin city. Legionary fortress, colonia, provincial capital and imperial residence (Septimius Severus died here in 211, Constantius I in 306). Its Greek is official: two bronze plaques dedicated by Demetrius, 'to Ocean and Tethys' and 'to the gods of the governor's praetorium' (RIB 662-663), probably the grammarian Demetrius of Tarsus whom Plutarch met on his way back from Britain (De def. or. 2, 410a). Otherwise Latin; no Greek-speaking community.",
   "close_call": true
  },
  {
   "name": "Chester (Deva)",
   "country": "United Kingdom",
   "reason": "A legionary fortress, not a city. Its Greek altar, set up by the doctor Hermogenes to 'the mighty saviour gods' (RIB 461), is one army doctor's; the rest is Latin.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Corbridge (Coria)",
   "country": "United Kingdom",
   "reason": "A garrison town behind Hadrian's Wall, not a self-governing city. Two Greek altars, to Astarte by Pulcher (RIB 1124) and to Tyrian Herakles by the priestess Diodora (RIB 1129), come from easterners in the army's world; the rest is Latin.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Bath (Aquae Sulis)",
   "country": "United Kingdom",
   "reason": "A sanctuary and spa town, not a self-governing city; its curse tablets are Latin (one or two perhaps British Celtic). No Greek community (unchecked).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Colchester (Camulodunum)",
   "country": "United Kingdom",
   "reason": "The first Roman colonia in Britain (49), of Latin-speaking veterans; easterners and Thracians appear in Latin (the cavalryman Longinus Sdapeze, RIB 201). No Greek-speaking community.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "South Shields (Arbeia)",
   "country": "United Kingdom",
   "reason": "A fort. The tombstone of Regina, a Catuvellaunian freedwoman, set up by her husband Barates of Palmyra, is in Latin with a line in Palmyrene Aramaic (RIB 1065), not Greek; Barates' own tombstone is at Corbridge (RIB 1171).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Longostaletes",
   "country": "France",
   "reason": "A people of the Béziers-Narbonne area whose bronze coins of the 2nd-1st c. BC carry the Greek genitive ΛΟΓΓΟΣΤΑΛΗΤΩΝ, and whose related issues name native rulers with the Greek title ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ (unchecked). A people, not a located town, and a Greek coin legend on a native coinage following Massaliote and western Greek models; no Greek-speaking community of their own is attested (Pleiades 148118).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "The two unnamed Massaliote small towns of Strabo 3.4.6",
   "country": "Spain",
   "reason": "Strabo (3.4.6) says there were three small towns (polichnia) of the Massaliotes between the river Sucro (Júcar) and Carthago Nova, not far from the river, and names only the best known, Hemeroskopeion. The other two are unnamed and unlocated; their identification with Alonis (Santa Pola) and Akra Leuke (Alicante) is a modern conjecture. They cannot be mapped; Hemeroskopeion and Alonis are entered on their own evidence.",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Asciburgium",
   "country": "Germany",
   "reason": "Tacitus (Germania 3.2-3) reports that 'some think' Ulysses reached Germany and founded and named Asciburgium, a place on the bank of the Rhine still inhabited in his day; that an altar consecrated to Ulysses, with the name of his father Laertes added, had once been found there; and that monuments and tombs inscribed in Greek letters still stood on the border of Germany and Raetia. He himself declines to confirm or refute it. A legend; the place was a Roman auxiliary fort on the Lower Rhine, with Latin inscriptions and no Greek community (Pleiades 108761).",
   "close_call": false
  },
  {
   "name": "Ictis (the tin island of the Britons)",
   "country": "United Kingdom",
   "reason": "Diodorus (5.22), probably from Pytheas of Massalia through Timaeus (unchecked), describes a tidal island called Ictis to which the Britons of the Belerion headland (Land's End) carried tin for traders. A native trading place, unlocated (St Michael's Mount and Mount Batten have been proposed); Pytheas' voyage of c. 320 BC is the only Greek visit on record, and no Greek settlement is known in Britain.",
   "close_call": false
  }
 ],
 "seats": [
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Ain",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Bourg-en-Bresse",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Aisne",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Laon",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Allier",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Moulins",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Alpes-de-Haute-Provence",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Digne-les-Bains",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Hautes-Alpes",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Gap",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Alpes-Maritimes",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Nice",
   "city_on_site": "Nikaia",
   "km": 1.5
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Ardèche",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Privas",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Ardennes",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Charleville-Mézières",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Ariège",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Foix",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Aube",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Troyes",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Aude",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Carcassonne",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Aveyron",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Rodez",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Bouches-du-Rhône",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Marseille",
   "city_on_site": "Massalia",
   "km": 0.3
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Calvados",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Caen",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Cantal",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Aurillac",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Charente",
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   "seat": "Angoulême",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
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   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "La Rochelle",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Cher",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Bourges",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Corrèze",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Tulle",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Corse-du-Sud",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Ajaccio",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Haute-Corse",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Bastia",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Côte-d'Or",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Dijon",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Côtes-d'Armor",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Saint-Brieuc",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Creuse",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Guéret",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Dordogne",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Périgueux",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Doubs",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Besançon",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Drôme",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Valence",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Eure",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Évreux",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Eure-et-Loir",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Chartres",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Finistère",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Quimper",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Gard",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Nîmes",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Haute-Garonne",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Toulouse",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Gers",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Auch",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Gironde",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Bordeaux",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Hérault",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Montpellier",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Ille-et-Vilaine",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Rennes",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Indre",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Châteauroux",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Indre-et-Loire",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Tours",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Isère",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Grenoble",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Jura",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Lons-le-Saunier",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Landes",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Mont-de-Marsan",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Loir-et-Cher",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Blois",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
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   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Saint-Étienne",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Haute-Loire",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Le Puy-en-Velay",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Loire-Atlantique",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Nantes",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Loiret",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Orléans",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
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   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Lot",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Cahors",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Lot-et-Garonne",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Agen",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
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   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Mende",
   "city_on_site": "",
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  },
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   "country": "France",
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   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Angers",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
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   "country": "France",
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   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Saint-Lô",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Marne",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Châlons-en-Champagne",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Haute-Marne",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Chaumont",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Mayenne",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Laval",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
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   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Nancy",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Meuse",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Bar-le-Duc",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Morbihan",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Vannes",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Moselle",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Metz",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Nièvre",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Nevers",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Nord",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Lille",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Oise",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Beauvais",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Orne",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Alençon",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Pas-de-Calais",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Arras",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Puy-de-Dôme",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Clermont-Ferrand",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
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   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Pau",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Hautes-Pyrénées",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Tarbes",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Pyrénées-Orientales",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Perpignan",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Bas-Rhin",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Strasbourg",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Haut-Rhin",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Colmar",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Rhône",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Lyon",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Haute-Saône",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Vesoul",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Saône-et-Loire",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Mâcon",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Sarthe",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Le Mans",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Savoie",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Chambéry",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Haute-Savoie",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Annecy",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Paris",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Paris",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Seine-Maritime",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Rouen",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Seine-et-Marne",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Melun",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Yvelines",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Versailles",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Deux-Sèvres",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Niort",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Somme",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Amiens",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Tarn",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Albi",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Tarn-et-Garonne",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Montauban",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Var",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Toulon",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Vaucluse",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Avignon",
   "city_on_site": "Avenio",
   "km": 0.2
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Vendée",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "La Roche-sur-Yon",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Vienne",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Poitiers",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Haute-Vienne",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Limoges",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Vosges",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Épinal",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
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   "unit": "Yonne",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Auxerre",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Territoire de Belfort",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Belfort",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Essonne",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Évry-Courcouronnes",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Hauts-de-Seine",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Nanterre",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Seine-Saint-Denis",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Bobigny",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Val-de-Marne",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Créteil",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "France",
   "unit": "Val-d'Oise",
   "level": "prefecture",
   "seat": "Cergy",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Álava/Araba",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Vitoria-Gasteiz",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Albacete",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Albacete",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Alicante/Alacant",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Alicante/Alacant",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Almería",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Almería",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Asturias",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Oviedo",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Ávila",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Ávila",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Badajoz",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Badajoz",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Illes Balears",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Palma",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Barcelona",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Barcelona",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Burgos",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Burgos",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Cáceres",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Cáceres",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Cádiz",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Cádiz",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Cantabria",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Santander",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Castellón/Castelló",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Castellón de la Plana/Castelló de la Plana",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Ciudad Real",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Ciudad Real",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Córdoba",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Córdoba",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "A Coruña",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "A Coruña",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Cuenca",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Cuenca",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Girona",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Girona",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Granada",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Granada",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Guadalajara",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Guadalajara",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Gipuzkoa",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Donostia/San Sebastián",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Huelva",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Huelva",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Huesca",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Huesca",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Jaén",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Jaén",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "León",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "León",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Lleida",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Lleida",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "La Rioja",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Logroño",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Lugo",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Lugo",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Madrid",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Madrid",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Málaga",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Málaga",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Murcia",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Murcia",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Navarra",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Pamplona/Iruña",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Ourense",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Ourense",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Palencia",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Palencia",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Las Palmas",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Pontevedra",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Pontevedra",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Salamanca",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Salamanca",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Santa Cruz de Tenerife",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Santa Cruz de Tenerife",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Segovia",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Segovia",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Sevilla",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Sevilla",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Soria",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Soria",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Tarragona",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Tarragona",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Teruel",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Teruel",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Toledo",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Toledo",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Valencia/València",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "València",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Valladolid",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Valladolid",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Bizkaia",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Bilbao",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Zamora",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Zamora",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Zaragoza",
   "level": "provincial capital",
   "seat": "Zaragoza",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Ceuta",
   "level": "autonomous city",
   "seat": "Ceuta",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Spain",
   "unit": "Melilla",
   "level": "autonomous city",
   "seat": "Melilla",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Portugal",
   "unit": "Aveiro",
   "level": "district capital",
   "seat": "Aveiro",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Portugal",
   "unit": "Beja",
   "level": "district capital",
   "seat": "Beja",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Portugal",
   "unit": "Braga",
   "level": "district capital",
   "seat": "Braga",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Portugal",
   "unit": "Bragança",
   "level": "district capital",
   "seat": "Bragança",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Portugal",
   "unit": "Castelo Branco",
   "level": "district capital",
   "seat": "Castelo Branco",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Portugal",
   "unit": "Coimbra",
   "level": "district capital",
   "seat": "Coimbra",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Portugal",
   "unit": "Évora",
   "level": "district capital",
   "seat": "Évora",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Portugal",
   "unit": "Faro",
   "level": "district capital",
   "seat": "Faro",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Portugal",
   "unit": "Guarda",
   "level": "district capital",
   "seat": "Guarda",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Portugal",
   "unit": "Leiria",
   "level": "district capital",
   "seat": "Leiria",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Portugal",
   "unit": "Lisboa",
   "level": "district capital",
   "seat": "Lisboa",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Portugal",
   "unit": "Portalegre",
   "level": "district capital",
   "seat": "Portalegre",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Portugal",
   "unit": "Porto",
   "level": "district capital",
   "seat": "Porto",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Portugal",
   "unit": "Santarém",
   "level": "district capital",
   "seat": "Santarém",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Portugal",
   "unit": "Setúbal",
   "level": "district capital",
   "seat": "Setúbal",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Portugal",
   "unit": "Viana do Castelo",
   "level": "district capital",
   "seat": "Viana do Castelo",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Portugal",
   "unit": "Vila Real",
   "level": "district capital",
   "seat": "Vila Real",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Portugal",
   "unit": "Viseu",
   "level": "district capital",
   "seat": "Viseu",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Portugal",
   "unit": "Região Autónoma dos Açores (seat of the regional government; parliament at Horta)",
   "level": "regional capital",
   "seat": "Ponta Delgada",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Portugal",
   "unit": "Região Autónoma da Madeira",
   "level": "regional capital",
   "seat": "Funchal",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Malta",
   "unit": "Republic of Malta (capital)",
   "level": "capital or regional seat",
   "seat": "Valletta",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Malta",
   "unit": "Gozo Region (seat; Gozo's chief town)",
   "level": "capital or regional seat",
   "seat": "Victoria",
   "city_on_site": "Gaulos",
   "km": 0.3
  },
  {
   "country": "Malta",
   "unit": "Western Region (seat)",
   "level": "capital or regional seat",
   "seat": "Rabat",
   "city_on_site": "Melite",
   "km": 0.5
  },
  {
   "country": "Malta",
   "unit": "Northern Region (seat)",
   "level": "capital or regional seat",
   "seat": "St Paul's Bay",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Malta",
   "unit": "Eastern Region (seat, outside the region)",
   "level": "capital or regional seat",
   "seat": "San Ġwann",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Malta",
   "unit": "Port Region (seat)",
   "level": "capital or regional seat",
   "seat": "Tarxien",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Malta",
   "unit": "Southern Region (seat)",
   "level": "capital or regional seat",
   "seat": "Qormi",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Monaco, Andorra, Gibraltar",
   "unit": "Monaco",
   "level": "capital",
   "seat": "Monaco",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Monaco, Andorra, Gibraltar",
   "unit": "Andorra",
   "level": "capital",
   "seat": "Andorra la Vella",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  },
  {
   "country": "Monaco, Andorra, Gibraltar",
   "unit": "Gibraltar (UK)",
   "level": "capital",
   "seat": "Gibraltar",
   "city_on_site": "",
   "km": null
  }
 ],
 "later_greeks": {
  "timeline": [
   {
    "year": 1470,
    "year_text": "after 1470",
    "place": "Toledo, Valladolid",
    "event": "Greek refugees from Euboea (Chalcis/Negroponte, taken by the Ottomans in 1470) settle in Toledo and Valladolid; Greek nobles such as Diplovatatzis serve Ferdinand and Isabella against Granada.",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.fhw.gr/projects/migration/15-19/en/v2/espagna.html"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "year": 1503,
    "year_text": "15th-16th c. (Lascaris in French service c. 1495-1520s)",
    "place": "Paris, Blois, Fontainebleau",
    "event": "Greek scholars after 1453 teach in Paris (Andronikos Kallistos, Georgios Hermonymos). Janus Lascaris enters the service of the French crown (with Charles VIII, c. 1495 (unchecked)); Louis XII's ambassador to Venice 1503-09; he helps build the royal library at Blois and, with Guillaume Bude, organizes it when Francis I moves it to Fontainebleau.",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.fhw.gr/projects/migration/15-19/en/v2/france.html",
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janus_Lascaris"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "year": 1530,
    "year_text": "1530",
    "place": "Birgu (Vittoriosa)",
    "event": "The Knights of St John arrive in Malta from Rhodes, followed by Rhodian Greek refugees, said to number around 5,000 (the figure of the Order's historian Bosio, 1602; in 1575 the three Greek parishes of Birgu had 74 households); they form Greek-rite parishes in Birgu, with the icon of Our Lady of Damascus.",
    "sources": [
     "C. Cassar, 'Latins versus Uniates in sixteenth century Malta', Studi sull'Oriente Cristiano (2002), https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/bitstream/123456789/22432/1/2002%20%28c%29%20%20LATINS%20VERSUS%20UNIATES%20IN%20SIXTEENTH%20CENTURY%20MALTA.pdf"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "year": 1569,
    "year_text": "1569",
    "place": "Valletta",
    "event": "Church of St Nicholas built for the Greek community of the new city of Valletta (rebuilt 1652).",
    "sources": [
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_St_Nicholas,_Valletta"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "year": 1577,
    "year_text": "1577-1614",
    "place": "Toledo",
    "event": "Domenikos Theotokopoulos (El Greco), a Cretan, comes to Spain (Madrid, then Toledo) in 1577 and lives and works in Toledo until his death on 7 April 1614, usually signing his paintings in Greek letters with his full name.",
    "sources": [
     "https://newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/El_Greco"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "year": 1587,
    "year_text": "1580/1587",
    "place": "Valletta",
    "event": "The Greek church of Our Lady of Damascus in Valletta is finished (by 1580) and the Rhodian icon is solemnly moved there from Birgu (1587); by 1617 the other two Greek parishes had ceased.",
    "sources": [
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Our_Lady_of_Damascus,_Valletta",
     "Cassar 2002"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "year": 1676,
    "year_text": "Oct 1675 - 14 Mar 1676",
    "place": "Paomia",
    "event": "About 730 Maniots from Vitylo (Oitylo), led by the Stephanopoli, land in Genoese Corsica and settle at Paomia.",
    "sources": [
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carg%C3%A8se",
     "N. Nicholas, JHD 31.1 (2005)"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "year": 1677,
    "year_text": "10 May 1677",
    "place": "London (Soho)",
    "event": "First Greek church in London, built in 1677 in Hog Lane, Soho (it gave its name to Greek Street), through the archbishop of Samos Joseph Georgirenes, for a community begun with Maniot refugees c. 1670. The Greeks lost it in 1682, when the parish of St Martin-in-the-Fields took possession and leased it to French Protestants (Survey of London); 1684 is the Crown's grant of the freehold, not the loss.",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.fhw.gr/projects/migration/15-19/en/v2/england.html",
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Archdiocese_of_Thyateira_and_Great_Britain"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "year": 1723,
    "year_text": "1723/1726",
    "place": "Vienna",
    "event": "Greek Orthodox merchants of the Ottoman Empire found the brotherhood and chapel of St George (permission 1723, first liturgy 1726); Charles VI's trade patent of 1717 and later privileges protect Orthodox Ottoman traders.",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.fhw.gr/projects/migration/15-19/en/v2/wien.html",
     "https://wienergriechen.univie.ac.at/en/greek-community-of-vienna"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "year": 1731,
    "year_text": "April 1731",
    "place": "Ajaccio",
    "event": "The Greeks of Paomia, loyal to Genoa during the Corsican revolt, are driven out and take refuge in Ajaccio (about 700).",
    "sources": [
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carg%C3%A8se"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "year": 1752,
    "year_text": "April 1752",
    "place": "Mahon",
    "event": "Under British rule the Greek colony of Port Mahon completes its church of St Nicholas (privileges proposed 1745, forced through 1749); some 600 Greeks around 1754 (from Patmos, Corfu, Cephalonia, Missolonghi, etc.); church closed in 1782 when Menorca returned to Spain.",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.fhw.gr/projects/migration/15-19/en/v2/espagna.html"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "year": 1775,
    "year_text": "1775",
    "place": "Cargese",
    "event": "Under the French governor Marbeuf the Greeks move from Ajaccio to the new village of Cargese.",
    "sources": [
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carg%C3%A8se"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "year": 1787,
    "year_text": "1787",
    "place": "Vienna",
    "event": "Joseph II grants the privilege for the church of the Holy Trinity, community of Greeks and Vlachs of Austrian citizenship (rebuilt to Theophil Hansen's design 1857-59, funded by Simon Sinas). The Greek press of Vienna (Ventotis 1785; the Poulios brothers' Ephimeris 1790-97) makes the city a centre of Greek printing.",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.fhw.gr/projects/migration/15-19/en/v2/wien.html",
     "https://wienergriechen.univie.ac.at/en/greek-community-of-vienna"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "year": 1788,
    "year_text": "1788-1833",
    "place": "Paris",
    "event": "Adamantios Korais settles in Paris (after 1788 he spends most of his life there), editing the ancient authors for the Greeks in his Hellenic Library (from the Homer of 1805, over the next two decades) and shaping the language debate; he dies in Paris on 6 April 1833; remains moved to Greece in 1877.",
    "sources": [
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adamantios_Korais"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "year": 1797,
    "year_text": "Dec 1797 - June 1798",
    "place": "Trieste / Vienna",
    "event": "Rigas Feraios, who had printed his New Political Constitution and Thourios in Vienna (1797), is arrested by the Austrians in Trieste (December 1797), betrayed by Demetrios Oikonomos Kozanites, and handed over to the Ottomans; he is killed in Belgrade on 24 June 1798. The Vienna Ephimeris closes.",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.fhw.gr/projects/migration/15-19/en/v2/wien.html",
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigas_Feraios"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "year": 1820,
    "year_text": "1793 / 1820 / 1835",
    "place": "Marseille",
    "event": "Greek merchants, chiefly Chiots, settle in Marseille from 1793 and especially after 1816; a small church in rue Saint-Savournin (1820), a new church in rue de la Rotonde (1835); the colony quadrupled 1825-35. The present Greek Orthodox church of the Dormition, rue de la Grande-Armee, opened in 1845.",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.fhw.gr/projects/migration/15-19/en/v2/france.html",
     "https://www.marseille-tourisme.com/en/discover-marseille/culture-heritage/eglise-de-la-dormition-de-la-mere-de-dieu-marseille-1er-en-2799565/"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "year": 1828,
    "year_text": "1828-29",
    "place": "Munich",
    "event": "Ludwig I of Bavaria gives the Salvatorkirche to Munich's Greek Orthodox community (decisions of 22 and 30 Sept 1828; Orthodox consecration 18 Dec 1829, remodelled by Leo von Klenze); about 30 Greeks were then in Munich. Four years later (1832) his son Otto becomes king of Greece.",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.muenchenwiki.de/wiki/Salvatorkirche"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "year": 1837,
    "year_text": "1837",
    "place": "London",
    "event": "The modern Greek community of London is organized, mostly Chiot merchants (Ralli and others); church of the Saviour in Finsbury Circus (1837), Winchester Street, London Wall (1849), St Sophia, Bayswater (1877-81); about 60 Greek commercial houses across Britain c. 1850.",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.fhw.gr/projects/migration/15-19/en/v2/england.html",
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Archdiocese_of_Thyateira_and_Great_Britain"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "year": 1874,
    "year_text": "1874-1876",
    "place": "Cargese / Sidi Merouane",
    "event": "Greek-speaking families of Cargese emigrate to Sidi Merouane in French Algeria, hastening the end of Greek in Cargese.",
    "sources": [
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carg%C3%A8se",
     "Kodel 2013"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "year": 1922,
    "year_text": "24 March 1922",
    "place": "London",
    "event": "The Ecumenical Patriarchate creates the Metropolis of Thyateira, seated in London (decision of April 1922 under Meletios IV); Germanos Strenopoulos is elected its first metropolitan on 5 May 1922, exarch for Western and Central Europe. It became an archdiocese in the 1950s and definitively in 1968.",
    "sources": [
     "https://orthodoxia.be/en/predecessors/metropolitan-germanos-of-thyateira-1872-1951/"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "year": 1957,
    "year_text": "12 July 1957",
    "place": "Athens / Belgian coalfields",
    "event": "Belgian-Greek agreement on Greek workers for the coal mines (Liege, Hainaut, Limburg); about 20,000 Greek workers recruited 1953-68.",
    "sources": [
     "A. V. Antiochos, RBHC 37 (2007) 469-484"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "year": 1960,
    "year_text": "30 March 1960",
    "place": "Bonn / Athens",
    "event": "German-Greek labour recruitment agreement, signed 30 March 1960; Greek nationals in West Germany rise to 407,614 by 1973.",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.bpb.de/themen/europaeische-geschichte/griechenland/177897/so-leben-bei-uns-nur-die-aristokraten/",
     "Damanakis 2013",
     "Speech of Minister of State Werner Hoyer, Bonn, 2 May 2010 (50 years of Greeks in Germany), https://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/de/newsroom/100502-hoyer-griechen-in-d-219440"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "year": 1963,
    "year_text": "5 and 17 Feb 1963",
    "place": "Paris, Bonn, Vienna",
    "event": "The Ecumenical Patriarchate creates metropolises of France, Germany and Austria for the growing migrant communities; Belgium follows on 11 August 1969, Switzerland on 2 October 1982, Spain and Portugal in 2003.",
    "sources": [
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Metropolis_of_France",
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Metropolis_of_Austria"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "year": 1967,
    "year_text": "1967-1974",
    "place": "Paris, Bonn, London (and Stockholm, out of area)",
    "event": "Under the military junta, opponents organize abroad. Andreas Papandreou, released on 24 Dec 1967, settles in Paris in January 1968, tours Western capitals and appeals from Bonn to the nearly half a million Greek guest workers in West Germany; he announces the Panhellenic Liberation Movement (PAK) in Stockholm on 26 Feb 1968, with 'Friends of PAK' chapters especially in West Germany. Melina Mercouri campaigns from Paris (unchecked).",
    "sources": [
     "S. Draenos, 'Andreas Papandreou's exile politics: the first phase (1968-1970)', The Historical Review 11 (2014) 35-66, https://ejournals.epublishing.ekt.gr/index.php/historicalReview/article/download/4108/3887"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "year": 1974,
    "year_text": "1974",
    "place": "London (Haringey, Islington)",
    "event": "After the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, Greek Cypriot refugees join the large Cypriot community of north London (11,000 refugees in Haringey alone, per the Federation).",
    "sources": [
     "https://cypriotfederation.org.uk/ukcypriots/"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "year": 1976,
    "year_text": "1976",
    "place": "Cargese",
    "event": "The last native speakers of Cargèse Greek die in the 1970s. The year 1976, three centuries after the landing, is the one usually given (English Wikipedia, without a source of its own); about 20 speakers were left in 1934 (Nicholas 2006).",
    "sources": [
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carg%C3%A8se (drawing on N. Nicholas)"
    ],
    "grade": "B-"
   },
   {
    "year": 2010,
    "year_text": "2010-2019",
    "place": "Germany, UK, Netherlands",
    "event": "Crisis emigration: emigration from Greece to Germany reaches about 35,000 in 2012 (triple 2009); Greeks in the UK more than double (about 35,000 in 2011 to about 80,000 by 2019).",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.tovima.com/society/greeks-in-germany-a-portrait-of-a-lasting-diaspora/",
     "https://www.dianeosis.org/en/wp-json/wp/v2/posts/28805"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "year": 2021,
    "year_text": "14 Jan 2021",
    "place": "Valletta",
    "event": "The Ecumenical Patriarchate establishes the Patriarchal Exarchate of Malta; Bartholomew visits Malta in Dec 2022, the first reigning Ecumenical Patriarch to do so.",
    "sources": [
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_St_Nicholas,_Valletta"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "year": 2026,
    "year_text": "10-11 Oct 2026",
    "place": "Cargese / Ajaccio",
    "event": "350th anniversary of the Greek landing in Corsica: jubilee year organized by 'Agora Cargese 2026', main commemoration 10-11 October; Greek liturgy in the chapelle des Grecs, Ajaccio, 17 May 2026.",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.corsenetinfos.corsica/Ajaccio-La-chapelle-de-la-route-des-Sanguinaires-a-celebre-le-350e-anniversaire-de-l-arrivee-des-Grecs-en-Corse_a90698.html"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   }
  ],
  "cargese": {
   "text": "In October 1675 about 730 Maniots from Vitylo (Oitylo), led by the Stephanopoli (Stefanopoulos) family, left the Mani under a contract with the Republic of Genoa, stopped at Genoa, and reached Corsica on 14 March 1676. They settled at Paomia, a few km inland of Cargese, keeping the eastern rite but accepting union with Rome. Loyal to Genoa in the Corsican revolt that began in 1729, they were driven out in April 1731 and took refuge in Ajaccio (about 700, perhaps a fifth of the town). After France took Corsica (1768), the governor Marbeuf had a new village built for them on the Puntiglione headland, and in 1775 most of them moved from Ajaccio to Cargese (386 Greeks in 1784). The village was attacked by neighbours in 1796. Greek declined through the 19th century (in 1872 Tozer found the old speaking 'Romaic' but few of the young) (Corsicans settled from 1830; Greek-speaking families left for Sidi Merouane in Algeria in 1874-76); by the early 1930s only a few bilingual elderly speakers were left, and the last native speaker is reported to have died in 1976, three centuries after the landing. The Greek Catholic church of St Spyridon (1852-1870s) still holds the eastern-rite liturgy, partly in Greek, facing the Latin church across the valley.",
   "founding": "Departure from Oitylo (Vitylo), Mani, October 1675 (often given as 3 October 1675 (unchecked)); about 730 colonists; brief stay at Genoa; landing in Corsica 14 March 1676 (Nicholas 2005, p. 38, via Wikipedia). Leaders: the Stephanopoli family (Ioannis/Giovanni Stefanopoulos (unchecked)) and the bishop Parthenios Kalkandis (unchecked). Ship sometimes named as Le Sauveur (unchecked; unverified). The KU Eichstatt project page says 'three Genoese galleys with 800 Orthodox refugees from Itylo landed' on 14 March 1676 (numbers differ by source: 730 departed per Nicholas; 520 counted in July 1676). Tozer (1882) says about 1,000 souls emigrated a few months after Spon and Wheler passed Cape Matapan in summer 1675.",
   "paomia_1676": "Settled at Paomia, about 4 km east (inland) of present Cargese, under a contract with Genoa (three sites offered in the province of Vico). Census of July 1676: 520 inhabitants, including 11 monks, 5 priests, several nuns and a bishop (Wikipedia 'Cargese', citing Nicholas 2005).",
   "move_1731": "During the Corsican revolt against Genoa (from 1729), the Greeks stayed loyal to Genoa; Paomia was attacked and in April 1731 the Greeks abandoned it and took refuge in Ajaccio, about 700 people, roughly 20% of the town's population (Wikipedia citing Nicholas 2005). In Ajaccio they worshipped in the chapelle des Grecs (Notre-Dame-du-Mont-Carmel, route des Sanguinaires; built 1619/1632), which Merimee says 'servit au culte de la colonie grecque' from 1675 to 1774 (sic). Kodel 2013 gives 1729 for the destruction of Paomia and 1731-1775 for the Ajaccio stay.",
   "cargese_1775": "France acquired Corsica in 1768; governor Charles-Louis de Marbeuf took an interest in the colony and had a new village built at Cargese on the Puntiglione headland at the crown's expense; in 1775, under Georges-Marie Stephanopoli, most of the colonists moved there from Ajaccio (Wikipedia's Marbeuf article: 'In 1774 he built the village of Cargese for a group of Greek colonists who were living in Ajaccio'; Marbeuf was made marquis de Cargese. So: village built 1774, settlers moved 1775). 1784: 386 Greeks. 1796: neighbours sacked the village, including Marbeuf's house. 1810: the colony numbered 610 (prefect's statistics, per Kodel 2013).",
   "language": "Decline of Greek: an eyewitness, H. F. Tozer, who visited in 1872, found the Greeks of Cargese 'about 400 souls': 'all the older inhabitants speak Romaic' but 'comparatively few of the younger generation either speak Greek, or profess an interest in their nationality'; their 'extinction as a separate Greek colony was only a question of time' (Tozer, 'Vitylo and Cargese', JHS 3, 1882, 354-360). Also: Corsicans settled in Cargese from 1830 and gradually outnumbered the Greeks; many Greek songs were already lost by the 1830s (Kodel 2013). In 1874-76 Greek-speaking families (an estimated 235 of 1,078 inhabitants in 1872, all Greek speakers, per Wikipedia citing Nicholas; Kodel says 'about 400 people' left of about 700 Greeks) emigrated to Sidi Merouane in Algeria. By the end of the 19th century 'la langue commencait a disparaitre'; in the early 20th century only a few families still spoke the dialect; when the Dutch scholar Gerard H. Blanken did his fieldwork in the early 1930s 'il ne restait alors que quelques personnes bilingues comme temoins directs' (Kodel 2013). About 20 Greek speakers in 1934 (Wikipedia citing Nicholas). The last native speaker is reported to have died in 1976, 'three hundred years after the colonists had first arrived on the island' (Wikipedia 'Cargese', drawing on Nick Nicholas 2005/2006); the name of that speaker was not found. Scholarship: Blanken, 'Introduction a une etude du dialecte grec de Cargese (Corse)', Neophilologus 31 (1947); Blanken, Les Grecs de Cargese (Corse): recherches sur leur langue et sur leur histoire, vol. I, partie linguistique (Leiden: Sijthoff 1951; vol. II never appeared); Nick Nicholas, 'A history of the Greek colony of Corsica', Journal of the Hellenic Diaspora 31.1 (2005) 33-78; S. Kodel, 'L'enquete linguistique du Premier Empire en Corse', BSSHNC 742-743 (2013) 149-169 (includes the 1806-07 Napoleonic survey and a 1860 Stefanopoli translation of the parable of the prodigal son into Cargese Greek). The dialect was a Maniot (southern Peloponnesian) Greek. Italian Wikipedia ('Dialetto greco di Cargese', citing Nicholas's 'How Greek were the Greeks of Corsica?' and 'A history of the Greek colony of Corsica', and a Persee study 'Cargese. Essai sur la geographie humaine d'un village corse') gives the span as 1676-1976, says the population spoke only Greek until about 1850, when Corsican, Italian and French came in, and that since 1935 the Greek Catholic priest has come from the Greek community of Marseille [check]. Other witnesses: To Vima (D. Michalopoulos, 24 Nov 2008) says Greek was spoken 'into the first decades of our [20th] century', then Corsican and French took over. Church and liturgy today: the Greek Catholic (eastern-rite Catholic) church of St Spyridon, built 1852-1870s (Wikipedia: begun 1852, completed 1876; iconostasis given 1886), belongs to the Ordinariate for eastern-rite Catholics in France, within the diocese of Ajaccio (GCatholic). Its priest (2022: Archimandrite Antoine Forget, also curé of the Latin parish of Piana-Cargese) sings most of the Divine Liturgy in Greek; at Easter Monday 2022 the liturgy and Gospel were in Greek, Italian, French and Spanish. The confraternity of St Spyridon (eastern rite) and that of St Antoine (Latin) walk together in the Easter procession, chanting 'Christos anesti'; children of Greek descent are enrolled in the St Spyridon confraternity at birth. The Catholic University of Eichstatt-Ingolstadt is recording the orally transmitted Greek chant (oldest recordings 1970s), which it describes as in danger for lack of priests and a shrinking choir; the parish is said to keep hymns no longer used in Greece. So: Greek survives only as a liturgical and sung language, not as a spoken one.",
   "today": "Cargese (Carghjese, Corse-du-Sud) has about 1,300 inhabitants (unchecked; INSEE to check); some families keep Greek-derived surnames (Stefanopoli, Dragacci, Frimigacci, Rapanacci, Zanettacci, Papadacci and others, Corsicanized in -acci (unchecked)); there is no Greek-speaking community. 2026 is the 350th anniversary of the landing ('Agora Cargese 2026', main commemoration 10-11 October 2026). The chapelle des Grecs at Ajaccio (route des Sanguinaires), used by the refugees after 1731, held a Greek liturgy on 17 May 2026, the first there in almost 30 years. Twinned with Oitylo (unchecked).",
   "sources": [
    "H. F. Tozer, 'Vitylo and Cargese: an episode from later Greek history', Journal of Hellenic Studies 3 (1882) 354-360 (visit of 1872), https://storia.dh.unica.it/risorse_omc/files/original/311027ee440979e1e46a3fdb0df374bd.pdf",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carg%C3%A8se (citing N. Nicholas, Journal of the Hellenic Diaspora 31.1, 2005, 33-78)",
    "S. Kodel, 'L'enquete linguistique du Premier Empire en Corse', Bulletin de la Societe des sciences historiques et naturelles de la Corse 742-743 (2013) 149-169, https://www.academia.edu/7832474",
    "G. H. Blanken, Neophilologus 31.4 (1947) 220ff., https://www.proquest.com/docview/1301900927",
    "G. H. Blanken, Les Grecs de Cargese (Corse) I (Leiden 1951), reviewed in Classical Review",
    "https://storia.dh.unica.it/risorse_omc/items/show/2420 (Nicholas 2005 bibliographic record)",
    "https://www.ku.de/en/thf/fachgebiete/theology-of-the-christian-east/research-focus-areas/projects",
    "https://www.corsenetinfos.corsica/Semaine-Sainte-Cargese-celebre-Christos-Anesti-dans-la-ferveur-et-la-joie-retrouvees_a64157.html",
    "https://www.corsenetinfos.corsica/Ajaccio-La-chapelle-de-la-route-des-Sanguinaires-a-celebre-le-350e-anniversaire-de-l-arrivee-des-Grecs-en-Corse_a90698.html",
    "https://www.tovima.gr/2008/11/24/opinions/oi-ellines-toy-kargkeze/",
    "https://gcatholic.org/churches/france/68388",
    "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Louis_de_Marbeuf",
    "https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA00099059",
    "https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialetto_greco_di_Cargese",
    "Further scholarship (not opened): N. Nicholas, 'Negotiating a Greco-Corsican identity' (ResearchGate 236816414); 'Dummy pronoun insertion after conditional if in Greco-Corsican'; 'The effect of Italo-Romance contact on the Greek cluster vg in Corsica', Word 61 (2015), doi:10.1080/00437956.2015.1006852",
    "To check: M.-A. Comnene, 'Cargese. Une colonie grecque en Corse', Bulletin de l'Association Guillaume Bude 1959, doi:10.3406/bude.1959.3855 (a 1959 witness; Persee page blocked)"
   ],
   "grade": "B: story A/B (Nicholas 2005, Tozer 1882, Kodel 2013); the 1976 last-speaker date B- (English and Italian Wikipedia, both drawing on Nicholas; the article itself not opened; no name)"
  },
  "communities": [
   {
    "city": "London",
    "country": "United Kingdom",
    "start": "c. 1670 Maniot refugees; church in Soho 1677; modern community 1837",
    "peak": "about 600 (Greek merchant colony, c. 1871); before 1821 no more than 200",
    "peak_year": 1871,
    "today": "The centre of the Greek and Greek Cypriot presence in Britain; the Cypriot community of north London (Haringey, Enfield, Barnet) is by far the largest element (Cypriot Federation estimates about 300,000 Cypriots in the UK).",
    "institutions": "Soho church of the Dormition 1677 (lost 1682/84); church of the Saviour, Finsbury Circus 1837; Winchester Street, London Wall 1849; St Sophia cathedral, Bayswater 1877-81; Greek school 1870-83; seat of the Archdiocese of Thyateira (1922).",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.fhw.gr/projects/migration/15-19/en/v2/england.html",
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Archdiocese_of_Thyateira_and_Great_Britain",
     "https://cypriotfederation.org.uk/ukcypriots/"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Manchester",
    "country": "United Kingdom",
    "start": "1830s (Chiot merchants in the cotton trade)",
    "peak": "about 2,500 Greeks (2009 estimate, modern community); no 19th-c. figure found",
    "peak_year": 2009,
    "today": "Small Greek and Greek Cypriot community.",
    "institutions": "Committee and church by 1843; chapel on Waterloo Road, Strangeways 1849-60; church of the Annunciation, Bury New Road, Higher Broughton, built 1860-61 (Clegg & Knowles), the oldest purpose-built Greek Orthodox church in Britain (Grade II).",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.manchester.gov.uk/online-directories/libraries-directories/archives-and-local-history-directories/migration-and-ethnic-history/view-all-records/greeks",
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church_of_the_Annunciation,_Manchester"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Liverpool",
    "country": "United Kingdom",
    "start": "19th c. (merchants and shipping) (unchecked)",
    "peak": "not found",
    "peak_year": null,
    "today": "Small community.",
    "institutions": "Church of St Nicholas, Toxteth, completed 1870 (W. & J. Hay), a copy in miniature of a Constantinople church (unchecked).",
    "sources": [
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church_of_St_Nicholas,_Toxteth",
     "https://www.fhw.gr/projects/migration/15-19/en/v2/england.html"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Paris",
    "country": "France",
    "start": "after 1453 (scholars); 1788-1833 Korais; community organized 19th c.",
    "peak": "no figure found; the Greek embassy estimated about 50,000 Greeks in all France (c. 2015)",
    "peak_year": 2015,
    "today": "Seat of the Metropolis of France; the main Greek community in France.",
    "institutions": "Cathedral of St Stephen, rue Georges-Bizet (1890-95, Vaudremer; monument historique 2026); Greek newspapers Melissa (1819-21), Athina (1819); the secret Hellenoglosson Xenodocheion (1819).",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.fhw.gr/projects/migration/15-19/en/v2/france.html",
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Metropolis_of_France"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Marseille",
    "country": "France",
    "start": "1793 (merchants); main growth after 1816, chiefly Chiots",
    "peak": "about 100 after 1816; quadrupled 1825-35 (so roughly 400 by 1835, inferred)",
    "peak_year": 1835,
    "today": "The Greek Orthodox church of the Dormition of the Mother of God, 23 rue de la Grande-Armee (1er), opened in 1845, still holds Sunday services in Greek (called by the tourist office the oldest Orthodox church in France).",
    "institutions": "Small church in rue Saint-Savournin (1820); new church in rue de la Rotonde (1835); church of the Dormition, rue de la Grande-Armee, opened 1845 (Empire style); a Chair of Modern Greek at the royal college.",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.fhw.gr/projects/migration/15-19/en/v2/france.html",
     "https://opact.sdu.edu.tr/vufind/SummonRecord/FETCH-doaj_primary_oai_doaj_org_article_1ce0bfbbc6a64d6a8c5f72430d3210ec3",
     "https://www.marseille-tourisme.com/en/discover-marseille/culture-heritage/eglise-de-la-dormition-de-la-mere-de-dieu-marseille-1er-en-2799565/"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Cargese (with Paomia and Ajaccio)",
    "country": "France (Corsica)",
    "start": "1676 (Paomia); 1775 (Cargese)",
    "peak": "about 730 left Vitylo (1675); 520 in the July 1676 census; about 700 at Ajaccio (1731); 610 in 1810",
    "peak_year": 1675,
    "today": "No Greek speakers since 1976; Greek Catholic parish of St Spyridon.",
    "institutions": "Chapelle des Grecs (Notre-Dame-du-Mont-Carmel), Ajaccio, built 1619/1632, used by the Greek colony 'from 1675 to 1774' (Merimee PA00099059; MH 1927); St Spyridon, Cargese (1852-1870s).",
    "sources": [
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carg%C3%A8se",
     "https://pop.culture.gouv.fr/notice/merimee/PA00099059"
    ],
    "grade": "A/B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Vienna",
    "country": "Austria",
    "start": "c. 1600; organized from 1717-23",
    "peak": "about 4,000",
    "peak_year": 1814,
    "today": "Both historic communities (St George; Holy Trinity) still active; Greeks in Austria estimated 5,000-18,000 (Wikipedia, undated, unsourced).",
    "institutions": "St George (permission 1723, first liturgy 1726; present building 1803-06, renovated 1898); Holy Trinity (privilege 1787; Hansen rebuilding 1857-59); Greek school (1801/1804, still operating); presses of Ventotis (1785) and the Poulios brothers (Ephimeris 1790-97); Logios Hermes (1811-21).",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.fhw.gr/projects/migration/15-19/en/v2/wien.html",
     "https://wienergriechen.univie.ac.at/en/greek-community-of-vienna",
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Austria"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Munich",
    "country": "Germany",
    "start": "1828-29 (Salvatorkirche for about 30 Greeks); mass migration after 1960",
    "peak": "26,613",
    "peak_year": 2011,
    "today": "Largest Greek community in Germany.",
    "institutions": "Salvatorkirche, Greek Orthodox since 1828-29 (Klenze); Greek schools; consulate general.",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.muenchenwiki.de/wiki/Salvatorkirche",
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Germany (city table from census data, 2011 census referenced; year of figures not stated)"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Berlin",
    "country": "Germany",
    "start": "20th c.; post-2010 arrivals",
    "peak": "14,625",
    "peak_year": 2011,
    "today": "Growing since 2009 (diaNEOsis).",
    "institutions": "",
    "sources": [
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Germany (city table from census data, 2011 census referenced; year of figures not stated)"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Stuttgart",
    "country": "Germany",
    "start": "1960s Gastarbeiter",
    "peak": "13,757",
    "peak_year": 2011,
    "today": "",
    "institutions": "",
    "sources": [
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Germany (city table from census data, 2011 census referenced; year of figures not stated)"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Nuremberg",
    "country": "Germany",
    "start": "1960s Gastarbeiter",
    "peak": "12,145",
    "peak_year": 2011,
    "today": "",
    "institutions": "",
    "sources": [
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Germany (city table from census data, 2011 census referenced; year of figures not stated)"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Dusseldorf",
    "country": "Germany",
    "start": "1960s Gastarbeiter",
    "peak": "10,388",
    "peak_year": 2011,
    "today": "NRW holds about 31% of Germany's Greeks (diaNEOsis).",
    "institutions": "",
    "sources": [
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Germany (city table from census data, 2011 census referenced; year of figures not stated)"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Frankfurt am Main",
    "country": "Germany",
    "start": "1960s Gastarbeiter",
    "peak": "6,381",
    "peak_year": 2011,
    "today": "",
    "institutions": "",
    "sources": [
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Germany (city table from census data, 2011 census referenced; year of figures not stated)"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Leipzig",
    "country": "Germany",
    "start": "c. 1700 (merchants at the Leipzig fairs, first Greek community in Germany)",
    "peak": "not found",
    "peak_year": null,
    "today": "",
    "institutions": "Greek chapel (18th c.) (unchecked); the Leipzig Russian church is unrelated.",
    "sources": [
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Germany"
    ],
    "grade": "C"
   },
   {
    "city": "Brussels",
    "country": "Belgium",
    "start": "before 1955 a few hundred (Antwerp and Brussels); then miners moving to the capital",
    "peak": "25,000-35,000 in Belgium (undated)",
    "peak_year": null,
    "today": "Seat of the Metropolis of Belgium (cathedral of the Archangels Michael and Gabriel); EU institutions draw Greek professionals.",
    "institutions": "",
    "sources": [
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_Belgium"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Liege and Hainaut coalfields (Charleroi, Mons) and Limburg",
    "country": "Belgium",
    "start": "1953-57 (recruitment agreement 12 July 1957)",
    "peak": "20,010 Greek recruits 1953-68 (all Belgian mines); 3,400 hired in the Liege mines 1955-64",
    "peak_year": 1968,
    "today": "Many moved on to Brussels or Germany, or returned.",
    "institutions": "",
    "sources": [
     "https://journalbelgianhistory.be/fr/system/files/article_pdf/BTNG-RBHC%2C%2037%2C%202007%2C%203-4%2C%20pp%20469-484.pdf"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "city": "Amsterdam",
    "country": "Netherlands",
    "start": "merchant colony from the 1750s",
    "peak": "'very few' (no figure)",
    "peak_year": null,
    "today": "About 37,382 Greeks in the Netherlands (CBS 2023, basis unstated).",
    "institutions": "Orthodox church opened 22 July 1764 (house bought Nov 1763 with 5,000 guilders left by the family of D. Papathanasis).",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.fhw.gr/projects/migration/15-19/en/v2/nederlands.html",
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_the_Netherlands"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Mahon (Port Mahon), Menorca",
    "country": "Spain",
    "start": "1745-49 (British privileges)",
    "peak": "about 600",
    "peak_year": 1754,
    "today": "No community.",
    "institutions": "Church of St Nicholas (completed April 1752, under the Russian Synod; vicar Theoklitos Polyeidis; closed 1782).",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.fhw.gr/projects/migration/15-19/en/v2/espagna.html"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Birgu and Valletta",
    "country": "Malta",
    "start": "1530 (Rhodian Greeks with the Knights)",
    "peak": "around 5,000 (Rhodian refugee community, 1530)",
    "peak_year": 1530,
    "today": "Greek Catholic parish of Our Lady of Damascus still active; Greek Orthodox church of St George (1816); Patriarchal Exarchate of Malta (2021).",
    "institutions": "Three Greek parishes (74 households in Birgu at the 1574-75 apostolic visit); Our Lady of Damascus, Valletta (finished 1580, icon moved 1587); St Nicholas, Valletta (1569, rebuilt 1652).",
    "sources": [
     "Cassar 2002, https://www.um.edu.mt/library/oar/bitstream/123456789/22432/1/2002%20%28c%29%20%20LATINS%20VERSUS%20UNIATES%20IN%20SIXTEENTH%20CENTURY%20MALTA.pdf",
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Our_Lady_of_Damascus,_Valletta"
    ],
    "grade": "A"
   },
   {
    "city": "Toledo",
    "country": "Spain",
    "start": "after 1470 (Euboean refugees); El Greco 1577-1614",
    "peak": "",
    "peak_year": null,
    "today": "",
    "institutions": "",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.fhw.gr/projects/migration/15-19/en/v2/espagna.html"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Geneva (Chambesy)",
    "country": "Switzerland",
    "start": "20th c.",
    "peak": "not found",
    "peak_year": null,
    "today": "Seat of the Metropolis of Switzerland and the Orthodox Centre of the Ecumenical Patriarchate.",
    "institutions": "St Paul, Chambesy.",
    "sources": [
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Metropolis_of_Switzerland"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Madrid",
    "country": "Spain",
    "start": "20th c.",
    "peak": "not found",
    "peak_year": null,
    "today": "Seat of the Metropolis of Spain and Portugal.",
    "institutions": "Cathedral of Sts Andrew and Demetrius (1971-73).",
    "sources": [
     "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedral_of_St_Andrew_and_St_Demetrius"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   },
   {
    "city": "Barcelona",
    "country": "Spain",
    "start": "20th-21st c.",
    "peak": "about 5,000 (Barcelona and Catalonia)",
    "peak_year": 2023,
    "today": "Growing professional community.",
    "institutions": "",
    "sources": [
     "https://www.mfa.gr/spain/es/the-embassy/news/entrevista-al-embajador-de-grecia-en-espana-ilias-fotopoulos-por-la-vanguardia-en-la-crisis-del-2008-grecia-resistio-ha-vuelto-con-fuerza.html"
    ],
    "grade": "B"
   }
  ],
  "sees": [
   {
    "see": "Archdiocese of Thyateira and Great Britain",
    "seat": "London",
    "country": "United Kingdom (with Ireland)",
    "founded": 1922,
    "founded_text": "Created by decision of April 1922 under Patriarch Meletios IV; Germanos Strenopoulos elected 5 May 1922; an archdiocese from the 1950s, definitively from 1968.",
    "kind": "archdiocese",
    "cathedral": "St Sophia, Moscow Road, Bayswater (foundation stone 18 July 1877, first liturgy 1 June 1879, consecrated 5 February 1882; a cathedral since 1922)",
    "note": "Covers Great Britain and Ireland (Wikipedia: 114 parishes and monasteries in the UK and Ireland, 2021). Before 1922 the London Greek churches were under the Church of Greece (1908-22) (unchecked). Archbishop Nikitas (Loulias) since 2019. Infobox gives 'about 212,000' faithful, undated, unsourced."
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of France (Exarchate of Europe)",
    "seat": "Paris",
    "country": "France",
    "founded": 1963,
    "founded_text": "5 February 1963 (covering then France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Spain and Portugal)",
    "kind": "metropolis",
    "cathedral": "St Stephen (Saint-Stephane), 7 rue Georges-Bizet, Paris 16e; built 1890-95 by Emile Vaudremer; classified monument historique 5 Jan 2026 (Merimee PA00135368)",
    "note": "About 60 parishes and monasteries. Since 2019-20 it also includes a 'vicariate of Russian tradition' formed from the dissolved Paris-based exarchate of Russian-tradition parishes. Metropolitan Dimitrios (Ploumis) since 2021."
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Germany (Exarchate of Central Europe)",
    "seat": "Bonn",
    "country": "Germany",
    "founded": 1963,
    "founded_text": "1963, by patriarchal and synodal decision (LWL survey); public-law corporation since 1974",
    "kind": "metropolis",
    "cathedral": "Holy Trinity (Agia Triada) cathedral, Bonn-Limperich (Dietrich-Bonhoeffer-Str. 2), built 1978",
    "note": "First metropolitan Polyeuktos (Finfinis) 1963-68; Augoustinos (Lambardakis) since 1980; 139 parishes (2025). About 450,000 members of the Ecumenical Patriarchate's churches in Germany in 2000 (LWL), an estimate."
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Austria (Exarchate of Hungary and Central Europe)",
    "seat": "Vienna",
    "country": "Austria",
    "founded": 1963,
    "founded_text": "17 February 1963 (Wikipedia history section; the same page's lead says 1964)",
    "kind": "metropolis",
    "cathedral": "Holy Trinity, Fleischmarkt 13, Vienna (community privileged 1787; rebuilt to Theophil Hansen's design, 1857-59, paid for by Simon Sinas)",
    "note": "First metropolitan Chrysostomos (Tsiter). Metropolitan Arsenios (Kardamakis) since 2011. The second Greek church of Vienna, St George (Griechengasse), belonged to the Ottoman-subject Greeks (unchecked)."
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Belgium and Exarchate of the Netherlands and Luxembourg",
    "seat": "Brussels",
    "country": "Belgium (with the Netherlands and Luxembourg)",
    "founded": 1969,
    "founded_text": "11 August 1969, under Patriarch Athenagoras, 'for the Greek immigrants in the Benelux countries'",
    "kind": "metropolis",
    "cathedral": "Cathedral of the Holy Archangels Michael and Gabriel, Brussels",
    "note": "First metropolitan Emilianos (Zacharopoulos), elected 11 August, enthroned 11 November 1969. Before 1969 Belgium had two parishes, Antwerp and Brussels, under Thyateira's exarch (orthodoxia.be)."
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Switzerland",
    "seat": "Chambesy (Pregny-Chambesy, Geneva)",
    "country": "Switzerland",
    "founded": 1982,
    "founded_text": "2 October 1982",
    "kind": "metropolis",
    "cathedral": "St Paul the Apostle, Orthodox Centre of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, Chambesy (centre founded 1966 (unchecked))",
    "note": "First metropolitan Damaskinos (Papandreou), 1982-2003; Maximos (Pothos) since 2018."
   },
   {
    "see": "Metropolis of Spain and Portugal",
    "seat": "Madrid",
    "country": "Spain (with Portugal, Andorra, Gibraltar? [scope to check])",
    "founded": 2003,
    "founded_text": "2003: first metropolitan Epiphanios (Perialas) elected 12 April 2003, enthroned in Madrid 7 June 2003; before 2003 an exarchate of the Metropolis of France.",
    "kind": "metropolis",
    "cathedral": "Cathedral of Sts Andrew and Demetrius, Madrid (first stone 1971, inaugurated 1973)",
    "note": "Before 2003 under the Metropolis of France. Metropolitan Polykarpos (Stavropoulos) from 2007 (enthroned 16 June 2007). Patriarch Bartholomew visited in 2015 [Ec. Patr. site]."
   },
   {
    "see": "Patriarchal Exarchate of Malta",
    "seat": "Valletta",
    "country": "Malta",
    "founded": 2021,
    "founded_text": "14 January 2021 (Holy Synod); before that Malta was in the Archdiocese of Italy and Malta (Italy from 1991; Malta 2005-2021)",
    "kind": "exarchate",
    "cathedral": "St George, Valletta (Greek Orthodox church founded 1816 by Greeks living in Malta); St Nicholas, Valletta (1569, rebuilt 1652) entrusted to the Patriarchate after 2014",
    "note": "Led by Metropolitan Kyrillos (Katerelos). Bartholomew made the first official visit of an Ecumenical Patriarch to Malta in December 2022. Italy proper (Archdiocese of Italy, seat Venice, San Giorgio dei Greci) is out of area."
   },
   {
    "see": "Greek Catholic parish of Our Lady of Damascus (Catholic, eastern rite; not the Patriarchate)",
    "seat": "Valletta",
    "country": "Malta",
    "founded": 1580,
    "founded_text": "Church finished by 1580; icon transferred from Birgu 1587; the Rhodian Greeks' parish since 1530 (first at Birgu)",
    "kind": "Greek Catholic parish",
    "cathedral": "Our Lady of Damascus, Valletta (destroyed by bombing 24 March 1942; reconsecrated 15 August 1951)",
    "note": "Catholic, not Orthodox: listed for completeness. Rite now used by Italo-Albanian and other eastern-rite clergy."
   },
   {
    "see": "Greek Catholic parish of St Spyridon (Catholic, eastern rite; not the Patriarchate)",
    "seat": "Cargese, Corsica",
    "country": "France",
    "founded": 1676,
    "founded_text": "community from 1676; present church 1852-1876",
    "kind": "Greek Catholic parish",
    "cathedral": "St Spyridon, rue de la Grece, Cargese; under the Ordinariate for eastern-rite Catholics in France, in the diocese of Ajaccio (GCatholic)",
    "note": "See cargese section."
   }
  ],
  "figures": [
   {
    "country": "Germany (West Germany to 1990)",
    "year": 1960,
    "figure": 20782,
    "basis": "Greek nationals in employment (not population)",
    "source": "Bundesanstalt fuer Arbeit via bpb APuZ 1982 (dossier)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Germany (West Germany to 1990)",
    "year": 1969,
    "figure": 271300,
    "basis": "Greek nationals, 30 Sept 1969 (rounded to hundreds; column alignment in the scan checked against the Land breakdown)",
    "source": "Statistisches Jahrbuch fuer die Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1970, table 17 'Auslaender am 30.9.1969 nach der Staatsangehoerigkeit' (in thousands), https://digi.bib.uni-mannheim.de/fileadmin/statjahrb/514402342_1970/pdf/514402342_0062.pdf"
   },
   {
    "country": "Germany (West Germany to 1990)",
    "year": 1970,
    "figure": 342891,
    "basis": "Greek nationals, 30 Sept 1970",
    "source": "M. Damanakis, 'The Greek neo-migration to Germany', Etudes helleniques/Hellenic Studies 21.2 (2013) 19-46, Table 2 (from Statistisches Bundesamt 2012), https://ejournals.lib.uoc.gr/hellst/article/download/259/202/399"
   },
   {
    "country": "Germany (West Germany to 1990)",
    "year": 1973,
    "figure": 407614,
    "basis": "Greek nationals; all-time peak (recruitment stop Nov 1973)",
    "source": "M. Damanakis, 'The Greek neo-migration to Germany', Etudes helleniques/Hellenic Studies 21.2 (2013) 19-46, Table 2 (from Statistisches Bundesamt 2012), https://ejournals.lib.uoc.gr/hellst/article/download/259/202/399"
   },
   {
    "country": "Germany (West Germany to 1990)",
    "year": 1979,
    "figure": 296803,
    "basis": "Greek nationals",
    "source": "M. Damanakis, 'The Greek neo-migration to Germany', Etudes helleniques/Hellenic Studies 21.2 (2013) 19-46, Table 2 (from Statistisches Bundesamt 2012), https://ejournals.lib.uoc.gr/hellst/article/download/259/202/399"
   },
   {
    "country": "Germany (West Germany to 1990)",
    "year": 1985,
    "figure": 280614,
    "basis": "Greek nationals",
    "source": "M. Damanakis, 'The Greek neo-migration to Germany', Etudes helleniques/Hellenic Studies 21.2 (2013) 19-46, Table 2 (from Statistisches Bundesamt 2012), https://ejournals.lib.uoc.gr/hellst/article/download/259/202/399"
   },
   {
    "country": "Germany (West Germany to 1990)",
    "year": 1988,
    "figure": 274973,
    "basis": "Greek nationals",
    "source": "M. Damanakis, 'The Greek neo-migration to Germany', Etudes helleniques/Hellenic Studies 21.2 (2013) 19-46, Table 2 (from Statistisches Bundesamt 2012), https://ejournals.lib.uoc.gr/hellst/article/download/259/202/399"
   },
   {
    "country": "Germany (West Germany to 1990)",
    "year": 1991,
    "figure": 336893,
    "basis": "Greek nationals (reunified Germany)",
    "source": "M. Damanakis, 'The Greek neo-migration to Germany', Etudes helleniques/Hellenic Studies 21.2 (2013) 19-46, Table 2 (from Statistisches Bundesamt 2012), https://ejournals.lib.uoc.gr/hellst/article/download/259/202/399"
   },
   {
    "country": "Germany (West Germany to 1990)",
    "year": 2000,
    "figure": 365438,
    "basis": "Greek nationals",
    "source": "M. Damanakis, 'The Greek neo-migration to Germany', Etudes helleniques/Hellenic Studies 21.2 (2013) 19-46, Table 2 (from Statistisches Bundesamt 2012), https://ejournals.lib.uoc.gr/hellst/article/download/259/202/399"
   },
   {
    "country": "Germany (West Germany to 1990)",
    "year": 2010,
    "figure": 276865,
    "basis": "Greek nationals",
    "source": "M. Damanakis, 'The Greek neo-migration to Germany', Etudes helleniques/Hellenic Studies 21.2 (2013) 19-46, Table 2 (from Statistisches Bundesamt 2012), https://ejournals.lib.uoc.gr/hellst/article/download/259/202/399"
   },
   {
    "country": "Germany (West Germany to 1990)",
    "year": 2018,
    "figure": 363205,
    "basis": "Greek nationals, AZR, 31 Dec",
    "source": "Destatis, 'Auslaendische Bevoelkerung nach ausgewaehlten Staatsangehoerigkeiten' 2018-2025, source Auslaenderzentralregister, Stichtag 31.12., page dated 2 April 2026, https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Bevoelkerung/Migration-Integration/Tabellen/auslaendische-bevoelkerung-staatsangehoerigkeit-jahre.html"
   },
   {
    "country": "Germany (West Germany to 1990)",
    "year": 2019,
    "figure": 363650,
    "basis": "Greek nationals, AZR, 31 Dec (dual German-Greek citizens not included)",
    "source": "Destatis, 'Auslaendische Bevoelkerung nach ausgewaehlten Staatsangehoerigkeiten' 2018-2025, source Auslaenderzentralregister, Stichtag 31.12., page dated 2 April 2026, https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Bevoelkerung/Migration-Integration/Tabellen/auslaendische-bevoelkerung-staatsangehoerigkeit-jahre.html"
   },
   {
    "country": "Germany (West Germany to 1990)",
    "year": 2020,
    "figure": 364285,
    "basis": "Greek nationals, AZR, 31 Dec",
    "source": "Destatis, 'Auslaendische Bevoelkerung nach ausgewaehlten Staatsangehoerigkeiten' 2018-2025, source Auslaenderzentralregister, Stichtag 31.12., page dated 2 April 2026, https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Bevoelkerung/Migration-Integration/Tabellen/auslaendische-bevoelkerung-staatsangehoerigkeit-jahre.html"
   },
   {
    "country": "Germany (West Germany to 1990)",
    "year": 2021,
    "figure": 362565,
    "basis": "Greek nationals, AZR, 31 Dec",
    "source": "Destatis, 'Auslaendische Bevoelkerung nach ausgewaehlten Staatsangehoerigkeiten' 2018-2025, source Auslaenderzentralregister, Stichtag 31.12., page dated 2 April 2026, https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Bevoelkerung/Migration-Integration/Tabellen/auslaendische-bevoelkerung-staatsangehoerigkeit-jahre.html"
   },
   {
    "country": "Germany (West Germany to 1990)",
    "year": 2021,
    "figure": 449000,
    "basis": "persons with Greek migration background (microcensus)",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greek diaspora', country table (figure-to-source links not shown in the extracted text; national statistical offices cited in the reference list), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_diaspora"
   },
   {
    "country": "Germany (West Germany to 1990)",
    "year": 2021,
    "figure": 289225,
    "basis": "Greek nationals born in Greece? (category given as 'born in Greece' in the Wikipedia table; basis unclear)",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greek diaspora', country table (figure-to-source links not shown in the extracted text; national statistical offices cited in the reference list), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_diaspora"
   },
   {
    "country": "Germany (West Germany to 1990)",
    "year": 2022,
    "figure": 361270,
    "basis": "Greek nationals, AZR, 31 Dec",
    "source": "Destatis, 'Auslaendische Bevoelkerung nach ausgewaehlten Staatsangehoerigkeiten' 2018-2025, source Auslaenderzentralregister, Stichtag 31.12., page dated 2 April 2026, https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Bevoelkerung/Migration-Integration/Tabellen/auslaendische-bevoelkerung-staatsangehoerigkeit-jahre.html"
   },
   {
    "country": "Germany (West Germany to 1990)",
    "year": 2023,
    "figure": 359045,
    "basis": "Greek nationals, AZR, 31 Dec",
    "source": "Destatis, 'Auslaendische Bevoelkerung nach ausgewaehlten Staatsangehoerigkeiten' 2018-2025, source Auslaenderzentralregister, Stichtag 31.12., page dated 2 April 2026, https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Bevoelkerung/Migration-Integration/Tabellen/auslaendische-bevoelkerung-staatsangehoerigkeit-jahre.html"
   },
   {
    "country": "Germany (West Germany to 1990)",
    "year": 2024,
    "figure": 353730,
    "basis": "Greek nationals, AZR, 31 Dec",
    "source": "Destatis, 'Auslaendische Bevoelkerung nach ausgewaehlten Staatsangehoerigkeiten' 2018-2025, source Auslaenderzentralregister, Stichtag 31.12., page dated 2 April 2026, https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Bevoelkerung/Migration-Integration/Tabellen/auslaendische-bevoelkerung-staatsangehoerigkeit-jahre.html"
   },
   {
    "country": "Germany (West Germany to 1990)",
    "year": 2025,
    "figure": 347225,
    "basis": "Greek nationals, AZR, 31 Dec (latest)",
    "source": "Destatis, 'Auslaendische Bevoelkerung nach ausgewaehlten Staatsangehoerigkeiten' 2018-2025, source Auslaenderzentralregister, Stichtag 31.12., page dated 2 April 2026, https://www.destatis.de/DE/Themen/Gesellschaft-Umwelt/Bevoelkerung/Migration-Integration/Tabellen/auslaendische-bevoelkerung-staatsangehoerigkeit-jahre.html"
   },
   {
    "country": "United Kingdom",
    "year": 2001,
    "figure": 77673,
    "basis": "born in Cyprus, UK (census 2001 via OECD database)",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Cypriots in the United Kingdom' (2001: OECD country-of-birth database; 2011: ONS, NRS, NISRA), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cypriots_in_the_United_Kingdom"
   },
   {
    "country": "United Kingdom",
    "year": 2001,
    "figure": 35169,
    "basis": "born in Greece, UK census 2001 (via OECD country-of-birth database)",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greeks in the United Kingdom' (footnotes: ONS Country of birth (extended) 2021; NISRA MS-A18; NRS UV204; OECD for 2001), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_the_United_Kingdom"
   },
   {
    "country": "United Kingdom",
    "year": 2011,
    "figure": 80010,
    "basis": "born in Cyprus, England and Wales (census 2011); plus Scotland 1,941 and NI 344",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Cypriots in the United Kingdom' (2001: OECD country-of-birth database; 2011: ONS, NRS, NISRA), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cypriots_in_the_United_Kingdom"
   },
   {
    "country": "United Kingdom",
    "year": 2011,
    "figure": 50205,
    "basis": "Greek as main language, England and Wales (census 2011)",
    "source": "To Vima 9 Mar 2026 (dossier)"
   },
   {
    "country": "United Kingdom",
    "year": 2021,
    "figure": 77000,
    "basis": "born in Greece, UK, ONS 'Population by country of birth and nationality' (APS-based, year to June 2021; series discontinued), rounded",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greeks in the United Kingdom' (footnotes: ONS Country of birth (extended) 2021; NISRA MS-A18; NRS UV204; OECD for 2001), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_the_United_Kingdom"
   },
   {
    "country": "United Kingdom",
    "year": 2021,
    "figure": 80122,
    "basis": "born in Greece, England and Wales, census 21 March 2021 (England 78,283; Wales 1,839)",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greeks in the United Kingdom' (footnotes: ONS Country of birth (extended) 2021; NISRA MS-A18; NRS UV204; OECD for 2001), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_the_United_Kingdom (ONS 'Country of birth (extended)')"
   },
   {
    "country": "United Kingdom",
    "year": 2022,
    "figure": 86948,
    "basis": "born in Greece, UK: E&W census 2021 (80,122) + NI census 2021 (532, NISRA MS-A18) + Scotland census 2022 (6,294, NRS UV204)",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greeks in the United Kingdom' (footnotes: ONS Country of birth (extended) 2021; NISRA MS-A18; NRS UV204; OECD for 2001), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_the_United_Kingdom"
   },
   {
    "country": "United Kingdom",
    "year": 2021,
    "figure": 62000,
    "basis": "Greek nationals, UK, APS 2021, rounded",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greek diaspora', country table (figure-to-source links not shown in the extracted text; national statistical offices cited in the reference list), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_diaspora"
   },
   {
    "country": "United Kingdom",
    "year": 2021,
    "figure": 59000,
    "basis": "born in Cyprus, UK, APS 2021, rounded",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greek diaspora', country table (figure-to-source links not shown in the extracted text; national statistical offices cited in the reference list), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_diaspora"
   },
   {
    "country": "United Kingdom",
    "year": 2021,
    "figure": 76675,
    "basis": "Greek as main language, England and Wales (census 2021; includes Greek Cypriots)",
    "source": "ONS via To Vima 9 Mar 2026 (dossier); not re-checked"
   },
   {
    "country": "Belgium",
    "year": 1968,
    "figure": 20010,
    "basis": "cumulative Greek mine recruits 1953-68",
    "source": "Antiochos, RBHC 37 (2007) (dossier)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Belgium",
    "year": 2014,
    "figure": 24836,
    "basis": "persons of Greek origin/descent (per Wikipedia table)",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greek diaspora', country table (figure-to-source links not shown in the extracted text; national statistical offices cited in the reference list), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_diaspora"
   },
   {
    "country": "Belgium",
    "year": 2018,
    "figure": 17513,
    "basis": "Greek nationals (per Wikipedia table; Statbel not opened)",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greek diaspora', country table (figure-to-source links not shown in the extracted text; national statistical offices cited in the reference list), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_diaspora"
   },
   {
    "country": "Belgium",
    "year": 2018,
    "figure": 17350,
    "basis": "born in Greece (per Wikipedia table)",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greek diaspora', country table (figure-to-source links not shown in the extracted text; national statistical offices cited in the reference list), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_diaspora"
   },
   {
    "country": "France",
    "year": 2016,
    "figure": 7800,
    "basis": "Greek nationals (per Wikipedia table; probably INSEE census RP2016)",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greek diaspora', country table (figure-to-source links not shown in the extracted text; national statistical offices cited in the reference list), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_diaspora"
   },
   {
    "country": "France",
    "year": 2016,
    "figure": 11100,
    "basis": "born in Greece (per Wikipedia table; probably INSEE)",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greek diaspora', country table (figure-to-source links not shown in the extracted text; national statistical offices cited in the reference list), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_diaspora"
   },
   {
    "country": "France",
    "year": 2017,
    "figure": 11400,
    "basis": "French foreign ministry 'Presentation de la Grece' (basis unstated)",
    "source": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_France"
   },
   {
    "country": "France",
    "year": 2015,
    "figure": 50000,
    "basis": "community estimate (Greek embassy)",
    "source": "Slate.fr 2015 (dossier)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Netherlands",
    "year": 2023,
    "figure": 37382,
    "basis": "Greek migration background, 1st and 2nd generation, 1 Jan 2023",
    "source": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greeks_in_the_Netherlands (CBS StatLine table 83482NED)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Netherlands",
    "year": 2022,
    "figure": 25138,
    "basis": "Greek nationals or born in Greece (Wikipedia table: order of the two figures unclear)",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greek diaspora', country table (figure-to-source links not shown in the extracted text; national statistical offices cited in the reference list), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_diaspora"
   },
   {
    "country": "Netherlands",
    "year": 2022,
    "figure": 23465,
    "basis": "born in Greece or Greek nationals (see above)",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greek diaspora', country table (figure-to-source links not shown in the extracted text; national statistical offices cited in the reference list), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_diaspora"
   },
   {
    "country": "Switzerland",
    "year": 1981,
    "figure": 8931,
    "basis": "Greeks (presumably nationals)",
    "source": "Dictionnaire historique de la Suisse (dossier)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Switzerland",
    "year": 2001,
    "figure": 6004,
    "basis": "Greeks (presumably nationals)",
    "source": "Dictionnaire historique de la Suisse (dossier)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Switzerland",
    "year": 2021,
    "figure": 17695,
    "basis": "Greek nationals (Wikipedia table; BFS cited in 'Greeks in Switzerland' references)",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greek diaspora', country table (figure-to-source links not shown in the extracted text; national statistical offices cited in the reference list), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_diaspora"
   },
   {
    "country": "Switzerland",
    "year": 2021,
    "figure": 16984,
    "basis": "born in Greece (Wikipedia table)",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greek diaspora', country table (figure-to-source links not shown in the extracted text; national statistical offices cited in the reference list), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_diaspora"
   },
   {
    "country": "Austria",
    "year": 2019,
    "figure": 6864,
    "basis": "Greek nationals (Wikipedia table)",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greek diaspora', country table (figure-to-source links not shown in the extracted text; national statistical offices cited in the reference list), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_diaspora"
   },
   {
    "country": "Austria",
    "year": 2019,
    "figure": 6766,
    "basis": "born in Greece (Wikipedia table)",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greek diaspora', country table (figure-to-source links not shown in the extracted text; national statistical offices cited in the reference list), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_diaspora"
   },
   {
    "country": "Spain",
    "year": 2022,
    "figure": 5369,
    "basis": "Greek nationals or born in Greece (Wikipedia table; INE cited; order unclear)",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greek diaspora', country table (figure-to-source links not shown in the extracted text; national statistical offices cited in the reference list), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_diaspora"
   },
   {
    "country": "Spain",
    "year": 2022,
    "figure": 4422,
    "basis": "the other of the two (see above)",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greek diaspora', country table (figure-to-source links not shown in the extracted text; national statistical offices cited in the reference list), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_diaspora"
   },
   {
    "country": "Spain",
    "year": 2023,
    "figure": 5000,
    "basis": "community estimate, Barcelona and Catalonia only (Greek ambassador)",
    "source": "mfa.gr (dossier)"
   },
   {
    "country": "Luxembourg",
    "year": 2022,
    "figure": 4017,
    "basis": "Greek nationals (Wikipedia table)",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greek diaspora', country table (figure-to-source links not shown in the extracted text; national statistical offices cited in the reference list), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_diaspora"
   },
   {
    "country": "Portugal",
    "year": 2021,
    "figure": 794,
    "basis": "Greek nationals (census 2021, per Wikipedia table)",
    "source": "Wikipedia 'Greek diaspora', country table (figure-to-source links not shown in the extracted text; national statistical offices cited in the reference list), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_diaspora"
   }
  ]
 }
}